Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
―I’m sure that I have seen this word before but…I do not remember its meaning Sorry teacher.‖
To effectively learn vocabulary and retain word meanings, it's essential to use a variety of methods Incorporate techniques such as flashcards, spaced repetition, and context-based learning to reinforce memory Engaging with the language through reading, writing, and conversation can also enhance retention Additionally, regularly reviewing and using new words in different contexts helps solidify understanding and prevents forgetfulness.
Initially, I could easily remember all the words you taught us, but after a few days, recalling their meanings became challenging, even though they still seem familiar.
“I can’t remember all things about a word, like how to pronounce it, whether it is a verb or a noun, when I can use it…”
“Teacher, how can I remember the words that I have learnt?”
Students often express frustration with learning new vocabulary, despite understanding its importance This is evident in their confused communication in English, their gestures of uncertainty when encountering unfamiliar words, and their low scores on vocabulary tests Consequently, a pressing challenge arises for English teachers, including myself: "How can we effectively help students retain vocabulary?"
As a student, I often wondered, “How can I remember this word?” While I could grasp the meaning and pronunciation initially, I frequently forgot them, leading to poor performance in reading comprehension tests and class presentations A turning point came when my teacher used a vivid example to explain the word “embarrassed,” illustrating it with a scenario of spilling coffee on an important person This imaginative association made the meaning clear and memorable, allowing me to retain the word for life Inspired by this effective technique, I later pursued studies on vocabulary and vocabulary learning after becoming an English teacher.
Vocabulary plays an important part in language learning as Schmitt (2010) stated,
Mastering a second language requires a strong vocabulary foundation, as emphasized by McCarthy (1990), who noted that without words to convey meanings, effective communication is impossible Learners often struggle to communicate in English due to a lack of essential vocabulary, which can hinder various language skills such as reading, listening, speaking, writing, and grammar Therefore, acquiring vocabulary is a crucial step in second language acquisition However, successful learning goes beyond mere memorization; students must be equipped with strategies to retain and recall vocabulary effectively, ensuring they can process information at a deeper level.
The study of Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) has long captivated psychologists, linguists, and language educators, leading to numerous research efforts focused on their effectiveness in vocabulary acquisition Researchers such as O'Malley and Chamot (1990), Oxford (1990), Stoffer (1995), Gu and Johnson (1996), Schmitt (1997), and Nation (2001) have contributed significantly to developing a comprehensive framework categorizing VLS.
At the University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, there is a noticeable lack of focus on vocabulary learning and teaching Vocabulary is frequently merged with other communicative skills, leaving students solely responsible for their vocabulary acquisition Additionally, research interest in this area appears to have diminished among both faculty and students (Ngo, 2009).
The researcher highlighted a concerning trend in post-graduate libraries, noting a scarcity of lecturers' research on vocabulary in English He reported a significant decline in graduation papers focused on this topic, with only 9 papers in 1998, which plummeted to 4 in 1999 and further dwindled to just 1 in both 2002 and 2003.
In 2009, a study was conducted on the vocabulary level and strategies of first-year mainstream English majors at ULIS The research aimed to assess the students' vocabulary proficiency, the learning strategies they employed, and the challenges they faced in acquiring vocabulary.
This research focused on applying specific vocabulary learning strategies and evaluating their effectiveness, rather than attempting to address gaps in previous scholars' vocabulary learning systems or identifying vocabulary levels and strategies among students.
In conclusion, based on my personal experiences and the significant gaps in Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) at my university, I am committed to dedicating my time and effort to my thesis titled "Improving English Vocabulary Retention by Using Memory Strategies - An Action Research." This research aims to address the fundamental question of how to effectively help my students retain vocabulary.
Aims of the study and research questions
The study aimed to identify vocabulary challenges faced by students and improve their vocabulary retention through effective memory strategies, including grouping, associating, imagery, and contextualization It sought to assess students' mastery of these strategies and identify the most utilized one among them Additionally, the research gathered students' attitudes towards the overall strategy training and the specific memory techniques, along with their suggestions for enhancing future teaching and learning programs.
In short, the study was conducted to answer the four following research questions:
1 What are the problems that the students encounter in their independent vocabulary learning?
2 How does learning the 4 sub-memory strategies help to improve students' vocabulary retention?
3 How much do the students obtain the memory strategies learned in their independent learning?
4 What are the students’ attitudes towards teaching and learning the 4 sub- memory strategies and their suggestions for future teaching and learning program?
Significance of the study
While this study may not be the first to explore the impact of learning memory strategies on vocabulary retention, it offers significant advantages for English learners, especially those preparing for the TOEIC exam, as well as their educators and researchers interested in this area.
The research aimed to provide students with innovative strategies for vocabulary learning, moving away from traditional methods of memorization The recommendations from this study are designed to assist students in overcoming vocabulary challenges associated with the TOEIC Test, while also fostering lifelong vocabulary development, as vocabulary acquisition is a continuous process that extends beyond mastering grammar (Thornbury, 2002, p 160).
TOEIC instructors and English vocabulary teachers can utilize the study's findings as a valuable resource to enhance their strategies for facilitating students' vocabulary expansion.
This study serves as a valuable resource for researchers interested in vocabulary, providing a comprehensive literature review and a solid reference for future research endeavors.
Scope of the study
This study involved nine students aged 20 to 22 enrolled in a TOEIC class, representing various universities in Hanoi At the start of the course, these students had a limited understanding of the TOEIC test, with initial scores ranging from 220 to 395.
