Rationale
Advertising slogans play a crucial role in driving sales and leaving a lasting impression on customers Regardless of a company's size or industry—be it small, medium, service, or trade—effective slogans enhance product value and capture consumer attention.
Creating an effective slogan requires leveraging various linguistic fields, including pragmatics, lexicology, phonology, and syntax These linguistic elements play a crucial role in conveying messages implicitly while adhering to the Law of Truth, ensuring that the slogan is both meaningful and impactful.
Based on the acknowledgement of all linguistic devices exploited in slogans, the study is conducted to investigate the employment of metaphors in advertising slogans from a Semantic approach.
Research questions and aims of the study
The researcher has formulated specific research questions to guide the exploration of various types of metaphors within the context of advertising slogans Given the unique nature of business environments, these questions are designed to align with clear study objectives Drawing from an extensive literature review and collected samples, three key research questions have been identified to direct the investigation.
1 What kind of metaphor represents the most frequently chosen by advertisers and marketers?
2 What are the strengths (or weaknesses, if any) of each kind of metaphor exploited in advertising slogans?
3 What kind of metaphor represents the wisest choice for the slogans in specific classified groups?
This study explores various types of metaphors based on Lakoff and Johnson's theory (1980), presenting a classification that is applied to analyze a selection of 40 advertising slogans from English-speaking countries and global brands The research aims to address specific questions regarding the use and effectiveness of these metaphors in advertising.
(i) quantitatively identifying the frequency of different metaphor types exploited in slogans to find out which kind is most favored by advertisers and marketers
This article explores the target domain, source domain, and metaphor concepts within various slogans to identify the strengths and weaknesses of different metaphor types in advertising By analyzing each metaphorical slogan within its contextual group, the study aims to determine which metaphor types serve as the most effective choice for specific product classifications.
Scope of the study
This study conducts a semantic analysis grounded in the theory of metaphors by Lakoff and Johnson, alongside a hypothesis-testing approach to examine the types of metaphors utilized in international advertising slogans By focusing on a semantic perspective, the research aims to explore key linguistic elements in advertising The deductive and subjective nature of the study stems from its reliance on hypothesis testing, yet all predictions and inferences are firmly anchored in established theories and prior research in linguistics and advertising.
The diverse exploitation of linguistic features in advertising slogans has led to a significant increase in their number over the years This analysis focuses selectively on four specific groups of products and services, examining ten representative slogans from each group Additionally, only select cases within each group will be explored in greater depth to provide a more nuanced understanding of their effectiveness.
Research methodology
This research employs a mixed-methods approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative methods The quantitative aspect provides a comprehensive overview of all selected cases, while qualitative analysis enables an in-depth exploration of each individual case This combination allows for the quantification of metaphor patterns across cases, facilitating the identification of the frequency of various metaphor types in use.
By employing quantification and classification methods to analyze frequencies, selected slogans were categorized into distinct groups and sub-groups This process will lead to three predictions that will be validated based on the classification outcomes.
Design of the study
Apart from the Introduction and Conclusion to begin and conclude the study, the thesis comprises three chapters, each of which is supposed to serve a specific function
The introduction outlines the rationale behind the study, highlighting its significance and purpose It clearly defines the aims and objectives, along with the research questions and scope, serving as a crucial roadmap for the research process.
Chapter one defines metaphors and promotional metaphors, establishing a theoretical foundation based on Lakoff and Johnson's classification of metaphors It also examines various previous studies on advertising, highlighting the significant role of linguistic devices in advertisements, particularly within the context of 40 selected slogans.
Chapter two explores the importance of slogans in advertising and their impact on the reputation of producers It includes an analysis of 40 slogans from four different fields, conducted through hypothesis-testing research Predictions are made in advance and subsequently validated through classification.
Chapter three summarizes the results and findings derived from the analysis in chapter two, serving as a comprehensive overview of the achievements obtained throughout the research.
