INTRODUCTION
Rationale of the Study
Systemic Functional Linguistics, developed by M.A.K Halliday in the early 1960s, introduces Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG), a model that explains language use through its functions Unlike formal grammar, which emphasizes written language and adherence to rules, functional grammar examines both spoken and written forms, focusing on how linguistic structures convey meaning This approach views language as a communicative resource rather than merely a set of grammatical rules, making it a valuable analytical tool that addresses shortcomings of traditional grammar and enhances our understanding of human language.
Systemic Functional Grammar encompasses a framework of meanings tied to three key Metafunctions that illustrate the structural use of language The first Metafunction, Interpersonal meanings, emphasizes the social role of language and the participants involved The second, Ideational meanings, pertains to the verbal choices made in language usage Lastly, the Textual meanings focus on the organization of the message, determining the order of information presented within a sentence or text.
The third metafunction, known as the Textual metafunction, centers on the concepts of Theme and Rheme, which are fundamental to my research Numerous grammarians, including Mathesius (1975), Halliday and Hasan (1976), Fries (1981), Firbas (1986), Halliday (1985, 1994), Downing (1990), Davies (1987), Eggins (1994), Matthiessen (1995), and Thompson (1996), have extensively studied the Theme According to Halliday (1994), these concepts play a crucial role in understanding the structure of language.
The theme of a text serves as the speaker's starting point for conveying a message, as highlighted by Halliday (1994), who emphasizes that the thematic organization of clauses is crucial for text development Analyzing a text's thematic structure reveals the writer's concerns and the organization of their message According to Eggin (1994), thematic meanings allow for various clause arrangements to achieve different purposes This theoretical framework has led many researchers to examine texts clause by clause to uncover their underlying textures and intentions In this analysis, I will explore the theme-rheme structure of O Henry's short story "The Last Leaf," renowned for its unexpected endings, to understand how the author develops the narrative and conveys his purpose.
This study emphasizes the importance of cohesive ties in text, which are essential for creating semantic connections that enhance meaning By analyzing the short story "The Last Leaf," the research will explore how cohesion contributes to the overall textual interpretation and understanding.
Understanding the theme-rheme structure and the role of cohesion in text is essential for students learning English as a second or foreign language, as it aids in "decoding" meaning effectively.
For those reasons, I have decided to choose “A study on Theme-Rheme and
Cohesive Ties in the short story “The Last Leaf” by O’Henry” as the title of my
MA Thesis, using Halliday‟s functional grammar as a theoretical framework.
Aims of the Study
This study aims to analyze O Henry's story "The Last Leaf" through a systemic functional framework, focusing on the organization and development of the narrative in relation to theme-rheme patterns and cohesive ties To achieve this objective, two key questions are posed for investigation.
1 How is the text organized and developed in terms of theme-rheme patterns?
2 How are the different cohesive ties of contexts hung together to make the text cohesive?
In this article, I will explore essential concepts such as the linguistic system, metafunctions, and cohesion in Chapter Two Chapter Three will focus on analyzing theme-rheme patterns and identifying the primary cohesive ties present in the narrative.
Scope of the Study …
This minor thesis examines select aspects of functional grammar, specifically the linguistic system, metafunctions, and cohesion The primary aim of the study is not to delve into theoretical findings but to utilize this foundational theory to enhance text analysis.
To analyze theme-rheme structures and cohesive ties in English texts, both descriptive and analytical methods are employed The descriptive approach focuses on outlining key aspects of functional grammar, while the analytical method examines the text for in-depth discussion.
"The Last Leaf," a renowned short story by O Henry, is featured in his 1907 collection, "The Trimmed Lamp and Other Stories," published by Philips & Co in New York.
This thesis is divided into four chapters as follows:
Chapter one – Introduction – presents the rationale of the study, the aims of the study, scope of the study, methods of the study, data collection, and the research design
Chapter two – Theoretical Background – supplies some fundamental and theoretical concepts for the study: linguistic system, metafunctions and cohesion analysis
Chapter three – The Analysis of the short story “The Last Leaf” by O’Henry focuses on its thematic structure and cohesive ties
Chapter four – Conclusion – summarizes the results of the study and offers some suggestions for teaching and learning as well as for further studies.
Data Collection
"The Last Leaf," a renowned short story by O Henry, is featured in his 1907 collection "The Trimmed Lamp and Other Stories," published by Philips & Co in New York.
Design of the Study
This thesis is divided into four chapters as follows:
Chapter one – Introduction – presents the rationale of the study, the aims of the study, scope of the study, methods of the study, data collection, and the research design
Chapter two – Theoretical Background – supplies some fundamental and theoretical concepts for the study: linguistic system, metafunctions and cohesion analysis
Chapter three – The Analysis of the short story “The Last Leaf” by O’Henry focuses on its thematic structure and cohesive ties
Chapter four – Conclusion – summarizes the results of the study and offers some suggestions for teaching and learning as well as for further studies.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND …
Introduction
This chapter examines fundamental concepts that establish the theoretical framework for the study, focusing on the linguistic system, metafunctions, and cohesion Key insights and examples are drawn from the works of renowned linguists, including Halliday (1985, 1994), Halliday and Hasan (1976), Geoff Thomson (1996), and Hoàng Văn Vân (2002, 2005).
2006), and other researchers like Đỗ Tuấn Minh (2006), etc.
The Linguistic System
Language serves as a system of meaning potential in human interaction, shaped by various structures within specific contexts, a concept studied under the framework of register In systemic grammar, register is understood through three key parameters: field, tenor, and mode.
Field of discourse pertains to the context of social actions occurring within a communication event It encompasses the activities in which participants are involved, highlighting the role of language as a crucial element in these interactions.
The tenor of discourse encompasses the participants involved in a conversation, focusing on their roles, statuses, and the nature of their interactions It examines the speech roles they adopt and the broader social relationships that influence their dialogue Understanding these dynamics is essential for analyzing communication effectively.
