Rationale of Study
Since the time of Marcus Tullius Cicero, a Roman philosopher, and later in the Ren- aissance theories, until now all languages have been considered to be of equal status (Pym,
The English language, despite its global prominence as a second or foreign language, does not possess any inherent superiority over other languages (Kasaian and Subbakrishna, 2011) Its rise in dominance is attributed to its association with major world powers, such as America and Britain (Jesperson, 1905) As a result, those who can effectively utilize English gain significant influence in various domains, whether in commerce or the exchange of ideas (Canh, 2004) To challenge the pervasive influence of English, one must engage with the language itself (Halliday, 2006, cited by Van, 2010) This perspective, while ideological, reflects a certain reality in today's interconnected world.
The significance of English as a gateway to numerous opportunities has led to its teaching being viewed as essential for individual, national, and international needs (Canh, 2004) Halliday (2006) emphasizes that those deprived of English learning suffer as a result Over time, various teaching methods have emerged, with no single approach meeting the diverse needs of all learners In the 1970s, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) gained popularity in the West and became a prominent methodology by the early 2000s (Dornyei, 2009) As a result, educators and administrators have increasingly adopted CLT, viewing it as a modern and effective method for teaching English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) This perception positions CLT as the preferred approach, often labeling traditional methods as outdated and ineffective (Bax, 2003).
Vietnam has experienced the spread of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), albeit later than its neighboring countries Despite its integration into the national education system, particularly at the general education level, the implementation of CLT in Vietnam has been deemed unsatisfactory by numerous scholars A significant factor contributing to this failure is the lack of consideration for students' learning culture, which affects their attitudes, behaviors, and habits towards learning To achieve successful educational innovation, it is crucial to understand learners' cultural contexts, enabling teachers to align pedagogical strategies with students' needs while also identifying necessary adjustments to their learning culture This understanding serves as the foundation for my study.
Research Aims and Questions
This survey study investigates how Vietnamese learning culture affects the attitudes of upper-secondary school students in a mountainous region towards Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) The findings aim to assist teachers in creating a more learner-centered approach by adapting CLT principles to align with students' cultural backgrounds, ultimately enhancing educational outcomes To achieve this, the study is guided by specific research questions focused on these dynamics.
1 What is the students‟ belief about language learning?
2 How do their beliefs about language learning affect their opinions of the teacher‟s role and student‟s role in the English language classroom?
3 How do their beliefs about language learning affect their preferences for language learning activities both inside and outside the classroom?
It is hoped that answers to the above questions can inform classroom teachers of how to adapt CLT in their classrooms.
Methods of Study
This research utilizes a survey study framework, employing a questionnaire as the primary data collection tool to explore students' attitudes and opinions toward learning activities The survey was conducted with a select group of upper-secondary school students from a single school in a mountainous region of Vietnam, which limits the generalizability of the findings Nonetheless, the insights gained can assist English teachers in this and similar schools in effectively adapting Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) methodologies.
Scope of Study
This study focuses on examining how students' learning culture impacts their English language acquisition in an upper-secondary school located in a northern mountainous province.
Significance of Study
This study aims to highlight culturally inappropriate elements of the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach among school students in a mountainous region By identifying these issues, the research seeks to provide recommendations for adapting CLT to align with the local learning culture, ultimately enhancing educational effectiveness.
Organisation of the Thesis
Introduction
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), introduced in the 1970s by British applied linguists, emerged as a response to traditional grammar-based approaches This multifaceted methodology draws from various disciplines, including linguistics, psychology, philosophy, sociology, and educational research While there are numerous interpretations regarding the origins of CLT, this paper aims to present a synthesized perspective that incorporates insights from various scholars on its foundational principles.
Communicative Language Teaching: Principles and Characteristics
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) represents a paradigm shift in the understanding of language, viewing it not merely as a collection of vocabulary and grammatical rules but as a dynamic social behavior used in context for interaction and communication (Savignon, 1991, 2002) The primary function of language is to facilitate communication, enabling individuals to express, exchange, and negotiate meaning (Ma, 2009; Hu, 2002) This approach emphasizes the interdependence of form and meaning, highlighting that true language proficiency involves constructing coherent texts and engaging in discourse within a speech community (Hu, 2002) CLT uniquely integrates both functional and structural aspects of language, focusing on meaningful use over mere form, with the principle that fluency and comprehensibility are more indicative of successful language learning than accuracy alone (Littlewood, 1981; Sanders, 1987, cited by Beale, 2002).
In order to communicate effectively in a language, people need to have the following four aspects of abilities (Stern, 1983, cited by Ma, 2009):
The intuitive mastery of the forms of language
The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and social-cultural meanings expressed by the language forms
The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form
The creativity of language use
Hymes (1971, cited in Ma, 2009) critiques Chomsky's notions of linguistic competence and performance, emphasizing the significance of language within speech communities and its connection to communication and culture He argues that while linguistic knowledge is essential, it alone does not guarantee effective communication Understanding cultural contexts is crucial for individuals to engage in socially acceptable interactions across various situations and relationships Hymes introduces a pivotal theory of communicative competence that highlights these aspects.