According to Oxford's (1990) classification of learning strategies, this thesis introduces four key memory strategies: grouping, associating, using imagery, and placing new words into context The teacher-researcher aims to enhance vocabulary learning for students by implementing these innovative and effective strategies in her teaching approach.
This thesis utilized vocabulary from the book "600 Essential Words for the TOEIC" by Lougheed (2008), which was categorized into various topics for effective student delivery (refer to Appendix 1).
Methods of the study
The current action research combined both qualitative and quantitative approaches The action actually taken was a vocabulary learning strategy training scheme designed for the duration of nine weeks
Data collection for the study involved a Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) test, interviews, learner diaries, tests, and questionnaires Initially, a VKS test and group interview were conducted to identify students' vocabulary challenges To assess vocabulary retention, a series of tests—including a pre-test, post-test 1, and post-test 2—were administered after introducing four sub-memory strategies Weekly diary entries from students highlighted the most frequently used strategies during the treatment Lastly, a questionnaire was emailed to students to gather their attitudes towards the teaching and learning of the four sub-memory strategies, along with their suggestions for future programs.
The gathered data was systematically organized according to the four research questions Specifically, the VKS test results and a group interview were utilized to address the first question, while the learners' diaries provided insights for the second The third question was answered through analysis of the test scores, and the questionnaire data was relevant to the final question.
In the VKS test, students rated their vocabulary knowledge on a scale from 1 to 5, which the teacher quantified into percentages and displayed in a bar chart Additionally, during interviews, students articulated their vocabulary learning challenges in both Vietnamese and English This data was subsequently translated, generalized, calculated, and organized into a table for analysis.
The mean scores of the pre-test and two post-tests were calculated and compared in pairs to assess the improvement in students' vocabulary retention over both the short term and long term.
In response to the third question, the teacher collected diary entries from all 144 learners and analyzed the frequency of each strategy used These figures were subsequently converted into percentages and visually represented in a pie chart to highlight the most popular strategies among the learners.
The questionnaire data was analyzed in three distinct parts The first part focused on attitudes toward the strategy training scheme, exploring its importance, effectiveness, and enjoyment through three targeted questions, with results illustrated in pie charts The second part involved calculating mean scores for each strategy, identifying the most favored one based on the highest score Finally, the third part presented data in percentage form and organized it into a table, enabling the researcher to draw conclusions and suggestions for the course as perceived by the students.
An overview of the rest of the paper
The rest of the paper is categorized into these following parts:
Part B: Development: is divided into three chapters:
• Chapter 1: (Literature review): introduces the theoretical foundations for the whole study
• Chapter 2: (Methodology): elaborates on the participants, the method used, the instruments, the data collecting and the data analysis procedure
• Chapter 3: (Results and discussion): presents and analyses all the correct data to help find out the answers to the three research questions
• Chapter 4: (Recommendations): presents the author‘s suggestions on the learning and teaching vocabulary strategies based on the research findings and the related literature
Part C: Conclusion: summarizes all the major points in the study, reveals the limitations of the study and proposes some suggestions for further research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Language Learning Strategies
―Give a man a fish and he eats for a day Teach him how to fish and he eats for a lifetime”
According to Wenden (1985, cited in Griffiths, 2004), education should focus on equipping individuals for lifelong learning rather than merely addressing immediate challenges While providing answers may solve short-term issues, teaching students how to independently navigate problems fosters self-sufficient learning throughout their lives Consequently, the implementation of language learning strategies (LLS) is crucial in language education, as it empowers learners to take control of their own learning journey.
To grasp the concept of Language Learning Strategies (LLS), it is essential to first define the term "strategy" and clarify its relevance to this study This foundational understanding will help illustrate the significance of LLS in the context of language acquisition and the rationale behind selecting this term for exploration.
In military contexts, "strategy" refers to the art of war and the optimal management of forces in planned campaigns This concept has evolved in the educational field into "learning strategies," which encompass the methods learners use to acquire, store, retrieve, and utilize information effectively.
In his study, Griffiths (2004) identified "strategy" and provided a list of alternative terms that are considered "more or less synonymous." These include "learning behaviours" as noted by Wesche (1977) and Politzer & McGroarty (1985), as well as "tactics" as defined by Seliger (1984).
According to Stern (1992), the term "techniques" is discussed, while Rubin (1975) introduced the concept of "strategy" in one of the earliest studies on the subject, which has since gained widespread acceptance As a result, "strategy" is now recognized as the official terminology in this field of study.
The definition of Language Learning Strategies (LLS) remains a contentious topic, with no universally accepted definition to date Researchers often tailor their definitions to specific teaching contexts, leading to a variety of interpretations Singleton (2008) has compiled and presented several notable definitions of LLS in a comprehensive table.
Table 1: Definitions of Language Learning Strategies (Singleton, 2008, p 51)
Early definitions of Language Learning Strategies (LLS) emphasized outcomes such as linguistic and sociolinguistic competence, as well as the regulation and facilitation of learners' learning In contrast, recent definitions have shifted focus towards the processes and characteristics of LLS While some definitions are broad, others provide a more specific perspective, as exemplified by Rubin's contributions.
(1987) mentioned about all things learners do to help regulate their studying; whereas, Ellis
(1995) just acknowledged LLS in terms of mental and behavior activity
LLS, or language learning strategies, refer to the deliberate actions, behaviors, and techniques employed by learners to enhance their proficiency in a target language (Singleton, 2008, p 52).
