Rationale
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) has gained significant attention in recent years for its ability to explore the intricate relationship between language and power Beyond merely describing language, CDA provides valuable tools for individuals aiming to challenge and resist various forms of authority Its effectiveness in analyzing diverse contexts has led to an increasing interest among language researchers globally.
Language stands as one of humanity's most significant inventions, serving as a vital communication tool for expressing thoughts, emotions, and attitudes toward the world It is fundamentally a social phenomenon, deeply intertwined with societal interactions From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), language is viewed as an integral part of society, functioning as a social practice and a socially-conditioned process (Fairclough, 2001).
Language plays a crucial role in politics, serving as a powerful tool for leaders to achieve their objectives The interplay between language and power is evident, particularly in political speeches, which not only convey messages but also reflect the speaker's ideology and authority This close relationship underscores the significance of linguistic practices in the political arena.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) examines social inequality by highlighting how discourse contributes to the dominance exercised by elites and institutions, leading to various forms of inequality, including political, cultural, class, ethnic, racial, and gender disparities (van Dijk, 1993) Gender inequality, in particular, serves as a significant social issue that can be analyzed within any culture through the lens of dominance and power dynamics.
The violation of women's rights is a critical global issue that has prompted numerous speeches, notably by Hillary Clinton Her 1995 speech stands out as a landmark address on this topic, while her 2013 speech serves as a significant reflection on the earlier remarks and has garnered considerable attention.
Numerous researchers have explored the relationship between language and power by analyzing political speeches; however, most have focused on individual speeches This thesis aims to address this gap by examining the connection between language and power through a comparative analysis of two political speeches.
The selection of Hillary Clinton's two speeches on women serves as the basis for this study, analyzed through the lens of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).
Aims of the study and Research Questions
Aims of the study
A critical analysis of Hillary Clinton's speeches on women in 1995 and 2013, using Fairclough’s framework, reveals the underlying power dynamics and ideologies present in her rhetoric In her 1995 speech at the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, Clinton emphasized the global struggle for women's rights, highlighting the systemic oppression women face, which reflects a call for solidarity and action against gender inequality Conversely, her 2013 address at the Women in the World Summit showcased a more personal narrative, illustrating the progress made while acknowledging ongoing challenges, thus reinforcing the notion of women's empowerment within a contemporary context Both speeches, while distinct in their approaches, serve to illuminate the persistent societal structures that influence women's status and advocate for continued advocacy and reform.
- Find out changes in the way power and ideologies are shown in two speeches.
Research questions
To achieve the aims of the study, the following research questions have been posed:
1 How are ideologies and power lexically, syntactically and macro-structurally shown in two speeches on women by Hillary Clinton in 1995 and 2013?
2 Are there any changes in the way ideologies and power are shown in two speeches? If yes, what changes are they?
Scope of the study
This critical discourse analysis focuses on the written elements of two political speeches, along with relevant situational contexts as background knowledge The study is primarily linguistic in nature, rather than political or social, utilizing political speeches to conduct an academic linguistic investigation.
Design of the study
The study consists of three parts illustrated as follows:
Part A is the INTRODUCTION of the study which presents the rationale, scope, aims, methodology, and design of the study
Part B is the DEVELOPMENT which is made up of three chapters
Chapter 1: Theoretical background and literature review
This chapter gives an overview of CDA – its history, role, concepts, and procedure
Chapter 2 : Methodology of the study
This chapter provides a detailed description of the methodology, which includes research methods applied for data collection, the types of the data, and the analysis procedure of the study
Chapter 3: A critical discourse analysis of two speeches on women by Hillary
The CDA procedure outlined by Fairclough (2001) is utilized to analyze two speeches, examining the interplay between power, ideology, and language This analysis aims to uncover both the similarities and differences in how power and ideology are expressed within the two speeches.
Part C is the CONCLUSION which summarizes the major findings of the study, draws important conclusions, and offers suggestions for further research.
Significance of the study
This study supports Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) theories by revealing the ideologies and power dynamics embedded in language As part of my Master’s degree in English Linguistics, this research examines two speeches simultaneously, offering a unique perspective on political speech analysis through the lens of CDA.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE
An overview of CDA
Before the 1970s, linguistic research was mostly concerned with the formal aspects of language, which are believed to theoretically be isolated from specific instances of language use (Chomsky, 1957)
In the 1970s, the focus shifted to the relationship between language and context, particularly within the field of pragmatics, emphasizing speakers' pragmatic and socio-linguistic competence This period saw the emergence of text and discourse analysis, which highlighted how language structures power relations in society Renowned linguistic researchers, including Kress and Hodge (1979), Van Dijk (1985, 1993), and Fairclough (1995a, 1995b), along with Fairclough and Wodak (1997), significantly contributed to the development of Critical Linguistics (CL) by outlining its main assumptions, principles, and procedures.
In the 1990s, Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) emerged as a unique linguistic theory, fundamentally transforming the study of language (Kress, 1990, as cited in Wodak & Meyer, 2001, p 5) Today, the terms Critical Linguistics (CL) and CDA are often used interchangeably by some linguists.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) examines discourse as a tool for understanding social reality, as noted by Leeuwen (1993) According to Rogers (2004), CDA goes beyond mere description and interpretation of discourse in context; it also explains the mechanisms behind how discourse functions, setting it apart from other analytical approaches Wodak and Fairclough (1997) emphasize that CDA views language as a social practice, focusing on how social variables like power abuse, dominance, and inequality are manifested, reproduced, and challenged through texts and conversations within social and political contexts.