Communicative competence is defined as “the ability to communicate in a personally effective and socially appropriate manner” (Trenholm and Jensen, 1988, cited by Ma,
Communicative competence, as defined by Canale and Swain (1980), encompasses the ability to interpret and enact appropriate social behaviors, highlighting the learner's active role in language production It is considered essential for language proficiency and is regarded as the "most important linguistic ability," facilitating the production and comprehension of contextually appropriate utterances (Campbell and Wales, 1970) This competence comprises four key components: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence (Ma, 2009; Canale and Swain, 1980; Latha and Rajan, 2012; Beale, 2002; Richards, 2006) Grammatical competence specifically pertains to the understanding of lexis, syntax, morphology, and phonology, enabling users to combine phonemes into words and construct grammatically correct sentences through knowledge of linguistic rules.
Sociolinguistic competence involves understanding the social and cultural expectations of a speech community, extending beyond mere linguistic knowledge To communicate effectively, individuals must grasp sociolinguistic rules that dictate appropriate language use based on the status and relationships of those involved in various contexts This competence also encompasses nonverbal responses tailored to the interaction's purpose, allowing individuals to adapt their language according to the setting and participants.
Discourse competence involves understanding the logical relationships between sentences within a text, focusing on how sentences are organized using discourse markers and rules of cohesion and coherence This competence is essential for language users to effectively convey their purposes across various discourse structures Additionally, these principles serve as vital cues for processing different text types and for perceiving the intended meanings of conversational partners.
Strategic competence refers to the understanding of communication strategies utilized during interactions, such as maintaining or concluding conversations and resolving communication breakdowns (Ma, 2009) This competence involves the ability to adapt language effectively to achieve specific communicative goals Consequently, it serves as a means to compensate for limitations in linguistic, sociolinguistic, and discourse knowledge, enhancing overall communication effectiveness.
From the perspective of communicative competence, language learning aims to integrate four essential types of knowledge for learners, as discussed by Canale and Swain (1980) and supported by various researchers including Asassfeh et al (2012), Richards (2006), Savignon (2002), Hu (2002), Ma (2009), and Latha and Rajan (2012).
Learning Activities in Light of CLT
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) highlights the importance of real communication in promoting effective learning (Richards and Rogers, 1986) It emphasizes that language input for teaching should consist of realistic examples of discourse used by both native and non-native speakers in relevant tasks (Doughty and Long, 2003) To prepare learners for real-world interactions, classroom activities must be closely linked to real-life situations, utilizing authentic materials and tasks (Richards, 2006; Hu, 2002) This approach ensures that learners actively participate and are better equipped for actual communicative events Additionally, the language input should be rich and complex, encompassing quality, quantity, variety, genuineness, and relevance.
CLT activities necessitate genuine communication and should foster cooperative and collaborative learning According to Vygotsky (1978), teacher support and social interactions are essential for helping learners achieve a level of development beyond their current capabilities Consequently, conversational interaction is vital for enhancing communicative competence, as it enables learners to negotiate meaning interactively with one another.
According to Norris et al (1998), effective language learning and teaching occur through social interactions, enabling students to pursue clear goals, exchange information and opinions, negotiate meaning, seek assistance in understanding, and receive feedback on their language use This interactive process allows learners to utilize and refine their inter-language, ultimately enhancing their language acquisition.
Savignon (1991) shares this view and comments that communicative tasks determine the opportunities for language use, for the interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning.
Communicative Activities
Communicative activities are defined as practices that emphasize the use of language in authentic contexts, where genuine information is exchanged and the language utilized is often unpredictable (Richards, 2006) These activities typically exhibit several key characteristics that enhance language learning and communication skills (Richards, 2006, p.23).
They seek to develop students‟ communicative competence through linking gram- matical development to the ability to communicate
They create the need for communication, interaction, and negotiation of meaning through the use of activities such as problem solving, information sharing, and role play
They provide opportunities for both inductive as well as deductive learning of gram- mar
They make use of content that connects to students‟ lives and interests
They allow students to personalise learning by applying what they have learned to their own lives
Classroom materials typically make use of authentic texts to create interest and to pro- vide valid models of language
Examples of interactive activities include information-gap tasks, jigsaw exercises, task-completion games like puzzles and map-reading, and information-gathering methods such as surveys and interviews Additionally, opinion-sharing activities, information-transfer tasks, reasoning-gap challenges, and role plays also enhance engagement and learning.
Role of Teacher and Learner in CLT
The shift in the roles of teachers and learners marks a significant distinction between traditional language teaching methods and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) This transformation stems from the focus on communicative activities in CLT, prioritizing the process of communication over mere mastery of language forms As articulated by Richards (2006), CLT is based on principles that define the objectives of language teaching, the ways learners acquire a language, the most effective classroom activities for facilitating learning, and the respective roles of teachers and learners.