Mode of discourse encompasses the role of language in communication, highlighting participants' expectations in a given context It involves the symbolic organization of the text, its status, and its functional purpose, considering whether the communication is spoken, written, or a mix of both Additionally, it examines the rhetorical mode, focusing on the text's objectives, such as persuasion, exposition, or instruction.
These three contextual variables are deemed to be the only aspects of the context of situation of a text that are linguistically relevant to accomplish a particular social goal
It will be embedded in the text by being realized in the semantic and grammatical structures of the text.
Metafunctions
From a sociological perspective, Halliday (1970, 1985) proposed a theory outlining the fundamental functions of language, categorizing them into three main metafunctions: ideational, interpersonal, and textual Each of these metafunctions aligns with specific parameters of register: field corresponds to ideational, tenor to interpersonal, and mode to textual This study will focus primarily on the textual metafunction.
The ideational meta-function is vital for expressing content, as it encodes our experiences and conveys a realistic picture of the world (Butt et al., 1995: 13-14) This function plays a crucial role in everyday situations, where the effective organization of activities relies on accurately expressing and transferring information It emphasizes how language facilitates action and produces tangible results in real life Central to this concept is the System of Transitivity, which illustrates how our perceptions of the world are communicated through language This is reflected in our verbal choices and the types of processes—such as verbal, material, behavioral, mental, relational, and existential—selected by participants (actor, goal; senser, phenomenon; carrier, attribute; etc.) based on the context.
( cause, location, manner , etc.) they are involved with Below are some examples (1a)
The interpersonal metafunction focuses on the dynamics between the speaker and the audience, emphasizing the grammatical tools used to establish social and speech roles during dialogue Language serves as a medium for the speaker to express personal comments, attitudes, and evaluations, while also defining the relationship with listeners This includes adopting various communication roles such as informing, questioning, greeting, and persuading (Halliday, 1994).
Mood and Residue are essential components of a clause that serve the interpersonal function in communication The Mood element indicates the speaker's role and the role assigned to the addressee, making the clause "negotiable." In English, the Mood comprises Finite, Subject, and Modal Adjunct(s) The Finite element enables negotiation by coding the clause as positive or negative and grounding it in time or modality The Subject allows for the affirmation or denial of the proposition, while Modal Adjuncts contribute additional meanings related to the speaker's judgment.
The exhausted bushwalker dropped his pack
(Halliday, 1994: 74) which consists of three functional elements: Predicator, Complement and Adjunct Here are some illustrations:
Unfortunately the girl has already done it
Modal Adjunct Subject Finite Modal Adjunct
These flowers have just been given my aunt out of pity
Predicator Complement Adjunct Mood Residue
The textual metafunction focuses on the organization of information within a text, particularly through clauses as messages It plays a crucial role in structuring interpersonal and ideational meanings as they develop This metafunction is shaped by the choices made regarding the arrangement of information, specifically what is prioritized in the sentence (Theme) The thematic structure is essential, as it defines the clause's character as a message and establishes its relevance within the context (Halliday, 1994: 37).
In message structure, a clause is composed of a Theme and a Rheme, making it essential to distinguish between the two The Theme acts as the starting point of the message, typically aligning with the initial elements of the clause, while the Rheme elaborates on the Theme According to Halliday (1994: 34), in the Systemic Functional model of discourse analysis, the Theme represents "what the message is concerned with: the point of departure for what the speaker is going to say." Understanding this distinction enhances clarity in communication.
According to Halliday (1994), the Theme Structure is essential for conveying the message within a clause, complementing other structures like Transitivity and Mood Each clause comprises two key components: the Theme, which sets the topic, and the Rheme, which provides additional information, together forming a complete message The thematic organization of clauses is crucial for text development, as analyzing this structure reveals the writer's intent and how they organize their message effectively.
The Theme in a clause can be represented by various elements, including nominal groups, prepositional phrases, adverbial groups, or clauses in a predicated theme Key components of the Theme consist of the first experiential element—such as a participant, process, or circumstance—and any preceding elements like modal or connective adjuncts, conjunctions, finite verbs, or vocatives Themes can be categorized as single or multiple; a single Theme is represented by one constituent, whereas a multiple Theme includes more than one element in the Theme position of the clause.
There exist three types of theme: topical theme, textual theme and interpersonal one
Topical themes are integrated with experiential elements of a clause, which may include participants, circumstances, or processes In contrast, textual themes convey meaning pertinent to the context, encompassing both co-text and situational context These themes can manifest as continuity adjuncts, such as "yes," "no," "well," and "now," or as structural adjuncts that enhance the coherence of the discourse.
Structurals, including words like "and," "or," "but," and "although," play a crucial role in connecting ideas within sentences Additionally, conjunctive adjuncts such as "that is," "in other words," and "moreover" help to clarify and expand on these connections Understanding the use of these linguistic elements enhances coherence and flow in writing, making it easier for readers to follow the argument or narrative.
The interpersonal theme reflects the nature of interactions between speakers and their respective positions In English, the most prevalent interpersonal theme is the finite verb form used in interrogative clauses Additionally, modal adjuncts such as "perhaps," "always," "usually," "of course," "surely," "in my opinion," "honestly," "kindly," and "wisely," along with vocatives, play a significant role in shaping these interactions.
An unmarked theme is one that is usual or typical and it often conflates with the
In English grammar, a marked Theme refers to an unusual structure in a declarative clause, where the Theme typically serves as the subject However, when the clause is arranged differently, such as with a conjunction, it presents a marked Theme According to Halliday (1994: 47), the selection of the Theme element in a clause is influenced by the Mood choice.