In conclusion, this study summarizes the key findings and offers insights for future research directions It includes a curated list of advertising slogans and a detailed analysis table that explores the target domain, source domain, and common metaphor concepts, focusing on the prevalent use of conceptual and conventional metaphors.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND: METAPHORS AND THE USE OF
Definitions of metaphor and promotional metaphor
Metaphors are prevalent in everyday life, influencing our conversations, literature, and various fields As noted by Lakoff and Johnson, “metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action” (1980:3) This widespread presence has sparked significant interest in the study of metaphor across multiple disciplines, including philosophy, psychology, and linguistics, with various scholars contributing to the understanding of its implications and applications.
Metaphor is a figure of speech that creates an implied analogy between two objects or ideas by substituting one word for another According to Murray Knowles and Rosamund Moon, it involves using language to refer to something beyond its literal meaning to highlight a resemblance or connection A metaphor typically consists of three components: the tenor (the subject), the vehicle (the image), and the ground (the underlying sense) For a clearer understanding of these components, we can analyze examples provided by I A Richards.
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances; — William Shakespeare, As You Like It
In this metaphorical framework, "the world" is likened to a stage, where "the world" serves as the tenor and "a stage" as the vehicle, while "men and women" represent a secondary tenor and "players" act as the secondary vehicle Similarly, in George Herbert's poetic expression, "Hope is the poor man's bread," "hope" functions as the tenor, "bread" as the vehicle, with the underlying theme being the essential needs of the impoverished.
Advertising leverages metaphors to effectively inform and persuade consumers during product selection, largely due to "Truth in advertising" laws that discourage explicit claims This strategic use of language allows advertisers to convey messages without making direct statements that could be deemed true or false In this context, promotional metaphors are categorized into visual and textual metaphors, with the latter being the primary focus of this study Textual metaphors associate products with positively connoted semantic domains, enhancing their appeal to potential customers.
Kinds of metaphors
Ways to classify metaphors vary greatly based on different approaches From Semantic approach, I do think it‟s better to comprehend metaphors in Lakoff and Johnson‟s classification
Conceptual Metaphor Theory, also known as Cognitive Metaphor Theory, was introduced by cognitive linguists and gained prominence with the publication of "Metaphors We Live By" by Lakoff and Johnson in 1980 This theory posits that conceptual metaphors represent figurative comparisons where one idea is understood through another, operating at the level of thought It connects two conceptual domains: the 'source' domain, which includes literal entities and relationships, and the 'target' domain, which is typically abstract and derives its structure from the source For instance, in the metaphor "Time is Money," money serves as the source domain to conceptualize the abstract concept of time However, this link is not universally applicable, as different cultures may associate time with various other concepts, illustrating the diverse nature of metaphorical connections as noted by researchers like Murray Knowles and Rosamund Moon.
“Conceptual metaphors may be culture-specific”
In their 1980 work, "Metaphors We Live By," Lakoff and Johnson categorize conceptual metaphors into three types: ontological, structural, and orientational Ontological metaphors, a subset of structural metaphors, represent abstract concepts—such as activities, emotions, or ideas—as tangible entities, including objects, substances, containers, or people.
I put a lot of energy into washing the windows
I get a lot of satisfaction out of washing windows
Ontological metaphors can be categorized into three distinct types: container metaphors, where concepts are viewed as having an inside and outside and can hold other elements; entity metaphors, which personify abstractions as concrete objects or individuals; and substance metaphors, where abstract entities like ideas, emotions, or activities are depicted as solid materials These classifications are effectively illustrated in George Lakoff and Mark Johnson's "Metaphors We Live By."
Life is empty for him (container metaphor)
Her ego is very fragile (entity metaphor)
Inflation is eating up our profits (personification)
There was a lot of good running in the race (substance metaphor)
Structural metaphors are defined as instances where one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another, enabling us to conceptualize complex ideas more clearly For example, the metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR illustrates how our understanding of arguments is shaped by our experiences of physical conflict, as analyzed by Lakoff and Johnson This metaphor influences not only our conception of arguments but also the manner in which we engage in them, regardless of personal experience with physical combat Additionally, orientational metaphors organize concepts based on spatial relationships, such as the notion that "Happy is up," providing a framework that connects various ideas through spatial orientation.
Mixed metaphors occur when different metaphors are used within the same sentence to convey a single concept They can be categorized into impermissible mixed metaphors, which conflict due to serving different purposes, and permissible mixed metaphors, which align and support the same idea This classification helps avoid conceptual conflicts For example, a combination of the argument-as-journey and argument-as-container metaphors illustrates this point, with the first two sentences being acceptable, while the last two are only marginally so.