1.3 Some main directions in CDA
Van Dijk (1988) conceptualizes discourse as a complex communicative event that is deeply intertwined with its social context, rather than viewing it as a mere isolated textual or dialogic structure He emphasizes that discourse analysis should extend beyond phonological, morphological, grammatical, and semantic levels, incorporating higher-level properties such as coherence, themes, topics, and the overall schematic and rhetorical dimensions of texts.
He also focuses on the ideology analysis of discourse and proposes a framework of discourse analysis as follows (1988b, p.61-63):
- Examining the context of the discourse: historical, political and social background of a
- conflict and its main participants
- Analyzing the groups, power relations and conflicts involved
- Identifying positive and negative opinions about US and THEM
- Making explicit the presupposed and the implied
- Examining all formal structures: lexical choice and syntactic structure, in a way that helps to (de)emphasize polarized group opinions
Van Dijk emphasizes the importance of news discourse in the press, applying his theory to real-world national and international news reports His analytical approach focuses on three levels of news discourse production: structure, production, and comprehension processes, all within their social context This relationship is examined through text analysis at two levels: microstructure, which looks at semantic relations, syntactic, lexical, and rhetorical elements that contribute to text coherence, and macrostructure, which analyzes thematic structures and the overall schemata of news stories.
As Wodak and Ludwig (1999) state, language "manifests social processes and interaction" and "constitutes" those processes as well (p.12) Viewing language this way entails three things at least
Discourse inherently involves power dynamics and ideologies, as interactions are influenced by prevailing power relations and the significance of values and norms Additionally, discourse is historical, interconnected with both contemporary and past communicative events Furthermore, interpretation plays a crucial role, as individuals may derive varied meanings from the same communicative event based on their unique backgrounds and knowledge This interdisciplinary and multi-methodological approach emphasizes the importance of diverse empirical data and contextual understanding in analyzing discourse.
The overall framework of this approach is seen in the four levels of contexts as follow (Wodak, 2002, p.68):
- The immediate language or text internal co-text;
- The inter-textual and inter-discursive relationships between utterances, texts, genres, and discourse;
- The extra-linguistic social/socio-logical variables and institutional frames of specific
- The broader socio-political and historical contexts, which the discursive practices are embedded in and related to
CDA has evolved significantly over the years, with Norman Fairclough emerging as a key figure in its development He argued that early contributions to Critical Linguistics (CL) overlooked the diverse interpretive practices of audiences, assuming that interpretations aligned with those of the analysts Additionally, Fairclough noted that while earlier CL analyses were detailed in grammatical and lexical aspects, they often neglected the crucial inter-textual relationships within texts.
"the linguistic analysis is very much focused upon clauses, with little attention to higher-level organization properties of whole texts" (p.28)
Fairclough (1995b) acknowledged the limitations of earlier critical linguistics while emphasizing its significant contributions to the evolution of theory over the years Today, critical discourse analysis (CDA) is not confined to a singular research direction; rather, it represents a collective perspective that includes various approaches However, as van Dijk (1998a) noted, despite the diversity within CDA, there are overarching conceptual and theoretical frameworks that remain closely interconnected.
This study adheres to Fairclough's (2001) framework, emphasizing that language should be analyzed not only through texts or their production and interpretation but through the interplay between texts, processes, and social conditions These conditions encompass both the immediate situational context and the broader institutional and social structures Fairclough proposed a Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) procedure consisting of three key stages: Description, Interpretation, and Explanation, which have been adapted for this study.
This stage focuses on the formal properties of the text, reflecting the specific choices made by individuals To uncover hidden meanings, embedded messages, and the speaker's ideology, Fairclough (2001, p.92-93) introduces a framework of ten primary questions, along with sub-questions, addressing aspects of vocabulary, grammar, and textual structures.
1 What experiential values do words have?
2 What relational values do words have?
3 What expressive values do words have?
5 What experiential values do grammatical features have?
6 What relational values do grammatical features have?
7 What expressive values do grammatical features have?
8 How are (simple) sentences linked together?
9 What interactional conventions are used?
10 What larger-scale structures does the text have?
According to Fairclough (2001), the terms experiential, relational, expressive, and connective values represent key formal features of texts in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) Experiential values reveal how a text producer's experiences of the natural or social world shape the content, allowing for an understanding of their worldview through formal features Relational values indicate the perceived social relationship between the text producer and the recipient, while expressive values offer insights into the producer's evaluations of the reality being represented Additionally, Fairclough identifies connective value, which serves to link different parts of a text together.
He also stresses that any given formal feature may simultaneously have two or three of these values
Macrostructures of discourse differ from microstructures, which include the local elements such as words, clauses, and sentences The underlying assumption in identifying macrostructures is that a well-structured discourse conveys an overarching idea intended by the author When the text is effectively crafted, this central idea is also grasped by the reader or listener As articulated by Van Dijk (Wodak & Meyer, 2001), ‘semantic macrostructures’ encapsulate the global meanings or topics of a discourse, representing its essential information and contributing to the overall coherence of the text These macrostructures reflect the global meanings that language users create during both the production and comprehension of discourse.