Richards (2006), see the shift toward CLT as marking a paradigm shift in our thinking about teachers, learning, and teaching
Language education through Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has evolved from a traditional "banking" model, where knowledge is deposited for later use, to dynamic "landscapes of practices" that empower learners with greater autonomy over their learning journey In this approach, students can tailor their learning paths, progress at their own pace, and pursue their unique needs and motivations CLT emphasizes the importance of diversity among learners, viewing it as a valuable resource rather than a barrier Participation in cooperative classroom activities encourages students to engage with peers through group and pair work, fostering a collaborative learning environment This shift requires learners to take increased responsibility for their own education, moving away from reliance on the teacher as the sole authority.
In a Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) classroom, teachers transition from authoritative figures to facilitators, creating an environment that fosters language learning They are no longer seen as the sole source of knowledge or moral exemplars, but rather as guides who encourage students to practice and reflect on their language use This shift requires teachers to adopt a new perspective on student errors and their own role in the learning process Additionally, teachers can engage as independent participants, researchers, analysts, counselors, and managers of group dynamics, enhancing the collaborative learning experience (Richards, 2006; Richards and Rodgers, 1987).
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is recognized as a learner-centered approach that prioritizes the backgrounds, language needs, and goals of students This method encourages creativity and allows learners to participate in instructional decisions, fostering a more personalized learning experience (Canale and Swain, 1980; Beale, 2002).
Culture, Attitude and Behaviour
Culture is a pervasive force that influences various aspects of life, shaping individual behaviors by providing a framework for cognitive and emotional responses (Kramsch, 1993; Jabeen and Shah, 2011) The interplay between culture and attitude is significant, as they are interdependent concepts; whenever culture is discussed, attitudes are also relevant (Jabeen and Shah, 2011) Ajzen and Fishbein (1973) highlight the close relationship between attitude and behavior, while Olson and Zanna (1993) suggest that cultural values serve as key determinants of attitudes and can predict behavioral intentions Although this study does not directly investigate the links between culture, attitude, and behavior, it reviews existing literature to clarify this relationship and underscore the importance of considering culture in the adoption of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
Culture significantly shapes an individual's attitudes towards objects, actions, and other people, ultimately influencing their behavioral intentions and actions.
(Adapted from Ajzen and Fishbein, 1975, and Bakker, 1996)
Overt behaviors are shaped by cultural influences through attitudes and subjective norms, as illustrated in figure 1 Additionally, these behaviors provide feedback to the individual's cultural values and normative beliefs This interaction may have significant implications for the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) at the studied school, which will be further explored in Part 3.
Spolsky (1989) emphasizes the significant impact of social factors, particularly culture, on second language learning He suggests that these factors indirectly influence learners by shaping their attitudes towards the language, its speakers, and the learning environment, which in turn affects their motivation Additionally, social factors determine the availability of language learning opportunities and contexts, further influencing the learning experience.
So far, what has been aroused is that learners‟ attitudes toward communicative activi- ties in English learning are very much likely to be affected by Vietnamese culture of learn-
Overt behaviors significantly impact learners' English learning habits, ultimately influencing their learning effectiveness Therefore, researching this topic can provide insights into the current state of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) implementation and raise awareness about its importance in the educational context.
Vietnamese Learning Culture
The culture of learning refers to the ingrained expectations, attitudes, values, and beliefs surrounding effective learning and teaching practices It encompasses perspectives on questioning, the role of textbooks, and the relationship between language teaching and broader educational purposes This concept highlights that learning is inherently cultural, deeply intertwined with the history and societal context of the community it emerges from.
Learning culture transcends mere variations in learning methods or curriculum differences; it encompasses fundamental beliefs and values regarding the essence of school subjects and the dynamics between students and teachers (Cotazzi and Jin, 2013).
In Vietnamese culture, the concept of "face" plays a crucial role in the learning process, reflecting the society's collectivist values This emphasis on maintaining face significantly influences interpersonal interactions and educational dynamics, highlighting the importance of social harmony and respect within the community.
In the classroom, learners often refrain from interrupting lessons with questions, as doing so may be perceived as challenging the teacher's authority and knowledge, which is viewed as disrespectful This reluctance stems from the fear of causing embarrassment for both themselves and the teacher if a question remains unanswered Consequently, students may choose to wait for the teacher to address their concerns later or ask questions privately after class Additionally, students demonstrate their respect for teachers through various behaviors, such as standing to greet the teacher at the start of the lesson and remaining standing until permitted to sit When they wish to leave the classroom or contribute to the discussion, they are expected to seek the teacher's permission, highlighting the structured dynamics of respect within the learning environment.
1.8 Beliefs of Learning in Vietnamese Culture
Learning in Vietnam is deeply influenced by a face-saving and harmony-maintaining culture, which reflects the collectivist nature of Vietnamese society Individuals within the community prioritize belonging to an in-group and often refrain from standing out to avoid being perceived as the “nail that sticks up.” This reluctance to engage in discussions that challenge ideas stems from a desire to preserve personal and communal harmony, as losing face can cause significant personal damage Consequently, there is a pervasive fear of making mistakes, underscored by proverbs that emphasize careful communication, such as “twisting your tongue seven times before speaking” and “words cost no money, so speak beautifully to please others.” These cultural norms highlight the importance of maintaining relationships and avoiding conflict in Vietnamese learning environments.