Table 1: Mood type and unmarked Theme selection (Halliday, 2004: 78)
Mood of clause Typical (“unmarked”) Theme declarative Nominal group functioning as Subject
Interrogative sentences can be structured in two main ways: yes/no questions begin with a finite operator followed by a nominal group serving as the subject, while wh- questions start with a nominal group, adverbial group, or prepositional phrase that functions as the interrogative element Imperative sentences typically address "you" and consist of a verbal group that acts as the predicator, with "don't" added for negation Additionally, imperatives can also be directed towards "you and me."
Let’s plus preceding don’t if negative exclamative Nominal group or adverbial group functioning as exclamative
Followings are some examples to illustrate thematic structure:
Cohesion
Cohesion in text refers to the semantic connections or relationships that define a text, as described by Halliday and Hasan (1976) It arises when the understanding of one element in the discourse relies on another, creating a dependency where one presupposes the other.
Cohesion in writing is achieved through the strategic use of systematic resources such as reference, ellipsis, substitution, and conjunction Additionally, elements like repetition, synonyms, antonyms, meronymy, and collocation play a crucial role in enhancing coherence.
I don’t believe that pudding ever will be cooked
Theme (unmarked) Rheme oh soldier, soldier, won’t you marry me
Theme (Marked) Rheme resolves the presupposition that this sets up We relatively refer to two types of cohesion: grammatical and lexical which will be explained in the following parts
In linguistics, grammar encompasses the logical and structural rules that dictate how sentences, phrases, and words are formed in any natural language Grammatical cohesion specifically pertains to the structural elements that contribute to the coherence of a text.
Reference in discourse, as defined by Hoàng Văn Vân (2006: 66), illustrates the identity relationship between units It can be categorized into three types: anaphoric, cataphoric, and exophoric Anaphoric reference "points backwards" to previously mentioned information, while cataphoric reference "points forward" to information that will be introduced later Exophoric reference occurs within the same nominal group or phrase that follows a presupposed item Among these, anaphoric reference is particularly crucial for cohesion, as it links back to earlier text portions (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 51), making it the most frequently used form of reference.
(4 a) Three blind mice, three blind mice
See how they run! See how they run!
(4 b) I would never have believed it They‟ve accepted the whole scheme
Cohesive references can be categorized into three main types: personal, demonstrative, and comparative Personal references utilize noun pronouns such as "he," "she," and possessive determiners like "mine" and "yours" to maintain clarity in the speech situation Demonstrative references focus on information through location, employing terms like "this," "that," "here," and "there" to indicate proximity Lastly, comparative references highlight identity and similarity with indirect references, using adjectives such as "same," "similar," and adverbs like "similarly" and "more" to draw comparisons.
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 37-39) For instance:
(5 a) Can you hand Mary a program Hers has got lost
(5 b) They broke a Chinese vase That is valuable
(5 c) I didn‟t expect John to beat Peter I never thought he was so strong
Substitution and ellipsis serve as linguistic links at the lexicogrammatical level, differing from referencing functions that connect semantic meanings within text According to Bloor and Bloor (1995: 96), these techniques are employed by speakers or writers to avoid repeating lexical items, utilizing grammatical resources to replace them Substitution and ellipsis can be classified into three types: nominal, verbal, and causal, each reflecting its grammatical function Importantly, when an item in the text is substituted, it retains the same structural function as the original, presupposed item.
In nominal substitution, the most typical substitution words are “one” and “ones” and they substitute nouns Here is an illustration:
(6) These biscuits are stale – Get some fresh ones
Verbal substitution frequently employs the verb "do," often paired with "so" in phrases like "do so" to replace other verbs According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 125-126), the verb "do" typically functions alongside reference items such as "it."
“that” but still have the main function as a verbal substitute because of its grammatical role
(7) Has anyone fed the cat? – Somebody must have done
Clausal substitution involves replacing an entire clause, distinguishing it from nominal or verbal substitution due to its presupposed anaphoric reference The linguistic substitutes commonly used in this context are "so" and "not."
(8) Has everyone gone home? – I hope not
Though substitution and ellipsis are similar in their function as the linguistic link for cohesion, ellipsis deffers in that it is “substitution by zero” (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:
Nominal Ellipsis occurs within nominal group It is the ellipsis of a Head with optional modification (premodifier / postmodifier) For example:
(9) Four other Oysters followed them and yet another four (Oysters)
Verbal Ellipsis appears within verbal group An elliptical group presupposes one or more words from a previous verbal group For example:
(10) Have you been swimming? – Yes, I have (been swimming)
Clausal Ellipsis takes clause as the point of departure It relates to the question and answer in a dialogue There may exist Yes / No Ellipsis or Wh – Ellipsis For instance:
(11) Is he at home? – Yes (He is at home.)
Cohesion in discourse can be achieved through conjunction, which creates a cohesive bond between two clauses (Halliday, 1994: 180) Cohesive conjunction facilitates the logical-semantic organization of propositions, enabling the speaker or writer to establish relationships between ideas This article emphasizes Halliday's classification of cohesive conjunctions into three categories: Elaboration, Extension, and Enhancement.
Elaboration in language occurs when one clause enhances the meaning of another by providing additional specifications or descriptions This can be achieved through apposition, where elements are represented or rephrased using phrases like "for example" or "in other words." Alternatively, clarification is used to summarize or make elements more precise, employing terms such as "actually," "to sum up," or "in particular."
According to Halliday, the concept of "extension" occurs when one clause enhances the meaning of another by introducing new information This extension can be expressed through addition, which includes positive connectors like "and" and "moreover," negative connectors such as "nor," and adversative connectors like "but" and "however." Additionally, variation is demonstrated through replacive terms like "on the contrary," subtractive phrases such as "apart from that," and alternative expressions.
According to Halliday (1994), enhancement occurs when one clause qualifies the meaning of another in various ways There are four key elements that make up enhancement: spatio-temporal elements such as "then" and "soon," manner elements like "similarly" and "thus," causal-conditional elements including "therefore" and "as a result," and matter elements such as "here" and "in that respect."