The three values of formal text features relate to social practices influenced by power, encompassing content, relationships, and subjects, which in turn affect knowledge, beliefs, social relationships, and identities However, it is important to note that one cannot directly derive societal structural effects from these formal text features The significance of these textual values emerges only through social interaction Thus, a thorough analysis is essential to understand discourse processes and their reliance on underlying assumptions.
Interpretations arise from both the text itself and the interpreter's internal framework The formal characteristics of the text serve as cues that trigger the interpreter's member resources (MR), which encompass background knowledge, values, beliefs, and assumptions According to Fairclough, these elements represent the interpretative procedures applied to the text This process of interpretation can be visually summarized in a diagram.
Interpretative procedure (MR) Resources Interpreting
Phonology, grammar, Surface of utterance vocabulary
Semantics, pragmatics Meaning of utterance
This stage highlights discourse as both a social practice and process, illustrating its dependence on social structures while also examining the cumulative effects discourse can have on these structures, either reinforcing or transforming them.
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
Research questions restated
As presented previously, the study seeks the answer to the following research questions:
1 How are ideologies and power lexically, syntactically and macro-structurally shown in two speeches on women by Hillary Clinton in 1995 and 2013?
2 Are there any changes in the way ideologies and power are shown in two speeches? If yes, what changes are they?
Methods of the study
The data in the study tend to be discussed from the viewpoint of CDA framework given by Fairclough (2001) with three stages of analysis: Description, Interpretation and Explanation
This thesis employs a descriptive qualitative research approach, utilizing key methods such as literature review, supervisor consultations, and document analysis In descriptive research, the researcher does not manipulate variables, as accurate and relevant information about the current state of phenomena is derived directly from existing conditions.
Referencing to publications is chosen as the first and foremost techniques because it provides theoretical background and empirical bases for discussions and conclusions in the study
Consulting with a supervisor is crucial for the successful completion of a study, as their insightful suggestions and constructive feedback can greatly motivate researchers and guide them in the right direction.
The study utilizes textual data derived from a speech transcript, making document and material analysis a crucial technique for effective evaluation.
Data of the study
The data of the study is the underlying power and ideologies embedded in two speeches on women delivered by Hillary Clinton in 1995 and 2013
On September 5 th , 1995, Hillary Clinton, the American First Lady at that time, delivered a speech called ―Women‟s rights are human rights‖ at the United Nations
The 4th World Conference in Beijing, China, gathered representatives from over 180 countries and numerous human rights advocates, all united to witness a groundbreaking speech that sparked a significant movement.
Hillary Clinton's impactful remarks at the Beijing conference were made possible by overcoming significant opposition, particularly from her husband Bill Clinton's White House The administration was hesitant to allow her attendance due to concerns about political and diplomatic repercussions, as they were working to normalize relations with China following the 1989 Tiananmen Square massacre They feared that her advocacy for women's rights might provoke China's sensitive government and jeopardize the delicate efforts to mend US-China relations Additionally, they believed that as First Lady, she should refrain from publicly challenging foreign governments while visiting their country, viewing it as a breach of diplomatic protocol.
The arrest of prominent American-Chinese human rights activist Harry Wu escalated tensions, prompting Hillary Clinton to announce she would not deliver her speech in Beijing unless Wu was released Ultimately, the Chinese government acquiesced, allowing Clinton to attend the event, where she delivered a pivotal speech that significantly advanced the cause of international women's rights.
Her determination and consistency in overcoming obstacles made her presence at the conference impactful, and her speech resonated deeply with the audience She emphasized that women's issues are fundamentally human issues, urging governments, organizations, and individuals to champion gender equality and combat violence against women The speech received enthusiastic applause and captured the attention of global leaders, citizens, and the media Its significance was heightened by the fact that it was delivered at a diplomatic meeting in China, a country often resistant to these ideals, with the eyes of the world upon her.
At the 2013 Women in World Summit in New York, nearly 20 years after the historic Beijing women's conference, Hillary Clinton provided a comprehensive overview of the progress made towards global women's equality, while also addressing the ongoing challenges that remain This reflection highlighted the advancements achieved since the conference and underscored the importance of continuing the fight for women's rights as the 20th anniversary approached.
Both speeches emphasize women's rights and the human rights violations they face, with the 2013 speech building upon the themes presented in 1995 The later address highlights the importance of empowering women and ensuring their full and equal participation in political, economic, and societal advancements Clinton's advocacy for global women's rights in these speeches serves as a rich source for exploring the interplay between language and power.
This study critically analyzes the speeches from 1995 and 2013, aiming to uncover the underlying intentions and ideologies present in each It also seeks to identify any shifts in how the speaker exerts power and conveys their ideological stance over time.
Analysis procedure of the study
The study is attached to CDA approach and is carried out following some basic stages:
The initial step in the research process involves performing a comprehensive literature review to develop a clear understanding of issues pertinent to the research topic This entails gathering, reading, categorizing, and analyzing a variety of reference materials, studies, and articles related to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and the thesis theme.