1.1.2 The importance of Language Learning Strategies
Teaching students to utilize Language Learning Strategies (LLS) significantly enhances their language acquisition process According to Oxford, LLS are essential tools that facilitate easier, faster, and more enjoyable learning experiences, while also promoting self-direction and effectiveness When learners adopt these strategies, they become more confident, motivated, and proactive in their studies, effectively addressing their individual learning style weaknesses However, it is important to note that not all learners who employ these strategies will achieve success in language learning, as Oxford (1990) pointed out that while strategies are crucial, their effectiveness can vary among individuals.
―appropriate language learning strategies resulted in improved proficiency and greater self- confidence” (p 1) There have been many researchers studying the differences between
―good learners‖ and ―bad learners‖ in their ways of using strategies Chamot (2004) stated,
Effective learners demonstrate distinct differences from less effective learners in their use of a variety of strategies, the application of these strategies to tasks, and the appropriateness of their chosen methods Students who think strategically understand the necessary steps to achieve success in language skills This contrast is particularly evident in academic settings, where strategic learners outperform those who either lack learning strategies or apply them incorrectly.
Language learning strategies significantly enhance learners' self-direction, as highlighted by Oxford (1990) Self-direction refers to the capacity for individuals to take responsibility for their own learning and actively engage in acquiring a new language.
The traditional education system often fosters passive, "spoon-fed" learners who wait for instructions on problem-solving, hindering their ability to keep up with evolving knowledge Learning Strategies (LLS) are designed to transform these passive attitudes into self-directed learning, empowering students to gain confidence, proficiency, and active engagement in their educational journey.
Obviously, LLS have played a very important part in language teaching and learning For more understanding about LLS, the nature and key features will be discussed in the next part
1.1.3 The features of Language Learning Strategies
Understanding the characteristics of Learning Strategies (LLS) enables both teachers and learners to grasp the concepts of LLS more thoroughly, allowing for more effective application in their respective practices.
This part briefly concerned about two approaches of Oxford (1990) and Singleton
(2008) when these two researchers presented the main features of LLS in their books
In her book titled Language Learning Strategies – What Every Teacher Should Know (1990), Oxford summarized some key features of LLS as follows:
Table 2: Features of Language Learning Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p 9)
Learning strategies (LLS) play a crucial role in enhancing learners' ability to acquire knowledge and achieve communicative competence in language learning These strategies facilitate active participation in authentic communication, leading to improved interaction and empathetic understanding, which are essential for effective communication According to Oxford (1990), social strategies promote increased interaction, while memory strategies assist in understanding and recalling new information Additionally, compensation strategies empower learners to bridge knowledge gaps, enabling them to communicate authentically and effectively.
According to Singleton (2008), Language Learning Strategies (LLS) play a crucial role in enhancing learners' self-direction, allowing them to self-regulate their learning process and develop autonomy and effectiveness beyond the classroom.
Vocabulary and Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Vocabulary is a crucial element of language and poses significant challenges for L2 learners To understand its importance, we must first define vocabulary, which originates from the Medieval Latin term "vocābulārium." According to the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, vocabulary encompasses all the words a person knows or uses, as well as all the words in a specific language McCarthy (1990) emphasizes that discussing a language's vocabulary primarily involves its words Furthermore, a word is defined as a single unit of language that conveys meaning and can be expressed both verbally and in writing In essence, words serve as the tangible representation of vocabulary in both spoken and written communication.
Vocabulary teaching and learning should not treat words as isolated entities with fixed meanings Instead, vocabulary encompasses a variety of combinations, including collocations (e.g., "make a complaint," "have breakfast"), multi-word units (e.g., "it's amazing how," "well and truly"), polywords (e.g., "at the weekend," "in his opinion"), institutionalized expressions (e.g., "I'll take it," "I got it"), and sentence frames (e.g., "there is," "there are") (Lewis, 1993, pp 92-94).
―…without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed‖
David Wilkins (1972, cited in Thornbury, 2002) highlighted the critical role of vocabulary in language learning Thornbury (2002) reinforced this idea in the course book Innovations, advising students that focusing predominantly on grammar will yield limited improvement in their English skills Instead, he emphasized that expanding one's vocabulary is essential, as while grammar allows for minimal expression, a rich vocabulary enables comprehensive communication.
For many years, vocabulary was overlooked in second language teaching, with a focus primarily on grammatical structures during the Direct Method and Audiolingualism eras However, the introduction of the Communicative Approach in the 1970s shifted this perspective, highlighting the importance of vocabulary in language learning As a result, research on vocabulary has gained momentum, exploring the connections between learning strategies and language proficiency, as well as identifying factors that enhance vocabulary acquisition.
1.2.1.3 Vocabulary retention and memory systems’ process of working
Retention, as defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2005), refers to "the ability to remember things" (p 1297) According to Wikipedia, retention in learning is described as "the ability to retain facts and figures in memory." While the literature lacks a specific definition for vocabulary retention, this study clarifies it as the process of storing vocabulary in memory, making it accessible for use when required.
Learning vocabulary is crucial for mastering a language, as it involves not just acquiring but also retaining a significant number of words According to Thornbury (2002), "learning is remembering," highlighting that vocabulary retention differs from grammar, which is rule-based; vocabulary is about accumulating individual words The interplay between language exposure and memory is vital, with memory focusing on the storage and retrieval of information, while language exposure pertains to the initial acquisition of that information These two elements are interconnected: effective learning occurs only when information can be retrieved, and retrieval is contingent upon prior learning.
The relationship between language exposure and memory, as well as the mechanisms of information storage, are crucial for understanding why certain information is retained while others are quickly forgotten This insight is essential for both teachers and learners aiming to enhance effective learning and retention of new language elements.