1 At this point our argument doesn‟t have much content
2 If we keep going the way we‟re going, we‟ll fit all the facts in
3 We can now follow the path of the core of the argument
4 The content of the argument proceeds as follows…
The argument-as-container metaphor is clearly demonstrated in the initial examples, while subsequent illustrations reveal a blending of this metaphor with the argument-as-journey metaphor Phrases like "the core of the argument" and "the content of the argument" overlap with expressions such as "the path of " and "proceed," highlighting the interconnectedness of these conceptual frameworks.
Not all metaphors fit within existing concepts; some exist outside conventional frameworks, making them appear imaginative and creative According to Lakoff and Johnson, these novel metaphors can transform our understanding of experiences, providing new meanings to our pasts, daily activities, and beliefs The creation of unconventional metaphors involves techniques such as extending, elaboration, questioning, and combining However, when it comes to advertising slogans, the focus is primarily on the use of extended and elaborated new metaphors.
The employment of extending occurs when a new conceptual element is added to an existing conventional metaphor, resulting in a fresh metaphorical expression This tactic is effectively illustrated by the examples provided by Kovecses (2002:47).
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I-
I took the one less traveled by
And that has made all the difference
The metaphor "Life is a Journey" is clearly present in the poem, highlighting the concept that while both paths ultimately lead to the same destination, one road is less traveled than the other This unique perspective adds depth to the traditional metaphor, emphasizing the choices we make along our life's journey.
Elaboration differs from extension by presenting an existing element of the source in an unconventional manner, capturing it in a novel and intriguing way rather than simply adding new expressions For instance, Lakeoff and Turner (1989) highlight Horace's metaphorical phrase “eternal exile of the raft” as a unique reference to death, showcasing how elaboration can create fresh interpretations of familiar concepts.
"Death is Departure" encapsulates the essence of mortality, highlighting it as a forceful exit from life The terms "exile" and "raft" deepen this understanding, suggesting that death not only signifies a separation but also implies an inadequate means of transition, as a raft cannot carry one to their intended destination.
Previous studies on Metaphor in Advertising
This article explores the extensive research on metaphors in advertising, emphasizing the interdisciplinary nature of the topic Focusing on a Semantics approach, it aims to provide a concise overview of relevant studies without being overly exhaustive It highlights that many researchers have not clearly distinguished metaphors within the frameworks of Semantics and general linguistics Consequently, the selected studies for review will be carefully curated to align with the chosen approach, ensuring a coherent and insightful analysis of metaphors in advertising.
3.1 Meaning of Metaphors: Denotation and Connotation
The use of metaphors in advertising is deeply rooted in the exploration of meaning, as highlighted by Roland Barthes (1988), who emphasized the hidden meanings within advertisements Barthes adopted Louis Hjelmslev's concept of different orders of signification, distinguishing between denotation and connotation Denotation refers to the basic sign consisting of a signifier and a signified, while connotation builds on this by adding an additional layer of meaning Although Barthes' analysis leans more towards semiotics than semantics, it reveals that advertisements carry multiple meanings His research underscores the undeniable connection between meaning and advertising, illustrating how advertisements serve as complex signs loaded with significance.
Denotation, as defined by Gillian Dyer (1988), refers to the literal meaning of an advertisement, encompassing what is objectively present and easily identifiable In contrast, connotation encompasses the additional meanings that extend beyond the denotation, relying on it for context and interpretation.
Williamson (1978) illustrates how advertisements for Channel beauty products featured actress Catherine Deneuve, linking the products to her image This association operates on two levels: first, it connects the products directly with Deneuve, and second, it evokes connotations of her as a symbol of classy and sophisticated femininity Thus, the advertisement not only creates its own meaning but also transfers significance from external cultural contexts, enhancing the appeal of the beauty products.
Referent systems are ideological frameworks that reflect societal and cultural influences The encoding and decoding of messages in advertisements are closely linked, meaning that the connotative meanings perceived by consumers are significantly shaped by cultural codes and personal interpretations As noted by Williamson, advertising creates associations that do not necessarily exist in reality, which can lead to a misleading understanding for the audience.