In the second stage, we will gather key information from the speeches on women delivered by Hillary Clinton This selected data will then be meticulously analyzed using suitable analytical tools to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the introduced aspects.
A thorough analysis of two speeches reveals their underlying ideologies and hidden meanings It is crucial to compare the speeches from 1995 and 2013 to identify similarities and differences, examining how the latter supports, develops, or diverges from the themes presented in the former.
Negative terms – Women rights violations
The situational context that affects the choice of vocabulary
The effect of the discourse (the choice of vocabulary) at the institutional level and societal level
Personal pronouns: the use of ‗we‘ and
Voice : the use of active and passive
The situational context that affects the choice of voice and personal pronouns
The effect of discourse (the choice of voice and personal pronouns) at the institutional and societal level voice
Large - scale structure : list of macro-structure statements
The situational context that affects the use of large-scale structure
The effect of discourse (the choice of large-scale structure) at the institutional and societal level
A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF THE TWO
Description
Fairclough's Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) framework emphasizes three key language properties: Vocabulary, Grammar, and Textual Structures The analysis follows a selective procedure that includes ten main questions and additional sub-questions This study focuses on two specific speeches, aiming to highlight significant features that are crucial for critical analysis, based on the researcher’s expertise.
According to Fairclough (2001), description is the initial stage of text analysis that seeks to identify linguistic features, including vocabulary, grammar, and overall interaction structure The selection of words and structures serves as a means to convey ideological and communicative assumptions Analyzing the vocabulary is crucial, as Van Dijk (as cited in Wodak R and Meyer, 2001) states that lexical meanings, or "local meanings," emerge from the interplay between individual understandings and shared societal beliefs These meanings significantly influence recipients' attitudes and opinions, making them easier to recall and reproduce Van Dijk further categorizes lexical choices into positive and negative terms—representing in-group and out-group distinctions—highlighting how language can reinforce power dynamics and ideologies.
Fairclough (2001) discusses the role of lexical selection in relation to ideology, viewing it as a reservoir of ideological meaning He categorizes vocabulary into three value types: experiential, relational, and expressive Specifically, he highlights the significance of experiential vocabulary value through classification schemes, focusing on their implications rather than on in-group or out-group dynamics.
The analysis of the selected speeches employs a contrastive classification of terminology related to women's rights One category highlights positive terms that advocate for women's equal treatment, while the other focuses on negative terms that illustrate violations of women's rights This approach is supported by a detailed examination of the lexical choices in both speeches, with a comprehensive vocabulary list provided in Appendix 4.
An analysis of the two speeches reveals the speaker's strong advocacy for women's dignity, equality, and respect, contrasted by her criticism of the violations of women's rights Notably, the 1995 speech employs a higher frequency of negative terminology related to "women's rights violations," including various verbs, nouns, and adjectives, highlighting the urgent issues surrounding women's rights at that time.
In her 2013 speech, Clinton emphasizes positive achievements of women, contrasting with her 1995 speech, which focused on the ignorance and violations of women's rights While the shift in language highlights progress, it invites deeper analysis of Clinton's word choices and their implications for the ongoing discourse on women's rights.
1.2.1 The use of ―I‖ and ―we‖ pronouns
The selection of vocabulary significantly impacts the expression of power and underlying ideologies, while grammatical elements also contribute to this effect in discourse In analyzing relational values, the usage frequency of the pronouns "I" and "we" in two speeches is illustrated in the accompanying table.
Table 1: Frequency of pronoun ―I‖ and ―We‖ in 1995 and 2013 Speech
The analysis of the provided table reveals that the pronouns "I" and "we" are the most frequently utilized in both speeches, with a notable preference for "we." The pronoun "I" distinctly refers to the speaker, Hillary Clinton, while the varying contexts of each speech suggest that the choice of pronoun is influenced by the specific setting in which they were delivered.
―we‖ particularly directs A deeper investigation and interpretation will be taken to unveil the strategy of the way the speaker uses pronouns in her speech in the next parts
Hillary Clinton opens her speech by expressing her gratitude and pride for being invited to the conference, recognizing it as an opportunity to share her viewpoints with the audience.
Earlier today, I participated in … Tomorrow, I will attend… (S 17, 19 )
Over the past 25 years, I have worked persistently on … Over the past two and a half years, I've had the opportunity… (Ss 26 -27)
I want to speak up for … (S 45)
At an international conference in Beijing, China, Hillary delivered a speech to a diverse audience from various countries, emphasizing her identity as a member of the women's community By using inclusive language, particularly the term "we," she effectively connects with her audience and reinforces a sense of solidarity among women globally.