Memory plays a vital role in all forms of learning, including vocabulary acquisition While we often refer to "memory" in everyday conversation as long-term memory, it's essential to recognize the significance of short-term and working memory These types of memory must be engaged before information can be successfully transferred to long-term memory.
Short-term memory refers to the brain's ability to retain a small amount of information for brief periods, typically lasting just a few seconds This type of memory is essential for tasks such as remembering a phone number long enough to dial it or repeating a word after hearing it from a teacher.
Working memory refers to the cognitive ability to simultaneously remember and process information, playing a crucial role in tasks such as reasoning, learning, and understanding (Thornbury, 2002) It can actively hold a limited amount of information—usually around seven items or fewer—for a brief period, typically ranging from 10 to 15 seconds, and occasionally up to a minute (http://www.human-memory.net).
Long-term memory has a vast capacity for storing information over extended periods, unlike working memory, which is limited in retaining words However, Thornbury (2002) highlights that while learners may remember new vocabulary for the duration of a lesson, they often forget it by the next session, indicating that long-term memory may not be as enduring as desired This suggests that memory exists on a continuum, rather than being strictly categorized as short-term or long-term.
To transition information from being "quickly forgotten" to "never forgotten," language learners must employ effective techniques Thornbury, in his book *How to Teach Vocabulary*, outlines several key principles derived from extensive research that highlight the importance of these strategies in enhancing vocabulary retention.
Repetition is a traditional method for memorizing new information by rehearsing it while it remains in working memory However, relying solely on rote learning has minimal long-term benefits unless there is an effort to organize the material concurrently.
Retrieval The act of retrieving a word from memory makes it more likely that the learner will be able to recall it later
Effective memory retention is enhanced by spreading learning over time instead of cramming information in one session For instance, when introducing new vocabulary to students, it's more beneficial to present a few words at a time, revisit them for reinforcement, and then gradually introduce additional words while consistently reviewing previously learned material.
Pacing As having different learning styles, learners should be given opportunities to pace their own rehearsal activities
Use Put words to use is the best way of ensuring they are added to long-term memory
The more decisions the learners make about the word, and the more cognitive demanding these decisions, the better the word is remembered
The judgments that learners make about a word are most effective if they are personalized
Imaging Easily visualized words are more memorable than words that don‘t immediately evoke a picture
Mnemonics These are tricks to help retrieve items or rules that are stored in memory and that are not yet automatically retrievable
Strong motivation significantly enhances a learner's commitment to rehearsal and practice, ultimately leading to improved memory retention and mastery of the material.
A very high degree of attention (arousal) seems to correlate with improved recall
Memory strategies
Memory strategies, identified by Oxford in 1990 as a key group of direct learning techniques, enhance retention by linking new information to familiar concepts These mnemonics involve associating new words with previously learned knowledge, utilizing imagery, or organizing information into groups to improve recall.
Thompson (1987) defined memory strategies as the following:
Mnemonics enhance learning and memory by applying key psychological principles, such as creating a retrieval plan during the encoding process and employing both visual and verbal mental imagery These techniques facilitate quicker learning and improved recall by integrating new information into established cognitive frameworks and offering effective retrieval cues (Schmitt, 1997).
Memory strategies are systematic techniques designed to enhance the long-term retention and retrieval of information, ensuring that learners can effectively remember and access knowledge when needed.
Memory strategies were taken as the answer to the problem of the present thesis for the two following reasons:
Learning vocabulary can be challenging, as language learners must memorize a vast amount of words to achieve fluency According to Lord (cited in Oxford, 1990), vocabulary is the most significant and complex aspect of language learning due to its numerous meanings However, Oxford emphasizes that memory strategies can help learners effectively store and retrieve vocabulary for communication To retain this information, it is crucial for learners to transfer knowledge from working memory to long-term memory Employing memory strategies is an effective approach for achieving this goal.
The memory strategy of structure reviewing is essential for advancing information from the "fact level" to the "skill level," ultimately enhancing learners' retention and retrieval capabilities (Oxford, 1990) Once information reaches the skill level, it becomes easier to access and less prone to forgetfulness over time (Oxford, 1990, p 40) Additionally, the effectiveness of memory strategies, such as mnemonics, is highlighted by Thornbury (2002), who notes that these techniques serve as valuable tools for retrieving items or rules from memory that have not yet become automatically retrievable (p 25).
Secondly, the vocabulary textbook 600 Essential Words for the TOEIC comprises of many word lists which are said to be presented in the TOEIC test These word lists are
―de-contextualized‖ vocabulary items As Oxford and Scarcella (1994, cited in Nemati,
Research indicates that while de-contextualized learning methods, such as memorizing word lists, may assist students in preparing for tests, they often lead to rapid forgetting of vocabulary Rote repetition is insufficient for long-term retention; instead, students should engage in deeper processing of words Among the various de-contextualized vocabulary strategies, memory strategies that promote deep semantic processing have proven to be more effective than shallow techniques like oral rote repetition Therefore, incorporating memory strategies into vocabulary instruction is a justified approach.
1.3.3 Classification of Oxford’s Memory strategies
Oxford (1990)‘s system of memory strategies consists of ten items as follows:
Grouping Classifying or reclassifying language material into meaningful units, either mentally or in writing, to make the material easier to remember by reducing the number of discrete elements
Relating new language information to concepts already in memory, or relating one piece of information to another, to create associations in memory
Placing new words into a context
Placing a word or phrase in a meaningful sentence, conversation, or story in order to remember it
Using imagery Relating new language information to concepts in memory by means of meaningful visual imagery
Semantic mapping involves organizing words visually, with a central key concept positioned at the center or top Related words and concepts are connected to this key idea through lines or arrows, creating a clear representation of their relationships This technique enhances understanding and retention of information by illustrating how different terms interrelate.