Diller and Sutherland‟s (1975, p.126) comment that:
In Vietnamese culture, modesty and humility are highly valued social graces, with individuals typically revealing their knowledge or skills only when prompted This cultural norm emphasizes speaking less than one actually knows, reflecting an admirable characteristic that is deeply rooted in the Vietnamese identity.
In many Asian cultures, particularly among learners from Confucian heritage, classroom behavior is significantly influenced by the fear of losing face, leading to reluctance in sharing personal ideas and a preference for speaking less but accurately (Phuong-Mai et al., 2006; Huong, 2008) This cultural norm values verbal perfection, resulting in quietness and a lack of initiative in class, as students often expect teachers to provide all necessary knowledge without actively participating in discussions (Lewis & McCook, 2002) Consequently, learners tend to avoid public displays of opinion or emotion, preferring a teacher-dominated environment where they feel more secure and less exposed.
The Confucian "learn-to-use" philosophy views education as an accumulation of knowledge rather than a practical application of that knowledge This approach prioritizes the transmission and internalization of established authoritative knowledge over experiential learning, emphasizing memory and knowledge retention rather than creativity Consequently, this method is often characterized as "passive learning," "rote learning," or "memorization," where knowledge is absorbed without active engagement Interestingly, despite being perceived as rote learners, Vietnamese students demonstrate a deeper engagement with memorization techniques, as highlighted by a study showing that both teachers and students at the tertiary level consider memorization crucial for mastering grammar and vocabulary.
Vietnamese learners often favor learning through exemplars, highlighting the significance of textbooks and teachers as models of knowledge and morality This perspective underscores the idea that students aspire to emulate their teachers Phuoc (1975), as referenced by An (2002), critiques the Confucian teaching model as being "teacher-centred, closed, suspicious of creativity, and reliant on unquestioning obedience from students."
Learning is often perceived as a challenging and serious endeavor that demands full commitment and diligent effort, as noted by Phu (2008) and Ha (2013) It is a lifelong journey that requires perseverance and patience, akin to "grinding an iron bar into a needle," highlighting the dedication needed for personal growth and knowledge accumulation.
Vietnamese learners are often perceived as diligent and eager to engage in activities; however, despite this expectation, they frequently exhibit silence and shyness in the classroom This tendency can be attributed to cultural attitudes towards learning, which discourage light-heartedness and promote a more serious approach to education.
In summary, culture significantly influences cognitive structures and personality, thereby impacting learning methods (Lambert, 1973) The philosophies of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Vietnamese culture are fundamentally different (Hsiao, 2010), which can lead to either convergence or divergence in the application of CLT among Vietnamese learners Additionally, culture is dynamic and continuously evolving; with Vietnam's rapid modernization and industrialization, traditional cultural values are changing This evolution may alter the Vietnamese philosophy of learning and affect learners' attitudes towards CLT.
Since its inception, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has transcended its origins, being adopted in various countries with diverse cultural values and norms However, its effectiveness in these differing contexts remains a topic of skepticism Many scholars argue that CLT, rooted in Western educational principles, must be culturally adapted and accepted to be successful outside of Western settings (Kramsch and Sullivan, 1996; Bax, 2003; Ellis, 1996; McKay, 2003; Barnard and Viet, 2010; Hu, 2002; Lewis and McCook, 2002; Stroupe, 2012; Hsiao, 2010; McClintock, 2011; Mahmoodzadeh, 2011; Khoi and Iwashita, 2012; An, 2002).
Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) emphasize that what is suitable in an international context may not be appropriate locally, advocating for a pedagogy that balances global and local needs Bax (2003) categorizes language teaching approaches and argues for a context-driven method that accommodates diverse learners, highlighting the importance of learner variables over methodology Ellis (1996) critiques the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) model for being unsuitable for Asian learners, noting its neglect of cultural rituals and form mastery McKay (2003) supports this view, pointing out that the effectiveness of CLT has been questioned in countries like Chile, China, Japan, and Korea, urging educators to prioritize local student needs when selecting teaching methods Barnard and Viet (2010) further illustrate this mismatch between CLT principles and local learning cultures in various Asian contexts, including Hong Kong, China, Korea, Japan, and Thailand.
Hu (2002) argues that Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) transforms the learning process by incorporating entertaining elements like language games, making it a more enjoyable experience However, CLT is not suitable for Confucian Heritage Culture (CHC) contexts due to its egalitarian approach, which contrasts with the hierarchical teacher-learner relationships typical in CHC CLT emphasizes verbal interaction and tolerates ambiguity, undermining the importance of memorization, a key aspect of CHC learning Hu (2010) identifies teachers' authority and students' passive roles as significant barriers to CLT implementation in China, a challenge echoed across other Asian cultures (Lewis and McCook, 2002; Stroupe, 2012) Hsiao (2010) and McClintock (2011) highlight contradictions between the CLT approach and Confucian educational values, including the centrality of learning, respect for teachers, and the nature of learner autonomy.
Learning Culture and CLT
Since its inception, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has transcended its Western origins and been adopted in various countries with differing cultural values and norms However, its effectiveness in these diverse contexts remains a topic of skepticism among scholars Many researchers argue that CLT, rooted in Western educational philosophies, must be culturally adapted and accepted to be successful in non-Western settings This ongoing debate has prompted extensive academic discourse, highlighting the need for culturally responsive teaching methods in language education.
Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) emphasize that appropriateness in language teaching varies between international and local contexts, advocating for a pedagogy that balances global and local needs Bax (2003) categorizes language teaching methods and argues for a context-driven approach that considers learner variables as essential for successful language acquisition, placing methodology like Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in a secondary role Ellis (1996) critiques CLT's focus on meaning over form, highlighting its incompatibility with the cultural practices of collectivist societies in Asia McKay (2003) further supports this view, noting that the effectiveness of CLT has been questioned in countries like Chile, China, Japan, and Korea due to local learner needs Barnard and Viet (2010) review literature revealing significant mismatches between CLT principles and the educational cultures in various Asian contexts, including Hong Kong, China, Korea, Japan, and Thailand, underscoring the importance of tailoring teaching methodologies to fit local educational environments.
Hu (2002) critiques Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) for its focus on making learning enjoyable through games, arguing that this approach is unsuitable for the Chinese cultural context due to its emphasis on egalitarian teacher-learner relationships, which contrasts with traditional hierarchies CLT's devaluation of memorization and its promotion of verbal interaction often overlook the significance of inner activities and can lead to ambiguity, which is not well-received in Confucian educational settings Hu (2010) identifies teachers' authority and students' passive roles as significant barriers to CLT's success in China, a sentiment echoed by Lewis and McCook (2002) and Stroupe (2012), who note similar challenges in other Asian cultures Additionally, Hsiao (2010) and McClintock (2011) highlight key contradictions between the CLT approach and Confucian learning values, such as the importance of teacher respect, the nature of learning activities, and the balance of authority and autonomy in education.
Despite Vietnamese teachers generally holding positive attitudes towards Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), its implementation in Vietnam has not met the expectations of teachers, learners, parents, and educational managers due to various factors, including cultural differences Research indicates that the original form of CLT does not align with the Vietnamese context and should be culturally adapted The clash between Western values inherent in CLT, such as individualism, and the collectivist values of Vietnamese society creates challenges for teachers who traditionally serve as mentors and knowledge impartors This shift in roles to facilitators can be difficult for both teachers and students to accept Additionally, Vietnamese learners are accustomed to a more traditional, quiet classroom environment, making the noisy, interactive nature of CLT unfamiliar and uncomfortable Consequently, whole-class activities are often favored over group work, as dividing students into subgroups can disrupt the social cohesion valued in Vietnamese culture.
This chapter has reviewed existing literature on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and its relationship with culture, attitudes, and behaviors It has also highlighted key aspects of Vietnamese learning culture and how it impacts the implementation of CLT This analysis aims to provide a theoretical foundation for empirical research in this area.
The Research Site
The research presented in this thesis was carried out at a state upper-secondary school in Cao Bang province, an economically underdeveloped area with a population that is 93.7% comprised of ethnic minorities (2009) Student admissions are typically determined by entrance exam results administered by the Provincial Department of Education and Training However, the English proficiency levels of students, as reflected in their entry examination scores, are notably low, likely attributable to the challenging educational conditions characterized by limited resources and insufficient language learning input.
At the time of this study, the school had a total enrollment of 700 students across 20 classes, comprising 7 classes for grade 10, 6 for grade 11, and 7 for grade 12, with an average of 35 students per class The school employed six English teachers and utilized a textbook mandated by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), which follows the Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) approach.
Recent developments in the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach have been influenced by various studies (Barnard, 2009; Van, 2010; Hung, 2011) In schools, formal English teaching is typically allocated three periods per week, with each period lasting 45 minutes.
Methodology
Collis and Hussey (2009) highlight the crucial connection between the research paradigm and the chosen method They emphasize that researchers must consider the suitability of their selected method in relation to the research problem, their own personal experience and skills, and the target audience for their findings.
This research aims to examine how students' learning culture affects their English learning in the classroom, utilizing a descriptive approach A survey method was selected as the most suitable for this study, aligning with the research paradigm, objectives, participant count, contextual factors, and the researcher's limited experience and skills.
A survey study, as defined by Mathiyazhagan and Nandan (2010), is a descriptive research method that collects primary data through verbal or written communication with a representative sample from the target population This research typically utilizes questionnaires to explore vital aspects of individuals, including their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations, and behaviors Consequently, surveys are among the most prevalent methods employed in second language research and English language teaching.
The survey study is a widely accepted research design due to its numerous advantages, including the ability to gather extensive information quickly and cost-effectively, access to a diverse participant pool, and enhanced data accuracy through probability sampling (McDonough and McDonough, 1997; Brown, 1991) While challenges such as low response rates exist, Brown (1991) argues that with careful management, surveys can effectively reveal patterns within large datasets By implementing a well-structured survey framework and thoughtfully selecting participants, the research aims to produce reliable data that can lead to meaningful insights.