Cognitive research reveals a significant contrast between the views of Lakoff and Johnson, who argue that reality is shaped by perception, culture, and ideology, and Williamson, who believes in an objective reality This discrepancy poses challenges in the advertising realm, where the thin line between linguistic meaning and advertisement interpretation often leads to a distortion of product value As Barthes noted, advertising frequently presents denotation as the primary meaning, creating an illusion that masks the underlying connotations, ultimately leading consumers to misinterpret the true essence of the products.
3.2 Meaning of Metaphors: Meaninglessness or Ambiguity
Concerning about the level of reality distorted in using figurative devices in general and metaphor in particular, Dyer (1982), went too extreme when stating that this leads to the
“meaninglessness techniques” or “painting a falsely glowing picture”
Meaninglessness serves as a key strategy in advertising, allowing advertisers to make vague promises that lack specificity This approach, often referred to as a "resounding non-statement," is acknowledged by advertisers themselves, highlighting the tendency to avoid concrete commitments in their messaging.
Dyer highlights that while figurative language, particularly metaphors, is predominantly utilized in rhetoric and poetry, there is a distinct difference in its application between poets and advertisers She argues that poets aim to evoke emotional truths, whereas advertisers seek to create an idealized representation However, this perspective may overlook the nuanced "affective meaning" embedded in advertisements, as every slogan, advertising text, and visual symbol often conveys deeper emotional significance.
Advertisements often create a "certain distance" between the metaphoric language used and the actual value of the products However, this doesn't imply that the advertised message is entirely disconnected from reality Instead, it highlights a tendency for advertisers to either overly emphasize or slightly obscure the true value of their products This approach is understandable, as the primary goal of advertising is to effectively communicate the product's value to consumers, as noted by Pollay (1984).
Values play a crucial role in advertising, serving as the fundamental dimension that influences both the sender and receiver The perceived 'goodness' of products is central to effective communication, highlighting the importance of values in conveying meaningful messages.
The use of metaphor in advertising can convey varying degrees of ambiguity, as highlighted by Dyer's analysis She mistakenly conflates ambiguity with meaninglessness, stating that “the ambiguity in the word does not allow us to separate the product from the ‘fact’.” A notable example she provides is the slogan “Spoil yourself and not your figure” from Weight Watchers, which plays on the dual meanings of “spoil.” Additionally, Triumph’s slogan “Triumph has a bra for the way you are” exemplifies ambiguity rather than a lack of meaning, demonstrating that effective advertising often relies on nuanced interpretations.
The interpretation of metaphorical advertising texts is significantly influenced by context, as metaphors serve as a means of communication Research indicates that the surrounding context can affect how easily a metaphor is understood (Shinju and Myers 1987, Inhoff et al 1984, McCabe 1983) For instance, the slogan "Nissan Truck: The Hard Bodies" in a sports magazine highlights the comparison between a vehicle and athleticism, making the message of strength clear This underscores the need for further investigation into context effects in consumer environments This perspective aligns with Roman Jakobson's 1960 model of interpersonal verbal communication, which emphasizes the role of social contexts in shaping meaning.
Figure 1: A model of interpersonal verbal communication (Roman Jakobson, 1960)
According to Jakobson (1960), effective communication requires a sender (addresser) and a receiver (addressee) who share a common code, allowing for the message to be understood The message must also reference a context that the addressee can grasp, and there needs to be a physical and psychological connection between both parties to maintain communication.
In examining the metaphorical slogan "Without perfume, the skin is mute," it initially appears meaningless according to Dyer (1982) However, when we consider that "metaphors are the key windows/mechanisms for viewing consumer thought and feelings" (Zaltman and Coulter, 1995), the slogan can be interpreted as a critique of consumers' yearning for passion and concealed emotions Advertisers often exploit this desire to generate "affective meanings," shifting the focus from ambiguity to a deeper emotional connection.