Using keywords Remembering a new word by using auditory and visual links
Remembering new language information according to its sound
Structured reviewing Reviewing in carefully spaced intervals, at first close together and then more widely spaced apart
Using physical response or sensation
Physically acting out a new expression (e.g., going to the door), or meaningfully relating a new expression to a physically feeling or sensation (e.g., warmth)
Using creative but tangible techniques, especially involving moving or changing something which is concrete, in order to remember new target language information
Table 6: Oxford’s Memory strategies (Adapted from Oxford, 1990, pp 40- 43)
This study focuses on four specific memory strategies identified by Oxford (1990): grouping, associating, using imagery, and placing new words into context These strategies were selected because they facilitate the storage and retrieval of information, aligning with the study's objectives Additionally, these four strategies were highlighted in the introduction of Oxford's book, underscoring their relevance and importance in effective learning.
The book "600 Essential Words for TOEIC" was utilized as the primary resource in this study The choice of the four memory strategies was informed by the teacher-researcher's prior pilot teaching experience at her university The upcoming sections will provide readers with a deeper understanding of these memory strategies.
Grouping or thematic grouping is one of basic strategies in vocabulary learning
Thematic grouping is a vocabulary strategy that organizes language material into meaningful units based on specific topics or themes, such as situations, places, feelings, and jobs According to Oxford (1990), this approach simplifies memorization by reducing the number of discrete elements, making it easier for students to remember vocabulary This method is commonly utilized in various educational resources, including course books, dictionaries, and picture dictionaries, enhancing both teaching methods and learning experiences Techniques for implementing thematic grouping include creating monolingual or bilingual vocabulary lists and developing theme-based syllabuses.
Grouping is a valuable technique for organizing items that share similar attributes into meaningful categories, which can enhance students' thought processes during writing or speaking tasks For instance, a student struggling to recall English furniture names might categorize them based on their location in a house, while a business major could effectively memorize terminology by dividing it into specific sub-groups like marketing, accounting, and human resources vocabulary.
The associating strategy involves linking new language information to existing concepts in memory, creating meaningful connections that enhance learning (Oxford, 1990) These associations can vary in complexity and can be as simple as pairing "bread" with "butter," or more intricate, involving multiple elements The key is that these associations must resonate with the learner to be effective.
―development‖ such as ―school- book- paper- tree- country- earth‖ They can be also a part of a network, such as a semantic map (Oxford, 1990, p 41)
There are some kinds of associations such as associating words by their structure
The term "habitué" relates to being habitual, while "aglet" refers to the tip of a shoelace, contrasting with "anklet," an ornament worn on the ankle In terms of meaning, "agrarian" pertains to agriculture, similar to "agro." Additionally, pronunciation distinctions exist between "agro," associated with agriculture, and "aggro," which denotes aggression.
This following example is one way to deal with associations that an English teacher can use in his/her class:
Word Associations: Things you can search for:
Word Associations: Places where you see warnings:
Electric wires Subways Cigarette packages
Imagery, as defined by Oxford (1990), involves linking new language information to existing concepts in memory through meaningful visual representations, whether mental or drawn (p 41) Schmitt and McCarthy (1997) emphasize that new vocabulary can be effectively learned by associating words with images rather than definitions This technique allows learners to visualize concrete objects or create mental representations of words, aiding in the retention of abstract concepts through visual symbols Research suggests that imagery is more effective than simple repetition for understanding reading materials, indicating its potential benefits for vocabulary acquisition Additionally, associating new words with vivid personal experiences, such as linking "snow" to childhood memories of playing in the snow, can enhance learning and recall.
Students can enhance their memory retention by creating or utilizing images, ranging from simple pencil drawings to intricate "mental movies." These images facilitate vocabulary recall without the need for translation from their native language and can also serve as a tool for checking comprehension; inconsistencies in the imagery may indicate a need for further review Imagery is particularly effective for tasks that require vivid representations or the transformation of abstract concepts into tangible forms For example, to remember idiomatic expressions, students often create humorous illustrations that depict their meanings.
1.3.3.4 Placing new words into a context
Placing a new word into a context can be interpreted as ―placing a word or phrase in a meaningful sentence, conversation, or story in order to remember it‖ (Oxford, 1990, p
METHODOLOGY
The background of the study
A study was carried out at an English center in Hanoi, Vietnam, which focuses on teaching beginners preparing for the TOEIC test The center offers three primary courses, including a Foundation course designed to build essential English skills for novice learners.
The program aims to equip students with essential skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing, focusing on basic vocabulary and grammar at the elementary and pre-intermediate levels The TOEIC A course introduces students to the TOEIC test, enhancing their reading and listening comprehension while providing commonly used TOEIC vocabulary and advanced grammar points The subsequent TOEIC B course focuses on training students in effective test strategies In this study, the participants were at the TOEIC A level, having successfully completed the Foundation One course, and they attended classes twice a week on Tuesday and Friday evenings from 6 p.m to 8 p.m.
In terms of the course schedule, it took learners 22 sessions (11 weeks) to finish the course Each session was about two hours
The TOEIC A course is designed to familiarize students with the format of the TOEIC Test, focusing on Listening and Reading sections It provides a structured approach to learning 12 essential grammar points and foundational vocabulary necessary for success in the TOEIC exam The primary textbook used is Starter TOEIC, and each session is organized to cover one grammar topic, one reading or listening segment, and one vocabulary area, as outlined in the course schedule.