Pronoun ―We‖ 36 55 them She talks about the way women in every corner of the world join hands and come together, or the way they share common things:
To be more, being a woman, the speaker shares that she, like others, takes the responsibility to take care of family members, but their work is not valued:
We are primary caretakers for most of the world‟s children and elderly Yet much of the work we do is not valued… (Ss 36 - 37)
We come together in fields and factories, in living markets and supermarkets, in living rooms and board rooms (S 5)
….we come together and talk about our aspirations and concern (S 6)
… and we are here to find common ground so that we may bring dignity and respect to women … (S 9)
By gathering in Beijing, we are focusing world attention on issues that matter most in our lives … (S 10)
At this very moment, as we sit here, women around the world are giving birth, raising children, … (S.38)
We need to understand … We must respect….We must recognize… (Ss.48, 49, 51)
It is time for us to say here in Beijing… to discuss women‟s rights as separate from human rights (S.60)
But we also been reminded, in V-J Day,… We have seen peace prevail in most places
… We have avoided another world war But we have not solved older and deeply- rooted problems… (Ss 84, 85, 86, 87)
If we take bold steps to better lives of the women, we will be taking bold steps t better the lives of children and families, too (S.89)
We must move beyond rhetoric We must move beyond recognition … (Ss.98, 99)
In her 2013 speech, Hillary Clinton emphasized her personal connection by using the pronoun "I," similar to her 1995 address, where she expressed her honor in attending the Women in the World Summit Through her remarks, she shared valuable insights and experiences, highlighting the importance of women's empowerment and advocacy.
I did see some faces and I know that … (S.4)
And when I became Secretary of State, I was determined to … (S 10)
Hillary recognizes that women's issues are both national and international challenges, forming the core of her advocacy and the concerns of many others She believes that empowering women to realize their inherent potential and human rights is a collective responsibility, not just her own This understanding is reflected in her shift from using the pronoun "I" to a more inclusive perspective.
―we‖, which appears throughout the speech
But I knew to do that, I couldn‟t ….We had to reach out … We had to make the case…
…we are meeting at a remarkable moment of confluence (S 31)
We are the richest and most powerful country in the world (S 133)
The presence of both active and passive voice in a language enhances sentence construction flexibility Research in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) indicates that social factors like gender, social status, and political bias influence the use of passive forms This suggests that passivization is closely linked to ideological meanings, reflecting the intentions of the speaker or writer Passive voice is often favored when the emphasis is on the action rather than the individual performing it.
Sometimes, the speaker or writer opts for passive ones for the purpose of avoiding pointing out the agent because of some particular reasons
The table below shows the number and percentage of active and passive sentences used in the two speeches chosen for analysis:
Times appeared Percentage (%) Times appeared Percentage (%)
Table 2: Frequency of active and passive voice in 1993 and 1995 Speech
In both speeches, active clauses significantly outnumber passive ones, with the 1995 speech featuring less than 20% passive clauses—36 out of 209 total In contrast, the 2013 speech has only 8% passive clauses, totaling 26 out of 331 This notable decrease in the use of passive voice in the 2013 speech compared to 1995 highlights the speaker's evolving approach to conveying her intentions, a point that will be further explored in the study.
In the course of doing discourse analysis, macrostructure of the text cannot be ignored for it plays a fundamental role in communication and interaction
To grasp the speaker's ideological intent, it's crucial to analyze the macrostructure of their discourse Speakers cannot retain every detail, so they organize their thoughts around overarching themes or global meanings Likewise, listeners focus on specific details to discern the speaker's main points, which significantly influence subsequent discourse and actions By examining the microstructure, we can uncover the social significance of topics within interactions and their connection to social structures.
In examining the both speeches, a list of macro-structural statements in each speech can be done respectively as follows M stands for micro-statement in the speech
State the women‘s roles in and contributions to families and societies
Assert her belonging to women community
Declare the purpose of the conference and the speaker‘s presence
Raise the issue and emphasize the need to deal with women problems
Depict harsh treatment on women and criticize on women‘s rights violations Give examples of attempt to struggle women‘s rights
Echo the message: Women‘s rights are human rights
Call for actions to protect and advance women‘s rights
Declare advancing women rights as ―the great unfinished business‖
Show interest and commitment in struggles against women rights violations Make a review on achievements in women advances
Make a review on remains and obstacles in women advances
Claim fighting for women‘s rights a core imperative for every human being Declare the roles of women in the development of economy, politics and society
Make commitments of America‘s support and advocacy in women advances Call for support and actions for women rights advancement
Interpretation
In Fairclough's framework, the Interpretation stage of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) examines the surface and utterance meanings, local coherence, text structure, and overall significance While previous sections addressed key linguistic forms, this section will concentrate on elucidating the relationship between formal features and interaction in discourse.
As for the interpretation on context, there are two domains: situational context and inter-textual context
Certain communicative situations can lead to ideologically biased discourse To uncover the underlying ideologies and power dynamics within written language, it is essential to analyze the situational context, including the participants involved, the events taking place, their relationships, and the function of language.
Both speeches presented at the conference focus on women's rights, highlighting the importance of informing the audience and expressing political viewpoints Despite sharing common themes, their purposes differ significantly The 1995 speech addresses the urgent reality of women's rights violations and calls for immediate action, while the 2013 speech reflects on the progress made over the past two decades and advocates for the continued respect and protection of women's rights in the future Ultimately, the speaker emphasizes that "women's rights are human rights" and urges listeners to stand against violations and support those who continue to face mistreatment globally.
In addressing the question of who is involved, it's important to note that the context of the speeches varies significantly in terms of time, location, and subject positions Hillary Clinton, serving as the First Lady of the United States in 1995, delivered a notable speech at the United Nations 4th Conference on Women Plenary Session in Beijing, China This event brought together representatives from the Chinese government, over 180 countries, various organizations, and thousands of advocates, all united in the mission to establish women's rights as human rights.