Lexical cohesion stands out from other cohesive elements in text due to its non-grammatical nature It pertains to the cohesive impact created through careful vocabulary selection, as defined by Halliday and Hasan (1976) The primary types of lexical cohesion include reiteration and collocation, which play crucial roles in enhancing textual coherence.
In this section, based on Hoang Van Van (2006: 81-83), I will provide an overview of reiteration: repetition, synonymy, antonymy, superordinate, meronymy and general word
Repetition refers to the same lexical item with the same meaning occuring more than one in the same discourse
(12) I thought it would surely fall during the night I heart the wind It will fall today and I shall die at the same time
Synonymy refers to the relation between different words bearing the same meaning or nearly the same meaning for a particular person, object, process or quality
(13) Accordingly… I took leave, and turned to the ascent of the peak The climb is perfectly easy…
Antonymy describes opposite or contrastive meaning between two word items
(14)He used to be thin Now, he is fat
The main idea of hyponymy is “inclusion”; that is, a lower term (hyponym) is included in an upper term (the superordinate)
(15)There are many kinds of fruit in the garden He likes apples and oranges the best
In the example above, “apples, oranges”‟ are hyponyms of “fruit” and “apples” and
Superordinate refers to the co-occurrence of concepts at the same or a higher level of generality, while meronymy describes a "part-whole" relationship between lexical items As a result, the connection between two parts is characterized as co-meronymy.
(16)Henry’s bought himself a new Jaguar He practically lives in the car
(17)The house is big He lives upstairs and she lives downstairs
In the examples above, “car” is superordinate of “Jaguar”; “upstairs, downstairs” are meronymy of “house”; “upstairs” and “downstairs” are co-meronymys
General words refer to a category of nouns that have a broad reference within major noun classes Examples include "human nouns" like people, person, man, woman, and boy; "object nouns" such as thing and object; and "place nouns" like place.
(18)There’s a boy climbing that tree The idiot’s going to fall if he doesn’t take care
Concluding Remarks
This chapter explores essential concepts relevant to the study, including field, tenor, and mode, which constitute the contextual system It also discusses three key functions of language that express distinct semantic choices: (i) the transitivity pattern, which conveys representational meaning by indicating the process and its participants; (ii) the mood pattern, which reflects interpersonal meaning through the interaction between speaker and audience; and (iii) the theme pattern, which illustrates how the message is organized in relation to the surrounding discourse and context Additionally, the study considers cohesion concepts and types to establish a foundational framework of systemic functional grammar for analysis The next chapter will analyze theme-rheme structures and cohesive ties within the short story.
“The Last Leaf” by O‟Henry based on the systemic functional approached mentioned before hand.
CHAPTER 3: THEME – RHEME AND COHESIVE TIES IN THE
THEME – RHEME AND COHESIVE TIES IN THE SHORT
STORY “THE LAST LEAF” BY O’HENRY
This chapter aims to analyze the thematic structure and cohesive ties of a short story, utilizing concepts discussed in the previous chapter as a theoretical framework The analysis will encompass the context of the selected text, the theme-rheme pattern, and an examination of grammatical and lexical cohesion.
3.2 The Context of the Chosen Text
"The Last Leaf," a poignant short story by O Henry published in 1907 as part of his collection "The Trimmed Lamp and Other Stories," is set in Greenwich Village, an artists' haven from the late 19th to mid-20th centuries Known for his compelling narratives, O Henry is celebrated as one of America's greatest short story writers, having penned 381 stories that often explore the lives of everyday people in New York This narrative encapsulates the themes and character depth typical of his work, showcasing the resilience of the human spirit.
"The Last Leaf," a renowned short story by O Henry, was published in the New York World Sunday Magazine, captivating both New Yorkers and a global audience.
It is an English text and it carries its own features in meaning and structure
3.3 The Analysis of the text in terms of theme - rheme
The thematic organization of clauses is crucial for text development, as the theme serves as the message's starting point The significance of a clause is influenced by the chosen element as its Theme, and analyzing this can uncover the ideological meaning behind the text In total, the text comprises 270 clauses forming 178 clause complexes An analysis of 250 clauses reveals various themes, including Topical, Textual, and Interpersonal themes, as identified by Halliday (1994).
Because the Theme is the starting point from which experiences unfolded in a clause, it must include the whole of the first item in the experiential meanings Eggins (1994:
According to 276), when a component of a clause that can be associated with a Transitivity function is placed at the beginning of a clause, it is referred to as a topical theme This topical theme includes elements that signify a process, a participant in that process, or a relevant circumstance For a detailed examination, please refer to the thematic analysis table.
Appendix II: The Theme – Rheme Pattern), we can see that topical themes in the text account for the highest percentage in which 212 are participants, 26 are circumstances and 12 processes For example,
Participant: Carrier Relational process Participant : Attribute Topical Theme (unmarked) Rheme
Participant: Goal Participant: Actor Material process
Circumstance: Manner Participant: Actor Material process
In the analysis of the story's structure, the primary characters identified as topical themes are Johnsy, Sue, and Behrman Johnsy appears in 47 clauses, making up approximately 19% of the topical themes, while Sue follows closely with 44 clauses, accounting for about 18% Behrman ranks third with 25 clauses, representing around 10% This highlights the importance of these characters in conveying the author's message, as short stories and novels primarily communicate information through character development Thus, Johnsy, Sue, and Behrman emerge as the central figures driving the narrative forward.
Clause by clause, the development proceeds as follows:
The article analyzes the thematic elements of the first eleven clauses, focusing on adverbs of place and nominal groups that depict a quaint setting Key phrases such as “In a little district west of Washington Square” and “To quaint old Greenwich Village” establish the backdrop of an old village inhabited by struggling artists This setting invites readers to anticipate the unfolding narrative, creating an atmosphere rich in character and context.