AN ANALYSIS ON METAPHOR EXPLOITATION IN ADVERTISING
Advertising slogan: A crucial part of an advertisement
Promoting a brand is essential for business success, as evidenced by industry giants like Nike and Coca-Cola, which invested billions in advertising to achieve their status Key components of effective advertising campaigns include brand name, logo, slogans, and theme songs, with slogans playing a crucial role in enhancing consumer retention and desire A well-crafted slogan not only encapsulates what a brand represents but also differentiates it from competitors Ultimately, impactful slogans are vital for the image of any business, regardless of its size.
-Be all you can be (US Army)
- Good to the last drop! (MaxWell House)
- When you care enough to send the very best (Hallmark)
- You‟re in good hands (Allstate)
An advertising slogan is a memorable phrase used in marketing to communicate a product's features and persuade target customers Slogans can be written or visual, serving as a social expression of a unified purpose rather than a detailed message aimed at specific audiences To be effective, a slogan should be concise, catchy, and adhere to legal standards of truthfulness, such as the British guideline that all advertisements must be legal, honest, and truthful Short slogans, ideally consisting of just three to six words, are more memorable and easier for consumers to recall Clarity is essential; a slogan must precisely convey the intended message without leaving consumers confused or guessing.
Companies can swiftly alter their slogans if they are deemed misaligned with their intended message or a new marketing strategy Numerous multinational corporations have faced challenges due to inappropriate slogans, such as Pepsi's "Come alive You’re in the Pepsi generation!" which serves as a notable example of this issue.
(pronounced and understood as Pepsi takes your ancestor back to the cemetery)
(in America, “suck” is understood with bad meaning)
-Super Nova, the spirit of America!
(it is ridiculous when the spirit of America can not go, in Spanish, Nova means no go)
While some brands may deploy over ten slogans in a brief timeframe for the same product, this approach can be expensive Over the past four decades, Coca-Cola has invested billions in marketing, resulting in the creation of just 17 distinct slogans, a number that continues to grow.
-1891 The Ideal Brain Tonic/The Delightful Summer-Winter beverage
-1905 Coca-Cola revives and sustains
-1906 The great national temperance beverage
-1908 Good till the last drop
-1926 It had to be good to get where it is
-1927 Around the corner from anywhere
-1928 Coca-Cola pure drink of natural flavors
Conclusively, for the long term goal of a company‟s service or product, slogans can be considered as the most indispensable factor of advertising and advertisements.
The exploitation of metaphors in advertising slogans
The resurgence of interest in marketing strategies has led to a significant increase in the use of figurative language in advertising slogans, which play a crucial role in connecting producers with consumers According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), metaphors enable the understanding of one concept through another, highlighting their effectiveness in conveying product messages The use of metaphorical language in slogans not only captures attention but also stimulates consumers' mental processes by creating vivid images and associations, thereby reinforcing the product's values By considering customers' physical and cultural experiences, advertisers seek the most impactful metaphors to effectively associate with their products or services.
Metaphor exploitation in advertising slogans plays a crucial role not only in appealing to consumers' senses but also in driving sales growth, as highlighted by Kovecses (2002).
The effectiveness of an advertisement significantly relies on the carefully chosen conceptual metaphor it employs, whether through imagery or text A well-selected metaphor can greatly enhance the appeal of a product, ultimately driving sales and capturing consumer interest.
Metaphors, as noted by Kovecses (2002), play a crucial role in advertising by evoking "affective meaning" that resonates emotionally with consumers, encouraging them to spend more A prime example is the Mori Perfume slogan: “Without the perfume, the skin is mute.” This personification transforms the perfume into a living entity, allowing the skin to "speak" and elevating the perfume to a magical status Such slogans not only personify the skin but also portray the perfume as a magician, enhancing its allure and persuasive power.
Metaphors play a crucial role in advertising by enhancing the message of slogans and allowing for a more flexible interpretation of a product's information, values, and functions.
Advertisers often utilize metaphors in their language to effectively convey the quality and prestige of their products and services By either explicitly stating their benefits or implicitly suggesting their values, advertisers aim to elevate their items in the minds of consumers while minimizing any doubts This strategic use of metaphor is essential in many slogans, highlighting its importance in successful advertising.