That Clinton made her speech was unexpected by Chinese government; consequently, when she made it, they blocked it out from being heard within China
Although the speech initially reached only the conference attendees, its powerful message quickly gained global traction, leading to widespread international publicity Consequently, the target audience extends beyond just the representative leaders and meeting participants, encompassing women and advocates for women's rights worldwide.
In 2013, a significant speech was delivered at the Women at the World Summit in America, reaching audiences nationwide This address engaged both conference attendees and the broader American public, highlighting key issues affecting women.
In analyzing the dynamics of power and social relationships, it is essential to consider the context in which a speaker holds authority Hillary Clinton, during her 1995 speech as First Lady and later in 2013 as a Former First Lady, State Secretary, and Senator, exemplifies the evolution of a prominent female political figure Her established credibility and public persona grant her the authority to shape discourse, select information, and determine language use Aware of her audience, Clinton strategically exerts her influence to convey her ideology and messages By positioning herself as a woman political leader, she not only asserts her power but also serves as a representative for women globally.
Language serves as a vital channel for conveying messages, particularly in the context of women's rights In his 1995 speech, Clinton used language to advocate for women's rights and address human rights violations globally Similarly, the 2015 speech highlighted women's achievements while emphasizing their untapped potential in the economy and politics In both instances, the speaker utilizes spoken words to advocate for gender equality and the protection of women's rights.
2.2 Interpretation of inter-textual context
Fairclough (2001) emphasizes that discourses and their accompanying texts have historical contexts and belong to specific historical series Understanding the inter-textual context involves determining the series a text is associated with, which in turn establishes the common ground or presuppositions shared by participants.
Presupposition plays a crucial role in the interpretation stage of communication, reflecting the speaker's assumptions about the audience's existing knowledge and gaps in understanding In her important speeches, Hillary Clinton strategically incorporates presuppositions to ensure her message resonates with listeners, making her intentions clearer and more relatable By focusing on what the audience already knows, she enhances the accessibility of her information and fosters a stronger connection with her audience.
The 2013 speech serves as a reflection on the 1995 speech, building upon its foundational ideas Both speeches are lengthy and rich with presuppositions, making it essential to highlight key ideological elements that significantly influence audience perception and interpretation.
In 1995 speech, Clinton assumes that the listeners have understanding about the reality women have been mistreated over years S stands for ―sentence‖:
The great challenge of this conference is to give voice to women everywhere whose experiences go unnoticed, whose words go unheard(S.34)
Even now, in the late 20th century, the rape of women continues to be used as an instrument of armed conflict (S 56 )
As long as discrimination and inequities remain so commonplace everywhere in the world, … (S 92)
The ongoing discussion of women's discrimination has garnered attention from hundreds of political leaders and human rights advocates at the conference These participants are acutely aware of the unequal rights and abuses faced by women and girls, which enhances their ability to understand and interpret the speaker's ideologies accurately.
The article emphasizes the belief that women deserve equal rights and opportunities, asserting that the protection and advancement of women's rights is a fundamental principle that must be acknowledged and respected.
Each woman has the right to define her own path in life, and it's essential to respect the choices she makes for herself and her family Every woman deserves the opportunity to fulfill her unique potential, but true dignity can only be achieved when women's human rights are fully respected and protected.
In a 1995 speech, Clinton highlighted the neglect and abuse faced by women and girls, emphasizing their ongoing struggles By 2013, he reiterated the persistent harsh treatment that women endure, reminding the audience that these issues remain prevalent and require continued attention.
Now this is unfinished around the world, where too many women are still treated at best as second-class citizens, at worst as some kind of subhuman species (S 5)
But as strong a case as we‟ve made, too many otherwise thoughtful people continue to see the fortunes of women and girls as somehow separate from society at large (S 17)
Similarly, she mentions that in spite of efforts made, the real situation of women advances is also unfinished in America, which every American has known and acknowledged:
Explanation
The stage of explanation aims to illustrate discourse as a component of social processes and practices, highlighting its influence on social structures and the potential for discourses to either reinforce or transform these structures This relationship is mediated by the concept of MR, which shapes discourse, while discourses simultaneously sustain or alter MR, leading to changes in social structures (Fairclough, 2001)
This article examines how a speaker's discourse functions within social processes at both institutional and societal levels, highlighting its ideological influence on power dynamics and struggles within these contexts.
At the institutional level, the discourse centers on the conflicts between advocates for women's rights and the governments and organizations that perpetrate violations against these rights.
The position and context of a speech are crucial in sensitive diplomatic situations, especially when addressing confrontational issues in a foreign country In such scenarios, speakers are often expected to focus on constructive comments while avoiding criticism that could strain international relations Initially, the speaker effectively highlighted the contributions of women and expressed her solidarity with them However, she unexpectedly shocked her audience by detailing the harsh treatment of women and the ongoing violations of their rights.
The article discusses a clear division between the advocacy for women's equal rights and the criticism of the inequalities they face Clinton highlights severe abuses, such as wartime rape in Bosnia and dowry-related violence in India, emphasizing the significant implications of these issues in China, a country long criticized for gender discrimination While her speech displeased the Chinese government, it did not lead to international controversy; instead, it garnered admiration from global leaders and support from human rights activists This illustrates her effectiveness in communicating her message, not only to China but also as a broader call for the promotion of women's rights worldwide Clinton's address exemplifies her capability to confront foreign relations challenges and assert influence on crucial human rights issues.