From clauses 12 to 139, the narrative centers on the dominant theme of the friendship between Sue and Johnsy The two characters, who met by chance, develop a close bond Johnsy, a talented painter, is battling pneumonia and fixates on the ivy leaves falling outside her window, convinced that her life will end when the last leaf drops In contrast, Sue, a compassionate and supportive artist, does everything in her power to comfort and encourage Johnsy during her illness, showcasing the depth of their friendship amidst adversity.
In clauses 140 to 154, the focus shifts primarily to "Old Behrman," establishing him as the central theme of the narrative Although Behrman is one of the three main characters and ultimately the story's hero, he is not introduced until the middle of the tale, with the other two characters taking the spotlight initially During this section, Behrman is referenced primarily as a thematic element rather than an active participant in the unfolding events.
O Henry's stories are renowned for their unexpected endings, which often carry deeper meanings In this particular narrative, the thematic structure is intentionally crafted, enhancing the emotional impact when a character unexpectedly sacrifices himself for Johnsy This deliberate arrangement not only captivates readers but also emphasizes the significance of selflessness, ultimately leaving a lasting impression.
In the story, the focus shifts back to “Sue” and “Johnsy,” with Johnsy's realization that “It’s a sin to want to die” igniting her optimism and desire to recover and fulfill her dreams Ultimately, she regains her health The character “Old Behrman” re-emerges briefly in the narrative, revealing his illness and culminating in the poignant moment where Sue reveals that Behrman painted the last leaf on a cold, dreary night, restoring Johnsy's hope to live His presence is felt in only a few clauses towards the end, emphasizing the impact of his sacrifice on Johnsy’s recovery.
- Mr Behrman died of pneumonia to-day in the hospital (Clause 257)
- He was ill only two days (Clause 258)
- His shoes and clothing were wet through and icy cold (Clause 260)
- He painted it there the night that the last leaf fell (Clause 269-270)
The climax of the story centers around "Old Behrman" and "the last leaf," where the author withholds crucial details until the conclusion The enduring image that lingers in readers' minds is that of Old Behrman and his masterpiece, The Last Leaf This symbolic leaf embodies the themes of unwavering friendship and selfless sacrifice, akin to the resilient ivy leaf, highlighting the noble spirit of enduring connections.
Interpersonal themes are crucial in “The Last Leaf,” with dialogic exchanges between characters comprising nearly half of the narrative The story’s discourse type emphasizes character interaction, showcasing various interpersonal themes identified by Halliday (1994: 53), including “vocative,” “modal,” and “mood-marking.” Out of twenty clauses featuring interpersonal themes, fourteen are mood-marking, appearing in clauses 36, 40, 43, 70, 75, 92, 97, 100, 105, 116, 122, 138, 163, and 265 Additionally, five vocatives, such as “doctor” in clause 44 and “Johnsy, dear” in clause 116, highlight direct address, while two modals express the speaker’s attitude in clause complexes CXV and CXXXVI.
Didn’t the doctor tell you?
Interpersonal theme: Mood-marking Topical theme
Sudie, some day I hope to paint the Bay of Naples
Interpersonal theme: Vocative Topical theme
But I think you are a horrid old-old flibbertigibbet
The article highlights the prevalence of structural textual themes, particularly the conjunctions "and," "but," and the temporal connector "then," which appear in 31 clause complexes These elements enhance the text's cohesion and coherence by clearly expressing logical relationships of addition and contrast.
- It will fall today, and I shall die at the same time (Clause complex CXXXVIII)
- There is no hope for him; but he goes to the hospital to-day to be made mor comfortable (Clause complex CLXIII)
- Then they looked at each other for a moment without speaking (Clause complex CXXXVI)
There are only 2 continuatives which signal a new move: a response in dialogues
(“well” in clause 25 and “oh” in clause 93) Conjunctives also appear in the text
(“besides” in 126 and “for the rest” in 152) which together with structurals and continuatives make the story more coherent and easy to follow
CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION
This study examines the rheme structure and cohesive ties within a short story through the lens of systemic functional grammar It provides a summary of the research focus and evaluates the extent to which the initial objectives have been met.
In Chapter 2 of this thesis, I established the groundwork for the study by reviewing systemic functional grammar, focusing on its context components—field, tenor, and mode Additionally, I explored the metafunctions, including the ideational metafunction related to field, the interpersonal metafunction associated with tenor, and the textual metafunction linked to mode The chapter also addressed cohesion, differentiating between grammatical cohesion, which pertains to structural content, and lexical cohesion, which involves the lexical ties between clauses within a text.
In Chapter 3, O Henry's short story "The Last Leaf" is examined for its thematic elements and cohesion Out of 270 clauses in the text, 250 were analyzed, revealing three primary types of themes: topical, interpersonal, and textual, with topical themes being the most prevalent The analysis highlights significant themes centered around the character "Johnsy."
The story prominently features the characters "Sue" and "Behrman," with Behrman emerging unexpectedly as a hero who rekindles the dying Johnsy's hope The narrative incorporates both marked and unmarked themes, with a notable prevalence of unmarked themes Marked themes are introduced through adverbs of time and place, establishing the story's setting Thematic progression, as described by Danes (1974), is present but not always consistent, highlighting the text's development method The analysis of cohesion reveals that reference, along with conjunctive devices, substitution, and ellipsis, significantly enhances grammatical cohesion, while repetition, synonyms, meronyms, and antonyms contribute to lexical cohesion, resulting in a cohesive, coherent, and concise text.
Systemic functional grammar is a framework focused on understanding the functions of linguistic structures and their meanings within context This approach serves as an analytical tool, enabling us to examine the entirety of a text along with its distinctive features.