The study room, measuring approximately 15 square meters, accommodates 12 to 15 students and is equipped with modern amenities including tables, desks, a whiteboard, air conditioning, and a projector Students are organized in two rows of desks facing the teacher, with a small aisle for the teacher to navigate while delivering lectures and engaging in group activities.
The study involved nine students aged 20 to 22, comprising three boys and six girls, all from different universities in Hanoi They shared a common objective of preparing for the TOEIC test to obtain a certification essential for their future careers With limited prior knowledge of the TOEIC exam, their entrance test scores varied between 220 and 395 The table below provides a summary of the nine participants, including their coded names (X1 to X9) and their respective TOEIC input scores.
The researcher, who has been a lecturer at the University of Languages and International Studies, Hanoi National University, Vietnam, for three years, also served as the teacher for the class involved in this study In this action research, she took on dual roles as both practitioner and researcher, overseeing the design and implementation of vocabulary-learning strategy training while also collecting and analyzing the data.
All the vocabulary being taught in this course was taken from the book entitled 600
The third edition of "Essential Words for the TOEIC" by Dr Lougheed (2008) emphasizes the importance of vocabulary in TOEIC preparation, treating it as a distinct component within the course schedule To enhance learners' understanding, essential TOEIC words were provided as supplementary material The course covers four major topics: General Business, Personnel, Purchasing, and Financing & Budgeting, each further divided into three or four specific sub-topics to facilitate targeted vocabulary acquisition.
Personnel: Job advertising and Recruiting
W 6 11 Personnel: Promotions, Pensions and Awards
22 Revision and Tests Table 8: Schedule of Vocabulary Teaching for TOEIC A class
The course schedule required the teacher to create both in-class and at-home handouts for vocabulary study In-class activities helped students engage with new vocabulary using four memory strategies At-home handouts, provided after each lesson, allowed for vocabulary revision and self-practice with vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) This entire process was documented in learners' diaries, with a sample of the handouts available in Appendix 7.
The TOEIC test, or Test of English for International Communication, is developed by ETS (Educational Testing Service) and assesses English proficiency in real-world work scenarios It includes questions that reflect common situations encountered in an international workplace, such as meetings, travel, and telephone conversations.
The TOEIC test serves a dual purpose: for organizations, it effectively evaluates employees' English proficiency for recruitment, promotion, and deployment, as well as for selecting candidates for English technical training or overseas assignments Additionally, it helps assess the effectiveness of English training programs For individuals, TOEIC scores showcase their English capabilities, support job applications, and assist in setting and tracking English learning goals.
The TOEIC test comprises three main types: the TOEIC Listening and Reading test, the TOEIC Bridge test, and the TOEIC Speaking and Writing test Currently, the TOEIC Listening and Reading test is the most commonly used in Vietnam When combined with the TOEIC Speaking and Writing test, the TOEIC scores offer a comprehensive assessment of proficiency across all four essential English language skills.
The TOEIC Listening and Reading test is a comprehensive two-hour multiple-choice examination consisting of 200 questions, with 100 focused on listening comprehension and 100 on reading comprehension Candidates receive separate scores for written and oral comprehension, ranging from 5 to 495 points, which combine to create a total score between 10 and 990 points The TOEIC certificate is available in five colors, representing different achievement levels: orange (10-215), brown (220-465), green (470-725), blue (730-855), and gold (860-990).
To succeed in the TOEIC test, it is essential for test-takers to develop a robust English vocabulary, as every question assesses their understanding of vocabulary words Enhancing vocabulary is key to achieving a higher score, making a strong vocabulary foundation critical for TOEIC success Many individuals often question what TOEIC vocabulary entails, whether it differs from general vocabulary, and if it consists solely of specialized terms Understanding these aspects can simplify the preparation process.
TOEIC words, Dr Lin Lougheed (2008) explained in his introduction of the book 600 Essential Words for the TOEIC:
―The exam does not specifically test specialized vocabulary…the contexts are specialized, but the words are not The words are general vocabulary
They can be used in many contexts and when you learn TOEIC words; it means that you learn words in contexts that are used on the TOEIC‖ (p v)
Vocabulary taken for the study was therefore both general vocabulary and business terms
In short, vocabulary in the training scheme was general or specific is not a matter, but the ways to retain them are of great importance.
Implementation of the Action Research
Teachers are responsible for addressing problems that arise in their classrooms, and action research is a widely adopted approach to finding effective solutions This practice is particularly prevalent among English teachers, as highlighted by Mills (2003).
Action research involves systematic inquiries by teacher researchers aimed at understanding school operations, teaching methods, and student learning outcomes This process seeks to gather information that fosters insight, enhances reflective practices, and promotes positive changes in the educational environment Ultimately, the goal is to improve overall educational practices and boost student success.
A typical action research needs to go from one step to another As suggested by Eileen Ferrance (2000), one action research cycle will be as follows:
Action research involves five key steps: first, identifying the problem; second, collecting data through interviews and questionnaires; third, analyzing the data to uncover issues; fourth, designing an action plan to implement changes and study their impact; and finally, evaluating the effects of the intervention to determine its effectiveness If the results are not as expected, researchers should consider alternative methods to enhance the situation.
When dealing with the question that what kind of method would be the appropriate one for this study, after numerous considerations, action research was chosen for some reasons:
Action research is characterized by its situational nature, allowing for tailored solutions to specific problems within unique contexts This approach is particularly relevant in the teaching environment, as it focuses on the dynamics between the teacher, her students, and the workplace Consequently, educators benefit from real-time insights into student performance and can enhance their teaching methods effectively.