-It‟s time you reaped the benefits of Jersey‟s fertile financial environment
-That‟s another load off your mind
Analyzing the slogans reveals implicit meanings through the conceptual mapping between two domains: Abbey National Bank as the target domain and fertile ground as the source domain This connection fosters a strong association, allowing for a clearer understanding of the underlying concepts when one possesses knowledge of both domains.
-Target: Abbey National Bank: the place (fertile soil) for the seeds (financial investment)
-Source: The fertile soil: such a good ground for seeds to grow up and become big fruit trees waiting to be reaped
According to Pollay (1984), advertising's primary function is to convey the value of products and services In this context, Abbey National Bank serves as the target domain, representing the advertised service, while the underlying values are depicted as the fertile ground This relationship is subtly illustrated through the slogan "Farmers," highlighting the connection between the bank's offerings and the values it promotes.
Investors can reap profits by cultivating opportunities in New Jersey, symbolizing the fruitful returns of banking investments This imagery effectively conveys the advertising objective of encouraging clients to invest in Abbey National Bank.
According to Geis (1982:37), the appeal of suggesting rather than explicitly stating a message lies in the fact that unasserted claims require no defense, making them less likely to be challenged by consumers This notion underscores the effectiveness of metaphors in advertising, as they convey implicit messages that resonate with audiences The following research and analysis will further demonstrate how metaphors fulfill the aspirations of global advertisers.
Hypotheses
The integrated classification of metaphor usage, combined with the actual application of metaphors in English advertising slogans, allows us to make predictions about the types of metaphors that are preferred in international slogans and advertisements.
Conceptual metaphor, rather than mixed metaphor and new metaphor, tends to have higher frequency in advertising slogans
Marketers increasingly focus on global marketing strategies, despite the assertion by Murray Knowles and Rosamund Moon that conceptual metaphors may be culture-specific Advertisers believe that effective conceptual metaphors can minimize misunderstandings in promotional messages across different cultures For example, slogans like “LG: Life is Good” (Good is Up) and “Say Hello to your child's new bodyguard - Johnson & Johnson” (An object is a person) are more engaging and relatable than unfamiliar metaphors Utilizing conceptual metaphors enhances clarity in promotional messages, reducing ambiguity and saving costs on complex illustrations However, when employing mixed or new metaphors, it is crucial for accompanying visuals to be relevant and meaningful, as this can be expensive yet essential for consumer understanding.
The application of conceptual metaphors reveals a strong preference for ontological metaphors, particularly the concept that abstract ideas can be understood as concrete entities This contrasts with structural metaphors, where one concept is defined through another, and orientational metaphors, which focus on spatial orientation.
Ontological metaphor is a key concept in advertising, where abstract ideas are represented as concrete entities through three sub-types: personification, entity metaphor, and container metaphor These techniques enable advertisers to subtly convey product values—such as comfort and happiness—without breaching the Law of Truth or appearing boastful Consumers often seek relatable comparisons between product values and familiar objects or people when making purchasing decisions, exemplified by Midland Bank's "The listening bank." However, the use of structural metaphor can lead to ambiguity, as abstract feelings may be misinterpreted Similarly, orientation metaphors, like Up-Down or Front-Back, must be used carefully; otherwise, they risk coming across as pretentious, as seen in Lexus's slogan, "The car in front is Lexus."
In advertising slogans, advertisers and marketers favor new metaphors and mixed metaphors which are mainly based on the typical conceptual metaphors
Conceptual metaphors resonate more effectively with consumers due to their frequent exposure in everyday life, education, and conversations Familiar expressions like "Life is a Journey" and "Time is Money" exemplify how these metaphors become ingrained in our language, often overlooked in their metaphorical significance Consequently, product slogans should prioritize clarity and relatability over poetic flair, leading advertisers to favor new conventional or mixed metaphors that still draw from established conceptual frameworks.
Procedures
To address the research questions outlined earlier, a collection of 50 slogans from various products was gathered, sourced from company websites and online slogan lists These slogans originate from English-speaking countries, including the USA, Britain, and Australia, ensuring the research's reliability The selected slogans predominantly feature well-known global brands and are categorized into four main groups: Cosmetics and Fashion, Food and Drinks, Transportation, and Finance and Banking These categories not only reflect diverse customer needs but also adhere to established criteria for reliability and generality.