This study is useful for teachers and learners in that they can orient themselves in language teaching and learning
Understanding the theme-rheme structure is crucial for English learners, as it helps them comprehend how texts are organized, facilitating the development of their written discourse By exploring various options to emphasize specific elements, learners can effectively stage information and choose where to begin their message Therefore, introducing the theme-rheme structure and English thematic organization is essential before enhancing their speaking and writing skills When language teachers guide students in arranging old and new information, they equip them with a valuable tool for managing the meanings within their writing.
The theme-rheme structure outlines the organization of information within a message, where the theme serves as the starting point or focus of the clause Understanding this concept can enhance students' reading skills by encouraging them to concentrate on the introductory paragraph, the topic sentence of each section, and the theme of individual clauses.
Understanding the similarities and differences in themes between two languages is crucial for translators to convey ideas accurately In translation classes, learners should be trained to effectively adapt themes from one language to another, ensuring that the translations are natural and easily comprehensible for the target audience Additionally, translators must grasp the thematic meaning in each clause to ensure their translations accurately reflect the intended message.
Understanding cohesive ties is essential for English learners, particularly in writing and speaking These ties connect various parts of a text, enhancing its overall cohesion Effectively utilizing cohesive ties allows learners to establish semantic links between sentences and paragraphs, resulting in a more coherent and unified text.
All in all, the full understanding of the theme – theme structure and cohesive ties is extremely useful not only to language teachers and learners but also to the translator
This study focuses exclusively on the theme-rheme structure and cohesive ties within an English short story, utilizing analytical tools from a functional framework Future research should expand to include transitivity, mood, logico-semantic relations, and various text types across different genres, such as novels, poems, and fairy tales, in multiple languages Additionally, it is recommended to explore the similarities and differences between Vietnamese and English texts using the same analytical instruments.
1 Collins English Dictionary (1990) Sinclair J (Ed.) London: Harper Collins
2 Butt, D., Fahey, R., Spinks, S., Yallop, C (1995) Using Functional Grammar: An explorer’s Guide Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and
3 Eggins, S (1994) Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics.Wellington:
4 Halliday, M.A.K (1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar Second Edition,
5 Halliday, M.A.K & Hasan, R (1985) Language, Context and Text: Aspect of
Language in Social – Semiotic Perspective Geelong, Victoria: Deakin
6 Halliday, M.A.K & Hasan, R (1976) Cohesion in English London: Longman
7 Halliday, M.A.K., Language as Social Semiotic: the Interpretation of Language and
8 Hasan, R., Coherence and Cohesive Harmony (In) Fllod, J (Ed) (1984)
Understanding Reading Comprehension: Cognition, Language and the
9 Đỗ Tuấn Minh (2007) Themantic Structure in Vietnamese Unpublished PHD
Thesis Department of Post graduate studies, ULIS
10 Nunan, D (1993) Introducing Discourse Analysis London: Penguin
11 Thomson, G (1996) Introducing Functional Grammar Oxford: Oxford
12 Hoàng Văn Vân (2002) Ngữ pháp kinh nghiệm của cú Tiếng Việt: Mô tả theo quan điểm chức năng hệ thống Hanoi: NXB KHXH
13 Hoàng Văn Vân (2006) Introducing Discourse Analysis Hanoi: NXB Giáo dục
14 Hoàng Văn Vân (2009) Về phạm trù chủ ngữ Tạp chí Ngôn Ngữ số 8 Hanoi:
I (1) In a little district west of Washington Square the streets have run crazy and broken themselves into small strips
II (3) These "places" make strange angles and curves
III (4) One Street crosses itself a time or two
IV (5) An artist once discovered a valuable possibility in this street
(6) Suppose a collector with a bill for paints, paper and canvas should, in traversing this route, suddenly meet himself coming back, without a cent
(7) having been paid on account!
VI (8) So, to quaint old Greenwich Village the art people soon came prowling, hunting for north windows and eighteenth-century gables and Dutch attics and low rents
(9) Then they imported some pewter mugs and a chafing dish or two from Sixth Avenue,
(11) At the top of a squatty, three-story brick Sue and Johnsy had their studio
IX (12) "Johnsy" was familiar for Joanna
XI (15) They had met at the table d'hôte of an Eighth Street
(16) and found their tastes in art, chicory salad and bishop sleeves so congenial that the joint studio resulted
XII (17) That was in May
In November a cold, unseen stranger, whom the doctors called Pneumonia, stalked about the colony, touching one here and there with his icy fingers
(19) whom the doctors called Pneumonia, XIV (20) Over on the east side this ravager strode boldly, smiting his victims by scores‟,
(21) but his feet trod slowly through the maze of the narrow and moss-grown "places."
(23) what you would call a chivalric old gentleman
XVI (24) A mite of a little woman with blood thinned by California zephyrs was hardly fair game for the red-fisted, short-breathed old duffer
XVII (25) But Johnsy he smote;
(26) and she lay, scarcely moving, on her painted iron bedstead, looking through the small Dutch window-panes at the blank side of the next brick house
XVIII (27) One morning the busy doctor invited Sue into the hallway with a shaggy, gray eyebrow
(28) "She has one chance in - let us say, ten,",
(31) as he shook down the mercury in his clinical thermometer
XX (32) "And that chance is for her to want to live
XXI (33) This way people have of lining-u on the side of the undertaker makes the entire pharmacopoeia look silly
XXII (34) Your little lady has made up her mind
(35) that she's not going to get well
XXIII (36) Has she anything on her mind?"
(37) "She - she wanted to paint the Bay of Naples some day."
XXVI (40) bosh! Has she anything on her mind worth thinking twice - a man for instance?"
(42) said Sue, with a jew's-harp twang in her voice
XXIX (44) but, no, doctor; there is nothing of the kind."