Many students in former TOEIC classes face significant learning challenges, prompting the need for teachers to identify effective solutions to enhance classroom dynamics Action research is a valuable approach in this context due to its problem-focused nature, as noted by Wallace (2001).
Action research is distinct in that it typically originates from specific problems or issues encountered in professional practice This approach is highly problem-focused and aims for practical outcomes.
Furthermore, action research also gave the researcher a good chance to evaluate the intervention and find out the rising problems so that timely decision for changing could be given
While action research offers several benefits, it also has notable drawbacks when compared to experimental research The situational nature of action research, while advantageous, limits its applicability in broader contexts.
The research program may work well in one class but in different contexts, it might make no sense Thus, there is no generalization in an action research.
Data collection instruments
To ensure the validity of the research, five data collection instruments were utilized: a Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS), interviews, learners' diaries, pre-tests/post-tests, and a questionnaire.
What is Vocabulary Knowledge Scale test?
The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS), created by Wesche and Paribakht in 1996, is a 5-point self-report tool that enables students to assess their familiarity with vocabulary items This scale allows learners to self-evaluate their knowledge of a word by selecting from a range of options.
1 I don’t remember having seen this word before
2 I have seen this word before but I don’t know what it means
3 I have seen this word before and I think it means…………
4 I know this word; it means …
5 I can use this word in a sentence, e.g………
What was the purpose of VKS test in the study?
This thesis presents the inaugural Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS), designed to assess students' retention of essential vocabulary learned in the Foundation course, which is a prerequisite for those aiming to take TOEIC A & B exams.
To address the research question regarding the challenges students face in independent vocabulary learning, it is essential to recognize that relying solely on interviews may not provide a comprehensive understanding due to their subjective nature As Wallace (1998) noted, the truthfulness of responses in interviews can often be uncertain Therefore, incorporating the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) test enhances the reliability of the findings The combination of results from the VKS test and subsequent interviews allows for a clearer identification of the vocabulary learning difficulties students encounter, while also enabling the researcher to evaluate the consistency between students' interview responses and their test performances.
The study included two additional VKS tests: a pre-test and two post-tests, designed to assess the effectiveness of four sub-memory strategies in vocabulary learning These tests maintained the VKS format but featured different content Further details on these assessments will be provided in the following section.
How was the first VKS test designed in the study?
The test paper began with a section for the student's name, followed by the test title and comprehensive instructions for proper completion To enhance motivation among respondents, the source of the test was credited immediately after these requirements (Wesche & Paribakht, 1996).
The main section of the test featured a table with three columns, where the first column presented a list of fifty words sourced from the book "New Vocabulary in Use" by Stuart.
In 1999, Redman & Ellen Shaw's book was utilized as a supplementary vocabulary resource for the Foundation course at the center, ensuring students encountered a diverse range of vocabulary This vocabulary was drawn from ten topics, including weather, appearance, emotions, illnesses, homes, character, cooking, family, sales, and the environment Students were given twenty-five minutes to complete the test, with marking details to be elaborated on in the data analysis section (refer to Appendix 4 for the first VKS test).
Why was a semi-structured interview?
The study utilized semi-structured interviews alongside the first VKS to effectively identify the challenges students face in vocabulary acquisition This approach offers greater flexibility for interviewers compared to structured interviews or questionnaires As noted by Dowsett (1986), semi-structured interviews yield rich interactions and valuable insights into life experiences that are often unattainable through more rigid methodologies While not the sole qualitative research method that uncovers deep social relationships, this technique provides profound access to understanding them (Nunan, 1992).
How was this semi-structured interview conducted?
The semi- structured interview was carried out within the group, the group interview
As Michael J Wallace stated in his book Action Research for Language Teacher (1998),
While most interviews are conducted one-on-one, group interviews can also be effective, resembling structured discussions Although there is a risk of participants agreeing with each other without sharing their own opinions, group interviews were selected for their time-saving benefits Additionally, a more relaxed, conversational approach can help participants feel comfortable, encouraging them to open up about their genuine concerns This method ultimately allowed the researcher to better identify the real issues faced by the students.
The interview comprised two types of questions: completely open-ended and semi-structured The open-ended question, "How do you often learn vocabulary at home?" aimed to initiate discussion and gather insights about the respondents' learning methods To keep the conversation focused, the second question, "When learning vocabulary, what are the difficulties you often encounter?" was supplemented with follow-up prompts addressing specific vocabulary challenges Contributions from participants were highly valued, and the teacher's note-taking proved crucial for subsequent data analysis.
2.3.3 Pre-test and post-tests
Why were pre-test and two post tests?
According to Mertens (2005), the test-retest method is a key approach for assessing reliability This study utilized one pre-test and two post-tests to evaluate vocabulary retention before and after the treatment By analyzing and comparing the test results, the research aimed to measure students' improvement in vocabulary learning through memory strategies, addressing the question of how the four sub-memory strategies enhance vocabulary retention.
How were the tests operated?
The three tests utilized the VKS format, as previously detailed, but differed from the initial VKS designed to identify vocabulary learning challenges Instead, these assessments focused on evaluating the knowledge and skills students acquired throughout the course, necessitating distinct content for each test (refer to Appendix 5).
At the start of the third session, a pre-test was conducted for the student group prior to initiating treatment This assessment featured fifty randomly selected words from four major topics, which will be introduced using memory strategies throughout the course.