Hillary Clinton effectively represents the women's community, highlighting the long-standing societal perception of women as inferior to men Women have historically faced significant barriers in education, employment, property rights, politics, and family planning By speaking at the conference, Clinton amplifies the voices of women who have been silenced, positioning herself as both a representative and a member of this global demographic This approach fosters solidarity and a shared sense of purpose among the audience, allowing her to establish credibility and earn their trust Consequently, she successfully persuades the audience to align with her remarks and conclusions.
Approximately 20 years after the history speech, she was back addressing the same assembly on the same issues At that time, she was a former first lady, a former senator, and former Secretary of State Since leaving the State Department in early
In 2013, shortly before her notable speech, she engaged with the Hillary & Chelsea Clinton Foundation, collaborating with the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to promote women's rights Throughout this period, she delivered several speeches emphasizing women's empowerment and addressing key women's issues Her 2013 speech reaffirmed her long-standing commitment to women's rights, initially expressed in her 1995 address, while also highlighting the political, economic, and societal progress women have made.
The 1995 speech marked her initial foray into political engagement, while the 2013 address solidified her status as a capable political leader The impactful nature of her 1995 speech, combined with her contributions to women's rights, enhanced the appeal and credibility of her 2013 message Speaking directly to an audience of political leaders, organizations, and human rights advocates, she reinforced her commitment to women's empowerment This display of leadership not only bolstered her position as a female political figure but also generated buzz regarding her potential candidacy for the presidency.
In her speech, Clinton reinforces her image as a powerful advocate for women's rights, representing American women and amplifying their voices to demand equal treatment While American women enjoy more rights and opportunities compared to many other countries, Clinton emphasizes that they deserve even more She passionately calls for women's empowerment across various sectors, including politics, economics, and social advancement This speech not only highlights her effectiveness as a political leader but also strengthens her influence as a women's rights activist, successfully disseminating her message globally.
This article has thoroughly explored textual description and analysis to reveal the underlying ideologies and power dynamics present in discourse In this section, key findings will be summarized, along with implications and recommendations for future research.
Summary of findings
This study utilizes Fairclough's (2001) Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) framework, which consists of three key stages: Description, Interpretation, and Explanation It focuses on two significant speeches delivered by Hillary Clinton in 1995 and 2013, highlighting how these discourses serve as a platform for her to convey her power and ideologies A comprehensive analysis grounded in the theoretical framework demonstrates the intricate relationship between power, ideology, and language in Clinton's rhetoric.
It is safe to say that the speaker has taken careful preparations and considerations in the use of language that leads to her success of her speeches
To some extent, I managed to seek the answer to research questions posed previously, which will be summarized as follows:
In her speeches, the speaker effectively contrasts the terms "women's rights" and "women's rights violations," showcasing her strong condemnation of mistreatment and oppression in 1995 through the use of negative vocabulary By 2013, her language shifts to emphasize equal rights and opportunities, reflecting her satisfaction with advancements in women's empowerment while still advocating for further action towards women's progress This lexical choice highlights her commitment to promoting equality and her disapproval of discrimination against women.
The speaker's power and ideologies are reflected through grammatical features, particularly the use of pronouns "I" and "we." By utilizing "I," Clinton demonstrates her understanding of the issues at hand, showcasing her competence and self-confidence as a political leader This pronoun choice highlights her commitment to addressing women's issues both nationally and globally Additionally, the frequent use of "we" in her speeches fosters a sense of solidarity and collective support, encouraging individuals to unite in the fight for gender equality and equal treatment for women.
In analyzing the use of voice in speeches, it is evident that speakers generally prefer active forms over passive ones However, a comparison of speeches from 1995 and 2013 reveals a higher frequency of passive voice in the earlier speech This shift can be attributed to the speech's purpose; by employing passive clauses, Clinton highlights the victims of mistreatment—women—while subtly criticizing the Chinese government, the conference host, for its inadequate respect and protection of women's rights.
It can be stated that the First Lady of America proves her skill, wisdom and tactfulness in performing diplomatic purposes
Macro-structures significantly influence the portrayal of power and ideologies within discourse The 1995 speech highlights women's issues and criticizes the severe abuses they endure, while the 2013 speech focuses on celebrating achievements and advocating for the continued advancement of women's rights Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of women's empowerment in economic, political, and societal development Both speeches urge action for the protection and promotion of women's rights.
The analysis of both speeches reveals a similarity in the portrayal of power and ideologies, yet highlights a significant difference rooted in their situational contexts The 1995 speech, delivered in Beijing—a city emblematic of authoritarianism and gender discrimination—was marked by considerable challenges, including disapproval from her own government These obstacles intensified the impact of her words, making the speech resonate powerfully with the global audience of political leaders and human rights advocates In contrast, the 2013 speech took place in New York, her home country, where she addressed an American audience The familiarity of the setting, combined with her established credibility and the legacy of her 1995 address, bolstered her persuasive power, even if it did not elicit the same enthusiastic response Ultimately, both speeches effectively communicated the vital message that "human rights are women’s rights, and women’s rights are human rights."