(45) "Well, it is the weakness, then,"
XXXI (47) "I will do all that science, so far as it may filter through my efforts, can accomplish
(48) But whenever my patient begins to count the carriages in her funeral procession
(49) I subtract 50 per cent from the curative power of medicines
XXXIII (50) If you will get her to ask one question about the new winter styles in cloak sleeves
(51) I will promise you a one-in-five chance for her, instead of one in ten."
XXXIV (52) After the doctor had gone
(53) Sue went into the workroom and cried a Japanese napkin to a pulp
XXXV (54) Then she swaggered into Johnsy's room with her drawing board, whistling ragtime
XXXVI (55) Johnsy lay, scarcely making a ripple under the bedclothes, with her face toward the window XXXVII (56) Sue stopped whistling, thinking
(59) and began a pen-and-ink drawing to illustrate a magazine story
(60) Young artists must pave their way to Art by drawing pictures for magazine stories
(61) that young authors write to pave their way to Literature
(62) As Sue was sketching a pair of elegant horseshow riding trousers and a monocle of the figure of the hero, an Idaho cowboy,
(63) she heard a low sound, several times repeated
XLI (64) She went quickly to the bedside
(65) Johnsy's eyes were open wide
XLIII (66) She was looking out the window and counting - counting backward
XLIV (67) "Twelve," she said, and little later "eleven"; and then "ten," and
"nine"; and then "eight" and "seven", almost together
XLV (69) Sue look solicitously out of the window
XLVI (70) What was there to count?
(71) There was only a bare, dreary yard to be seen, and the blank side of the brick house twenty feet away
(72) An old, old ivy vine, gnarled and decayed at the roots, climbed half way up the brick wall
XLIX (73) The cold breath of autumn had stricken its leaves from the vine
(74) until its skeleton branches clung, almost bare, to the crumbling bricks
(78) said Johnsy, in almost a whisper
LII (79) "They're falling faster now
LIII (80) Three days ago there were almost a hundred
LVI (83) There goes another one
LVII (84) There are only five left now."
LXI (88) On the ivy vine
(89) When the last one falls
(91) I've known that for three days
LXIV (92) Didn't the doctor tell you?"
(93) "Oh, I never heard of such nonsense,"
(94) complained Sue, with magnificent scorn
(95) "What have old ivy leaves to do with your getting well? LXVII (96) And you used to love that vine so, you naughty girl
(98) Why, the doctor told me this morning
(99) that your chances for getting well real soon were LXX (100) let's see exactly what he said
LXXI (101) he said the chances were ten to one!
(102) Why, that's almost as good a chance as we have in New York
(103) when we ride on the street cars or walk past a new building LXXIII
(104) Try to take some broth now,
(105) and let Sudie go back to her drawing,
(106) so she can sell the editor man with it,
(107) and buy port wine for her sick child, and pork chops for her greedy self."
(108) "You needn't get any more wine,"
(109) said Johnsy, keeping her eyes fixed out the window
LXXVI (111) No, I don't want any broth
LXXVII (112) That leaves just four
(113) I want to see the last one fall
LXXIX (115) Then I'll go, too."
LXXX (116) "Johnsy, dear," "will you promise me to keep your eyes closed, and not look out the window
(118) said Sue, bending over her, LXXXI (119) I must hand those drawings in by to-morrow
(121) or I would draw the shade down."
(122) "Couldn't you draw in the other room?"
LXXXIV (124) "I'd rather be here by you,"
LXXXV (126) "Beside, I don't want you to keep looking at those silly ivy leaves."
LXXXVI (127) "Tell me as soon as you have finished,"
(128) said Johnsy, closing her eyes, and lying white and still as fallen statue,
(129) "because I want to see the last one fall
LXXXIX (133) and go sailing down, down, just like one of those poor, tired leaves."
XCI (136) "I must call Behrman up to be my model for the old hermit miner
XCII (137) I'll not be gone a minute
XCIV 140 Old Behrman was a painter
141 who lived on the ground floor beneath them
XCV 142 He was past sixty and had a Michael Angelo's Moses beard curling down from the head of a satyr along with the body of an imp
XCVI 143 Behrman was a failure in art
XCVII 144 Forty years he had wielded the brush without getting near enough to touch the hem of his Mistress's robe
XCVIII 145 He had been always about to paint a masterpiece,
146 but had never yet begun it
IC 147 For several years he had painted nothing except now and then a daub in the line of commerce or advertising
C 148 He earned a little by serving as a model to those young artists in the colony
149 who could not pay the price of a professional
CI 150 He drank gin to excess,
151 and still talked of his coming masterpiece
152 For the rest he was a fierce little old man,
153 who scoffed terribly at softness in any one,
154 and who regarded himself as especial mastiff-in-waiting to protect the two young artists in the studio above
CIII 155 Sue found Behrman smelling strongly of juniper berries in his dimly lighted den below
CIV 156 In one corner was a blank canvas on an easel
157 that had been waiting there for twenty-five years to receive the first line of the masterpiece
158 She told him of Johnsy's fancy,
159 and how she feared she would, indeed, light and fragile as a leaf herself, float away,
160 when her slight hold upon the world grew weaker
CVI 161 Old Behrman, with his red eyes plainly streaming, shouted his contempt and derision for such idiotic imaginings
163 "Is dere people in de world mit der foolishness to die
164 because leafs dey drop off from a confounded vine?
CIX 165 I haf not heard of such a thing
In a conversation filled with frustration, one character firmly refuses to be a model for someone they consider foolish, expressing disbelief at allowing such trivial matters to occupy their mind They also convey sympathy for a young woman named Miss Yohnsy, highlighting a sense of concern for her well-being amidst the absurdity of the situation.
169 "She is very ill and weak,"
171 "and the fever has left her mind morbid and full of strange fancies
172 Very well, Mr Behrman, if you do not care to pose for me,
175 you are a horrid old - old flibbertigibbet."