Participants and the Ethical Issue
The study employed a systematic sampling method, beginning with the compilation of a comprehensive list of all students, including their full names and class information, gathered from Microsoft Excel files These individual class lists were merged and sorted alphabetically to create a unified student roster From this complete list, 150 students were randomly selected by choosing one student for every four on the list The final participant group consisted of 50 students from grade 10, 63 from grade 11, and 62 from grade 12.
The research prioritized ethics by strictly adhering to the principles of confidentiality and anonymity, ensuring that no real names of the students were disclosed in the thesis.
Instrument
2.4.1 Rationale for choosing the questionnaire and question type
This study employs an exploratory approach utilizing the survey method, with a self-reported questionnaire serving as the primary data collection tool Questionnaires are widely favored by educational researchers, particularly in the context of English Language Teaching (ELT) research, due to their effectiveness in gathering survey data.
According to McDonough (1997), using questionnaires is more economical and practical than interviews (Mackey and Gass, 2005; Selinger and Shohamy, 1989; Bryman, 2004) This method allows researchers to gather comparable information from multiple respondents while providing greater flexibility in the data collection process (Mackey and Gass).
Questionnaires provide precision and clarity in data collection, ensuring accuracy and uniformity when administered to all subjects simultaneously (McDonough & McDonough, 1997) Anonymity encourages participants to share sensitive information, resulting in more truthful responses (Selinger & Shohamy, 1989) They are particularly effective for descriptive and explanatory studies that explore attitudes, opinions, and cause-effect relationships between variables (Saunders et al., 2009) Although questionnaires may yield lower response rates and only allow for a single data collection opportunity (Bryman, 2004), they typically require less skill and sensitivity to administer compared to semi-structured or in-depth interviews, provided they are well-worded (Saunders et al., 2009).
The choice of question types significantly impacts respondents' consideration of answers, cooperation, and response rates (Bryman, 2004) Structured questionnaires are deemed more efficient than open-ended ones (Selinger and Shohamy, 1989), with closed-item questions providing uniformity and higher reliability These questions facilitate easier data quantification and analysis (Oppenheim, 1992; Mackey and Gass, 2005) To ensure the measurability of responses and gather essential information, a 5-point Likert scale was utilized for most items, complemented by three open-ended questions that allowed participants to express their opinions freely on the topics investigated (see Appendix 3 for the complete questionnaire).
The credibility of research findings is fundamentally based on the validity and reliability of the data collection instruments and the information gathered Consequently, this study placed significant emphasis on meticulously designing the questionnaire and the processes for data collection and analysis.
To ensure the validity and reliability of research findings, a thorough review of relevant literature was conducted to identify key variables and their relationships, which informed the development of the questionnaire The structure and design of the questionnaire are crucial, as it must be comprehensible to respondents and allow researchers to accurately interpret their answers (Saunders et al., 2009) Clear communication regarding the research aims and straightforward instructions for completing the questionnaire were provided to participants, enhancing their understanding and minimizing the risk of incomplete or unreliable responses (McDonough and McDonough, 1997).
We prioritized clear and simple language in our questionnaire to enhance understanding, avoiding jargon, leading questions, double-barreled questions, and double negatives that could confuse respondents Most questions were kept short for clarity, although some longer questions were included to explain unfamiliar terms Our goal was to create user-friendly questions that were easy to answer, record, and evaluate (McDonough and McDonough, 1997) Additionally, we carefully organized the questions into five parts, placing factual questions at the end to improve the questionnaire's reliability and the quality of the data collected, supported by consistent formatting and a familiar layout.
A significant challenge to the reliability of this study was addressing the potential influence of "social desirability bias," which can create a discrepancy between students' reported feelings about their learning and their true sentiments (Bryman, 2004) This issue is particularly pronounced in Vietnam's communal culture, where researchers may be viewed as intruders To mitigate this effect, prior communication with the school principal emphasized the importance of not pressuring students during the questionnaire process Additionally, the researcher personally delivered and collected the questionnaires, fostering participant cooperation and motivation, resulting in a high response rate and enhancing the authenticity and reliability of the collected data.
Conducting a pilot study is crucial for assessing the relevance and clarity of questionnaire items, as well as the time required for respondents to complete it (Selinger and Shohamy, 1989) In this study, six participants from different grade levels were asked to complete the questionnaire and an evaluation form Based on their feedback, the questionnaire was revised to enhance its quality, leading to the development of a final version for data collection.
The questionnaire was designed using variables identified in the literature review and aligned with the research objectives It was initially composed in Vietnamese and later translated into English for reporting purposes The complete English version of the questionnaire is available in Appendix 3.
The questionnaire comprises 60 questions divided into five sections The initial section contains 22 items that explore students' preferences for various English learning activities associated with different teaching approaches, addressing research question 3 The second section, consisting of items 23 to 39, examines students' perceptions of both the teacher's and student's roles within the English language classroom, contributing to the investigation of the corresponding research question.
2 The third part of the questionnaire with items from #40 to #55 was supposed to answer the first research question, which is concerned with the students‟ belief about how learning should take place Part four of the questionnaire, including three open-ended items, aims to answer the third research question about the way students usually employ in learning Eng- lish both inside and outside the classroom The last two items of the questionnaire extracts the students‟ personal information about gender and their English score of semester 1 in academic year 2013 – 2014, both of which are assumed to affect the students‟ attitude to- wards learning activities.