Limitations of the study and Recommendations for further study
This study represents an initial exploration into the critical discourse analysis of political speeches, highlighting both its contributions and inherent limitations Due to constraints in time and resources, the research primarily focuses on specific textual features, overlooking significant elements such as modality and the use of pathos to engage the audience emotionally Additionally, the analysis compares two speeches by the same speaker, indicating a gap for future research Future studies could investigate speeches on the same topic delivered by different speakers to uncover similarities and differences in the expression of power and ideology.
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1 Hillary Rodham Clinton: Remarks to the U.N 4th World Conference on Women
Plenary Session Retrieved from http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/hillaryclintonbeijingspeech.htm
2 Hillary Clinton: Helping women isn‟t a “nice” thing to do Retrieved from http://www.thedailybeast.com/witw/articles/2013/04/05/hillary-clinton-helping- women-isn-t-just-a-nice-thing-to-do.html
Hillary Clinton’s Remarks to the U.N 4th World Conference on Women Plenary Session
(1) Thank you very much, Gertrude Mongella, for your dedicated work that has brought us to this point, distinguished delegates, and guests:
I am grateful to the Secretary General for the invitation to participate in the significant United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women This event is a celebration of the vital contributions women make across all facets of life, including their roles as mothers, wives, daughters, and leaders in their homes, workplaces, and communities.
Women across the globe unite daily in various settings, from fields and factories to living rooms and boardrooms Whether playing with children, washing clothes, or chatting at the office, these moments foster discussions about our dreams and concerns, often centering on our families Despite our differences, we share more similarities that bind us together Our collective goal is to create a brighter future, promoting dignity and respect for women and girls worldwide, ultimately strengthening families and communities.
The gathering in Beijing aims to highlight crucial issues affecting women and their families, including access to education, healthcare, employment, and credit It emphasizes the importance of basic legal and human rights, as well as the need for women to engage fully in the political landscape of their nations.
Some may question the significance of this conference, but the voices of women in their homes, neighborhoods, and workplaces are crucial The lives of women and girls are essential to global economic and political progress, as evidenced by the diverse group of women present here in Huairou—homemakers, nurses, teachers, lawyers, policymakers, and entrepreneurs Conferences like this are vital in urging governments and societies to confront the world's most pressing issues Notably, it was following the women's conference in Nairobi a decade ago that the global community first acknowledged the crisis of domestic violence.
Today, I took part in a World Health Organization forum where we discussed the collaborative efforts of government officials, NGOs, and citizens to tackle health issues affecting women and girls Tomorrow, I will join a gathering of the United Nations Development Fund for Women, focusing on successful local programs that provide hardworking women with access to credit, enabling them to enhance their lives and support their families.
When women are healthy, educated, and free from violence, their families thrive, leading to the flourishing of communities and nations Additionally, when women have equal opportunities to work and earn, it contributes to the prosperity of their families Therefore, the well-being of women is crucial for the success of every individual, family, and nation, making it essential for all to engage in this vital discussion.
For the past 25 years, I have dedicated my efforts to addressing issues concerning women, children, and families Recently, in the last two and a half years, I have gained deeper insights into the challenges that women face both in my country and globally.
In various regions around the world, I have encountered inspiring individuals making a difference in their communities In Indonesia, new mothers gather to discuss vital topics like nutrition and baby care, while in Denmark, working parents find peace in knowing their children are safe in nurturing after-school centers South African women, who once fought against apartheid, are now actively contributing to the establishment of a new democracy In my own hemisphere, dedicated women strive to enhance literacy and healthcare for children Additionally, women in India and Bangladesh are utilizing small loans to invest in livelihoods, such as purchasing milk cows or rickshaws Meanwhile, healthcare professionals in Belarus and Ukraine are tirelessly working to save children affected by the Chernobyl disaster.
The conference aims to amplify the voices of women globally, highlighting their often-overlooked experiences and unheard words Women represent over half of the world's population, make up 70% of the poorest individuals, and account for two-thirds of those lacking basic literacy skills As primary caregivers for the majority of children and the elderly, their invaluable contributions remain largely unrecognized by economists, historians, popular culture, and government leaders.
Women around the world are engaged in vital roles such as giving birth, raising children, and managing households, while also contributing to the workforce and leadership However, they face significant challenges, including preventable diseases, child malnutrition due to poverty, and restrictions on education imposed by family members Many are forced into prostitution and denied access to financial resources and voting rights, highlighting the urgent need for social and economic equity.
We have a duty to advocate for those who cannot speak for themselves, particularly women in America facing significant challenges Many women are raising children on minimum wage, struggling to afford healthcare and childcare, and living in fear of violence, including domestic abuse.
I advocate for mothers striving for quality education, safe neighborhoods, and clean environments; for older women, including widows, whose skills and experiences are overlooked after raising their families; for those working night shifts as nurses, hotel clerks, or fast food chefs to be present for their children during the day; and for all women who struggle to manage the countless demands placed on them daily.
Today, I voice the struggles of women globally who are denied essential rights such as education, healthcare, property ownership, and autonomy over their lives solely due to their gender The reality is that the majority of women worldwide engage in work both at home and in the workforce, often out of necessity.