CXVI 176 "You are just like a woman!"
CXVII 178 "Who said I will not bose?
CXXI 182 Gott! dis is not any blace in which one so goot as Miss Yohnsy shall lie sick
183 Some day I vill baint a masterpiece,
184 and ve shall all go away
CXXIII 185 Johnsy was sleeping when they went upstairs
CXXIV 186 Sue pulled the shade down to the window-sill,
187 and motioned Behrman into the other room
Peering out the window with trepidation, they observed the ivy vine as a cold, persistent rain mixed with snow fell outside In that moment, they exchanged a silent glance, their unspoken thoughts hanging in the air.
CXXVIII 191 Behrman, in his old blue shirt, took his seat as the hermit miner on an upturned kettle for a rock
192 When Sue awoke from an hour's sleep the next morning
193 she found Johnsy with dull, wide-open eyes staring at the drawn green shade
After a night of relentless rain and strong winds, a single ivy leaf remained clinging to the brick wall, symbolizing resilience amidst the storm.
CXXXIII 199 It was the last one on the vine
The dark green leaf, still clinging to the branch twenty feet above the ground, displays serrated edges tinged with yellow, signaling the onset of decay and dissolution.
201 "It is the last one,"
204 it would surely fall during the night
CXXXVIII 206 It will fall to-day,
207 and I shall die at the same time."
208 said Sue, leaning her worn face down to the pillow,
210 if you won't think of yourself
CXLI 212 But Johnsy did not answer
CXLII 213 The lonesomest thing in all the world is a soul when it is making ready to go on its mysterious, far journey
CXLIII 214 The fancy seemed to possess her more strongly
215 as one by one the ties that bound her to friendship and to earth were loosed
217 and even through the twilight they could see the lone ivy leaf clinging to its stem against the wall
218 And then, with the coming of the night the north wind was again loosed,
219 while the rain still beat against the windows and pattered down from the low Dutch eaves
220 When it was light enough
221 Johnsy, the merciless, commanded that the shade be raised CXLVII 222 The ivy leaf was still there
CXLVIII 223 Johnsy lay for a long time looking at it
224 And then she called to Sue,
225 who was stirring her chicken broth over the gas stove
CL 226 "I've been a bad girl, Sudie,"
CLI 228 "Something has made that last leaf stay there to show me how wicked I was
CLIII 230 You may bring me a little broth now, and some milk with a little port in it,
231 and - no; bring me a hand-mirror first,
232 and then pack some pillows about me,
233 and I will sit up and watch you cook."
CLIV 234 And hour later she said:
CLV 235 "Sudie, some day I hope to paint the Bay of Naples."
236 The doctor came in the afternoon,
237 and Sue had an excuse to go into the hallway as he left
239 said the doctor, taking Sue's thin, shaking hand in his CLVIII 240 "With good nursing you'll win."
CLIX 241 And now I must see another case I have downstairs
CLX 242 Behrman, his name is - some kind of an artist, I believe CLXI 243 Pneumonia, too
CLXII 244 He is an old, weak man,
245 and the attack is acute
CLXIII 246 There is no hope for him;
247 but he goes to the hospital to-day to be made more comfortable."
CLXIV 248 The next day the doctor said to Sue:
CLXVI 251 Nutrition and care now - that's all."
CLXVII 252 And that afternoon Sue came to the bed
253 where Johnsy lay, contentedly knitting a very blue and very useless woollen shoulder scarf,
254 and put one arm around her, pillows and all
255 "I have something to tell you, white mouse,"
CLXIX 257 "Mr Behrman died of pneumonia to-day in the hospital
CLXX 258 He was ill only two days
CLXXI 259 The janitor found him the morning of the first day in his room downstairs helpless with pain
CLXXII 260 His shoes and clothing were wet through and icy cold
262 where he had been on such a dreadful night
They discovered a lit lantern, a displaced ladder, scattered brushes, and a palette smeared with mixed green and yellow paints.
264 and - look out the window, dear, at the last ivy leaf on the wall CLXXV
266 why it never fluttered or moved
CLXXVI 268 Ah, darling, it's Behrman's masterpiece
CLXXVII 269 - he painted it there the night
CLXXVIII 270 that the last leaf fell."
Theme Topical Theme Markedness of Theme
I (1) In a little district west of
VI (8) So To quaint old
(11) At the top of a aquatty, three-story brick marked
XIV (20) Over on the east side marked
XVI (24) A mite of a little woman unmarked
XX (32) And That chance unmarked
XXII (34) Your little lady unmarked
XXIX (44) but doctor There unmarked
(72) An old, old ivy vine unmarked
XLIX (73) The cold breath of autumn unmarked
(74) until Its skeleton branches unmarked
LIII (80) Three days ago marked
(89) when The last one unmarked
LXIV (92) Didn‟t The doctor unmarked
IC 147 For several years marked
CIV 156 In one corner marked
160 When Her slight hold upon the world unmarked
CXX 181 For half an hour marked
CXXVII 190 A persistent, cold rain unmarked
CXXXII 198 but After the beating rain and fierce gust of wind marked
CXXXIV 200 Still dark green near its stem, with its serrated edges tinted with the yellow of dissolution and decay marked
CXLII 213 The lonesomest thing in all the world unmarked
215 As one by one The ties unmarked
217 and Through the twilling marked
218 And then With the coming of the night marked
CXLVII 222 The ivy leaf unmarked
CXLIX 224 And then She unmarked
CLIV 234 and Hour later marked
CLV 235 Sudie Some day marked
CLVIII 240 With good nursing marked
CLXIV 248 The next day marked
CLXVI 251 Nutrition and care unmarked
CLXXII 260 His shoe and clothing unmarked
CLXXIV 263 And then They unmarked
CLXXVI 268 Ah, darling It unmarked