Data Collection and Analysis Procedure
The researcher hand-delivered questionnaires to participants and collected them directly to ensure accuracy Each returned questionnaire was assigned a unique code to minimize data entry errors The responses were entered into a computer, verified for accuracy, and analyzed using SPSS (version 16.0) Scale question responses were evaluated to determine mean values, while open-ended responses were synthesized to identify the frequency of mentioned learning activities This process allowed for the interpretation, explanation, and validation of variables, ultimately contributing to the study's findings and conclusions.
The data analysis utilized an inductive approach, characterized by a less structured framework that emphasized data interpretation without pre-existing propositions This method allowed for an unconstrained analysis, free from predetermined assumptions However, to enhance the robustness of the findings, the analysis incorporated established theories from literature regarding the influence of culture and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) This theoretical foundation guided the analysis process and supported the conclusions drawn from the empirical data collected through the questionnaire.
During the analysis process, significant attention was given to principles of confidentiality and anonymity, while also addressing typographical errors and researcher bias to prevent data misrepresentation The unbounded nature of the analysis contributed to these safeguards This meticulous approach to methodological considerations ensured the quality and quantity of the collected data, providing a solid foundation for the development of the research findings.
Of the total 175 questionnaires delivered, 166 were returned, which made the overall response rate of 94.9 per cent A summary of the response rate is presented in Table 1
In a study involving 166 respondents, 27% were male (44 individuals) and 73% were female (122 individuals) Regarding English proficiency in semester 1 of the 2013-2014 academic year, 13% of respondents scored well (between 8.0 and 10), 47% had fair scores (ranging from 6.5 to 7.9), and 40% achieved medium scores (from 5.0 to 6.4) These demographic and proficiency details are illustrated in Figures 2 and 3.
Block Questionnaires delivered Questionnaires returned Response Rate (%)
Table 1 Questionnaires Delivered and Collected
Figure 2 Respondents’ Gender Figure 3 Respondents’ English Proficiency
It would be a better idea to explore the students‟ conceptions of learning, i.e their belief about how learning should take place This domain was probed in 16 questions, from
#40 to #55, in the questionnaire, and the students‟ responses with the mean (M) values are tabulated in Table 2; the percentage of the responses can be found in Appendix 4
The purpose of learning significantly influences students' attitudes towards English and their preferred learning activities In this study, a mean value of 3.0 indicates that students are uncertain about whether their primary goal for attending school is to achieve good exam scores This suggests a shift away from the traditional Vietnamese belief that learning is solely about passing exams and achieving success Students may now perceive that exam results do not necessarily equate to future success, emphasizing the importance of their actual abilities over mere test performance.
Q40 The purpose of learning is to get good marks in exams 166 3.00 1.165
Q41 Learning is a hard and serious undertaking; it requires students’ effort and patience; it is not an entertainment activity 166 3.43 1.130
Q42 Learning emphasizes individual student effort rather than collaboration among peers Q43 suggests that students should strive to avoid mistakes during their learning process Additionally, Q44 highlights the significance of teachers' lectures in enhancing students' educational experiences.
Q45 In order for students to learn well, teachers have to give clear explana- tion about grammar 166 4.34 666
Q46 In order to learn well, students need to spend a lot of time memorising what they have learnt in lessons 166 3.90 803
Q47 Students learn better when learning takes place in the class as a whole, not in groups 166 2.70 994
Q48 Students should maintain harmony with all of their classmates 166 4.37 655
Q49 In the classroom, a student should not express his/her opinions be- cause in case of incorrectness he/she will be laughed at by classmates 166 1.75 964 Q50
In the classroom, a student should not express his/her opinions be- cause their classmates may think that he/she is boasting and not mod- est
Q51 In the classroom, a student should not debate with their classmates; otherwise, they may be made ashamed 166 1.85 799
Q52 Students should not interrupt teacher’s lecture 166 3.33 1.161
Q53 In the classroom, students should not debate with the teacher on the lecture 166 2.30 974
Q54 Students should only express their opinions when allowed by the teacher 166 3.13 1.207
Q55 In class, students should not express their personal opinions 166 2.07 1.028
Table 2 Students’ Conceptions of Learning
Participants in the study perceive learning as a serious and challenging endeavor that demands significant commitment and effort, aligning with the traditional Vietnamese view that regards education as a lifelong, often burdensome task This perspective contrasts with the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach, which emphasizes the importance of incorporating enjoyable elements, such as language games, to enhance the learning experience (Hu, 2002) In Vietnam, learning is not only seen as a personal journey but also as a responsibility towards family and society, leading to a strong societal emphasis on education Despite the traditional belief that learning requires intense individual effort, the students in this study indicated a preference for collaborative and cooperative learning experiences, suggesting a shift in the perception of educational engagement.