- All the slogans selected belong to the category of commercial advertisement Hence, those of non-commercial category should be excluded
This research focuses on advertisements from specific categories: fashion and cosmetics, food and beverages, transportation and petrol, and finance and banking Slogans from other categories will not be included in the analysis Each selected group will feature an equal representation of 10 slogans, ensuring a balanced examination across the chosen sectors.
This analysis focuses exclusively on advertising slogans from National and International Advertising, which pertain to commodities or services marketed on a national or global scale The study specifically excludes advertisements and slogans for local products or services that are only available within a limited region of a country.
-The research focuses on advertising slogans, which means the advertisements that advertise the specifications, locations, prices, promotions or special offers of the products should be excluded
This article examines a collection of 40 English advertising slogans that utilize metaphors, categorizing them into conceptual, mixed, and new metaphors Each type of metaphor is analyzed for its strengths, weaknesses, and overall effectiveness, drawing significant attention from the writer The findings will be used to evaluate previously proposed hypotheses and will lead to a comprehensive discussion of the results.
This study presents findings on the use of various metaphor types in international advertising slogans, supported by statistical analysis It highlights the effectiveness of metaphors in the advertising industry, featuring a detailed examination of representative samples from a collection of 40 commercials.
The analysis
This section presents illustrated samples from four selected categories of slogans for research analysis The goal is to demonstrate how each slogan is analyzed prior to data synthesis and statistical presentation The analysis procedures for all advertising slogans are consistent; thus, this section features typical examples from each category for in-depth examination One slogan from each group will be selected for this presentation, ensuring an equal representation across the categories.
5.1 Fashion and cosmetics (Vaseline Intensive Care)
In 1999, Vaseline Intensive Care popularized the slogan “It's always nice to rub it in when someone's feeling a bit rough,” which cleverly employs metaphorical language similar to Tampax's “A real smoothy.” This use of “rough” and “smooth” illustrates the metaphor of Human Properties as the Properties of Inanimate Things, highlighting the tangible qualities of skin alongside the abstract qualities of emotions As Kovecses (2002) notes, such properties often exist in pairs, with “smooth” and “rough” being one example The slogan also reflects the ontological metaphor linking Physical Qualities with Abstract Feelings, where “rub” literally means to create friction on a surface but metaphorically connects to the idea of Feelings as Objects and The Body as a Container for Emotions This leads to two interpretations: one where applying lotion alleviates rough skin, creating a sense of smoothness, and another where negative feelings are exacerbated by unwanted attention However, the intended positive message of the slogan aligns with the first scenario, promoting the soothing effects of Vaseline Intensive Care.
Figure 2: Vaseline Intensive Care Blend
5.2 Food and beverages (Red Bull)
The very first example that we take in consideration is the slogan “It gives you wings” or
“Redbull gives you angel wings” of Red Bull The slogans is accompanied with a picture of a man with the cross in the eyes and the wings on the shoulders
The phrase "to give wings" clearly conveys a sense of joy and motivation, avoiding any potential ambiguity This slogan embodies the metaphor that food serves as a happiness catcher or motivator, suggesting that drinking can uplift and inspire Ultimately, this concept highlights the connection between nourishment and emotional well-being.
The concept of the Happiness Catcher and Motivator highlights how a specific beverage can uplift a person's mood and provide motivation In particular scenarios, the act of enjoying this drink plays a significant role in enhancing emotional well-being and fostering a positive mindset.
Red Bull serves as a powerful source of cheer and motivation, encapsulated in its slogan "gives you wings." This phrase embodies the agent role, suggesting an active role in empowering individuals The personification of Red Bull is evident, highlighting its ability to inspire and uplift The visual representation further illustrates this concept, demonstrating how personification enhances the brand's message of encouragement and vitality.
The beverage is portrayed as a source of motivation and happiness, suggesting that the act of drinking can inspire and uplift This concept is emphasized through the personification of the drink, utilizing the idiom "give someone wings" to illustrate its empowering effects.
The Lexus IS 200's advertising slogan, "Satisfaction comes from choosing your own road in life, and sticking to it," encapsulates the essence of personal choice and direction This phrase resonates with the metaphorical expressions "Life is a journey" and "Goals are destinations," as discussed by Lakoff and Johnson However, the slogan conveys a deeper message, emphasizing that true satisfaction arises from the autonomy of making one's own decisions and remaining committed to them.