Post-test 1, administered immediately after the teaching phase, was designed to evaluate the short-term improvement of students while maintaining the same format and content as the pre-test To mitigate the risk of practice effects, as highlighted by Mertens (2005), the researcher reordered all fifty vocabulary items, ensuring the test's reliability Additionally, to address concerns about the test's validity, a new column was included for students to indicate the strategies they employed to learn the vocabulary, acknowledging that they might use various techniques beyond the four provided memory strategies.
Post-test 2 was the same as post test 1 and had another name as the "delayed" test
It was delivered two weeks after the course The teacher had to arrange the time and place with students to meet each other and complete the test
Data collection procedure
The data collection procedure followed the steps of one circle in an action research and could be illustrated into this following chart:
Phase 1: The very first task in this phase was to investigate the problems that students often encounter when they deal with vocabulary To fulfill this task, both a VKS test and a semi- structured group interview were carried out
The VKS was delivered in the first session of week 1 to check out students‘ ability to retain given words in the previous course
The group interview commenced at the start of the second session, designed to foster a comfortable and friendly environment for students to freely discuss and share ideas To guide the conversation, two main questions were posed, supplemented by follow-up questions and prompts to help interviewees stay focused and avoid irrelevant information This allowed students to express their own challenges while the teacher engaged with detailed inquiries and took notes The entire group interview lasted approximately 20 minutes.
The pre-test was administered immediately after the interview, and its results will be compared with those from the immediate post-test and the delayed post-test This comparison aims to assess the students' vocabulary retention and evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention.
From weeks 2 to 11, the researcher implemented a treatment focused on teaching students four memory strategies through detailed instructions and in-class handouts These handouts included various activities aimed at helping students grasp and apply the memory strategies equally, with no single strategy prioritized After each lesson, students received home-handouts featuring exercises like multiple-choice questions and gap-filling tasks to reinforce vocabulary learned in class Additionally, a self-learning component required students to document their use of the strategies for word retention, which they submitted at the course's conclusion Weekly diary discussions allowed students to share their learning experiences, enabling peer learning and providing the teacher with insights into the effectiveness of the strategies taught, thereby enhancing the research's validity and reliability.
The study utilized two post-tests to evaluate students' vocabulary retention: the immediate post-test (post-test 1) conducted in week 11 and the delayed post-test (post-test 2) administered two weeks later in week 13 These assessments aimed to measure the effectiveness of four sub-memory strategies on both short-term and long-term vocabulary retention.
In week 14, a questionnaire was distributed to students to gather their attitudes and suggestions for future learning and teaching, following a treatment period of three weeks Students were requested to submit their responses within three days.
2.5 Data analysis methods and procedures
The collected data were organized according to the four research questions, with semi-structured interviews and VKS tests addressing the first question, test scores responding to the second, learners' diaries informing the third, and questionnaire data providing insights for the final question.
In the VKS test, students rated a given word on a scale from 1 to 5, and the teacher compiled these ratings into percentages, which were then displayed in a bar chart Additionally, data collected from interviews was translated and categorized into various difficulty groups The teacher organized this information into a table, allowing both the researcher and readers to easily identify the key vocabulary challenges faced by students.
Test scores were initially recorded, followed by the calculation of mean scores for each test The performances of both the overall group and individual students were assessed by comparing mean scores from the pre-test with those from two subsequent post-tests This approach effectively highlighted the improvement in students' vocabulary retention over both the short term and long term.
In addressing the third research question, a total of 144 diary entries were collected from nine students, with each student contributing 16 entries The teacher meticulously reviewed each entry, tallying the frequency of various strategies employed, which were then converted into percentages and visually represented in a pie chart Additionally, data from an extra column in post-test 1 was analyzed to respond to the second question, where the researcher counted the occurrences of four sub-memory strategies used in the test and compared these results with the diary findings.
The questionnaire data was analyzed in three distinct sections The first section comprised three questions focused on attitudes towards the strategy training scheme, specifically examining its importance, effectiveness, and enjoyment The results were visually represented using pie charts to depict the percentage data In the second section, the total scores for each strategy were calculated, and the strategy with the highest mean score (M) was identified as the most favored Finally, the third section presented the data in percentages within a table format, enabling the researcher to draw conclusions based on the ideas and opinions expressed by the students regarding the course.
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the research methodology, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches It begins with a clear description of the research context, participants, and materials, followed by an explanation of the choice to utilize action research The chapter then details the data collection instruments employed and outlines the data collection procedures Finally, it concludes with a thorough account of the methods and procedures used for data analysis.
Methods and data analysis procedures
This chapter analyzes data gathered from interviews, VKS tests, learner diaries, and questionnaires to address the four research questions Additionally, the study's findings will be discussed in depth, highlighting issues, performance levels, and any improvements observed after treatment, while integrating relevant literature.
3.1 Research question 1 (Identifying the problems): What are the problems that the students encounter in their independent vocabulary learning?
The VKS test, detailed in Appendix 4, served as the primary tool to address the initial research question Its purpose was to assess students' ability to recall previously learned vocabulary and to identify challenges they faced in their independent vocabulary learning.
Student vocabulary proficiency was assessed on a scale of 1 to 5, with the teacher tallying the marks for each student These results were then converted into percentages and visually represented in the accompanying chart.
Figure 5: Results from VKS test
The chart illustrates that marks 2 and 3 have the highest rankings, whereas mark 5 remains at the lowest level Notably, the highest figure is associated with marks 2 and 3.
2 was about 44%, which meant 44% of the students confirmed to have experienced the