Students often exhibit a negative attitude towards uncoordinated learning, preferring collaborative group work as it enhances their learning experience (M = 2.70) This aligns with the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) philosophy, which views language acquisition as a process that thrives on interactive and cooperative engagement among learners In CLT, classroom activities predominantly involve pair and group work, fostering opportunities for students to share information, practice speaking, and develop fluency in a supportive environment However, this perspective contrasts with Kramsch and Sullivan's (1996) observation that Vietnamese students typically feel more comfortable in whole class settings, reflecting a cultural preference for collectivism over individualism Vietnam's collectivist society emphasizes group cohesion, making students hesitant to separate from their peers Despite this, recent advancements in communication and teaching methodologies may be influencing a shift in students' perceptions of learning and collaboration.
Participants in the study viewed traditional learning methods positively, emphasizing the importance of avoiding errors in the learning process (M = 3.57), reflecting Confucian beliefs that knowledge is invaluable and should be transmitted accurately from teacher to learner This perspective was reinforced by the Audio-Lingual Method, which aimed for precise language use from the outset, as errors could lead to fossilization in learners' inter-language However, this approach contrasts with Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which encourages real communication and embraces mistakes as part of the learning process, promoting a tolerant environment to reduce learner anxiety Additionally, the study revealed that Vietnamese students exhibited low levels of activeness and creativity (M = 4.14 and 4.34) and a high dependence on teachers and rote memorization (M = 3.90), aligning with the traditional view of knowledge while opposing CLT's emphasis on learner autonomy and experiential learning through "learning by doing."
Face-saving plays a crucial role in shaping Vietnamese learners' perspectives on student-student and student-teacher relationships, significantly influencing their learning approaches Rooted in the principle of respect, Vietnamese culture emphasizes the importance of maintaining harmony not just with higher-status individuals but also within families and communities Each individual strives for a sense of belonging and seeks to live harmoniously with others and the environment, reflecting the yin-yang philosophy prevalent in Vietnamese life This cultural inclination manifests in various practices, such as the balance of "hot" and "cold" elements in food and daily habits Vietnamese people prioritize stable, non-confrontational relationships, often resolving conflicts through compromise This cultural context helps explain why students in this study overwhelmingly valued harmonious relationships among classmates, with a high mean score of 4.37 indicating its significance.
In Vietnam, the concepts of honour and face are paramount, often surpassing material possessions in importance, leading individuals to strive for a good reputation This cultural emphasis fosters a communication style that is high-context and indirect, characterized by honesty, reserve, and a reluctance to assert oneself Consequently, Vietnamese learners typically remain quiet in classroom settings, avoiding debates that could disrupt communal harmony and risk losing face Additionally, Vietnamese culture exhibits moderate uncertainty avoidance, with a tendency to shun ambiguous situations and uphold established norms As a result, students often believe that careless speech can harm others just as much as reckless actions However, findings from this study reveal that many students oppose the notion that they should refrain from sharing their opinions in class due to fears of being incorrect or perceived as boastful.
Recent findings indicate a significant shift in the communication styles of young Vietnamese students, highlighting their strong disagreement with the notion that they should refrain from debating classmates (M = 1.85) or teachers (M = 2.30), and from expressing personal opinions in the classroom (M = 2.07) While there remains some ambivalence regarding whether students should interrupt teachers (M = 3.33) or only share opinions when permitted (M = 3.13), these attitudes suggest an increasing inclination towards individualism influenced by Western cultural exchanges This shift, although somewhat counter to traditional values of face and honor, is beneficial for communicative language teaching (CLT), which emphasizes active participation and meaningful interaction To foster communicative competence, classrooms must cultivate an open atmosphere that encourages students to engage freely in learning activities, promoting qualities such as openness, extroversion, responsiveness, and assertiveness, rather than quietness and reserve.
In conclusion, the students in this study exhibited fluctuating views on the purpose of learning for exams and their communication methods with the teacher They expressed a preference against traditional learning approaches, which often involve uncoordinated efforts and a reluctance to express themselves This evolving perspective aligns with the principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), indicating potential for integrating communicative activities in Vietnamese English classrooms However, the participants still held traditional beliefs about the tedious nature of learning, cultural strategies for effective education, and the importance of maintaining harmonious relationships within the class These beliefs pose challenges for the effective implementation of CLT, necessitating either adaptations in teaching methods or modifications in students' cultural perspectives.
2.6.2 Role of Teacher and Learner
The investigation of the interrelated roles of teachers and learners was conducted through 17 questions, numbered #23 to #39 This section will present and discuss the findings collectively The mean (M) values of the responses are displayed in Table 3, while the percentage of responses is available in Appendix 5.
The dynamics between teachers and students are significantly shaped by their perceived relationship, which is often hierarchical, with teachers holding a higher status (M = 3.50) Consequently, students are expected to show respect and politeness towards their teachers (M = 4.43), reflecting traditional Vietnamese values that emphasize respect in teacher-student interactions (Biggs, 1998) This respect stems from the understanding that teachers bear considerable responsibilities, including imparting knowledge (M = 3.54) and assessing student performance (M = 3.67) To fulfill these roles effectively, teachers must continually enhance their expertise to address academic inquiries from students (M = 4.27).
Q23 The teacher has higher status than the student, and the teacher-student relationship is the one of hierarchy 166 3.50 1.083
Q24 Students must be respectful and polite to teachers 166 4.43 700