Drinking Red Bull symbolizes the motivation to forge your own path in life and remain committed to it This metaphor highlights the energizing effects of the beverage, paralleling the drive and determination needed to pursue personal goals By choosing to consume Red Bull, individuals are reminded of the importance of staying focused and energized as they navigate their unique journeys.
“Life”: A situation in life with difficulties or obstacles, where a person does not conform to the conventional behavior Here, he chooses his own way, and gains success or satisfaction
In life, many individuals follow the common path, choosing familiar routes at crossroads However, there are those who dare to take the less traveled road, making unconventional choices that lead them to their desired destination By remaining committed to their unique journey, they ultimately achieve their goals and fulfill their aspirations.
The most fantastic thing in the metaphorical slogans is in that it emphasizes the success that one may achieve “satisfaction” and the special characteristics-actually herein is the individuality-
The slogan emphasizes the importance of personal choice in life, suggesting that driving a Lexus offers an opportunity to express individuality and achieve success While the specific qualities of the Lexus brand are not detailed, the message conveys that the car embodies traits that support personal aspirations Additionally, the use of a conventional metaphor enhances the appeal of the brand's message.
“Life is a Journey”, the scenarios sketched out are not at all conventional owing to two reasons:
Choosing your own road Stick to it
Reaching satisfaction (thanks to Lexus)
(i) conventionally, the individual choice or satisfaction is not highly considered and (ii) success is not conventionally gained by driving a car, or specified by your choice of a car brand name
Citibank's slogan, "The Citi never sleeps," employs personification to create a powerful metaphor that positions the bank as an ever-vigilant entity This differentiation strategy highlights the unique aspect of Citibank's services, suggesting that while other banks may close or have limited hours, Citibank operates 24/7 without interruption This approach effectively conveys a commitment to constant availability, appealing to customers who value round-the-clock banking services.
Sleeping signifies both rest and the human experience A "bank that never sleeps" refers to a financial institution that operates continuously, without any downtime throughout the day This phrase serves as a metaphor for constant activity and vigilance in the banking sector.
The slogan "Never sleeps" signifies a commitment to continuous service, emphasizing the bank's dedication to working tirelessly for its clients This phrase cleverly employs metaphor and absolute antonymy to convey enthusiasm and unwavering support The true value of this slogan lies not just in its wording, but in the deeper message the bank aims to communicate about its relentless focus on client satisfaction.
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The result
This section presents the final results of the analysis conducted on 40 slogans, which were categorized into various types of metaphors as illustrated in the previous examples The findings are organized into four statistical tables, each designed to fulfill a specific purpose in conveying the study's outcomes.
Table 1: The calculated frequency of advertising slogans in each metaphor type
In this study, Lakoff and Johnson's classification is utilized to categorize the slogans into conventional/conceptual metaphors, mixed metaphors, and new (novel) metaphors This classification serves two important purposes: it offers a comprehensive overview of the frequency of each metaphor type across different product groups, and when combined with the overall frequency table of forty slogans from four groups, it supports the hypothesis that advertisers tend to favor conceptual metaphors.
The analysis reveals a strong preference for conceptual metaphors in advertising slogans, with all 10 slogans in the Fashion & Cosmetics category employing this technique, alongside 6 out of 10 in the other three categories Mixed metaphors appear in 3 slogans from both the Food and Beverages and Transportation groups, while Finance & Banking features 4 slogans utilizing this approach In contrast, novel metaphors are the least favored, contributing only 1 slogan each from the Food and Beverages and Finance & Banking sectors.
Table 2: The general frequency of each metaphor type in the whole forty slogans of four groups
Table 2 offers a detailed analysis of the frequency of each metaphor type across the selected groups, highlighting the ratio of each metaphor type within the total of 40 analyzed slogans This data significantly supports the validity of the proposed hypotheses.
Table 3 illustrates the frequency of various conceptual metaphor sub-types utilized across different groups, supporting the second hypothesis It highlights a preference for ontological metaphors, particularly the concept of "Abstract is Concrete," and structural metaphors, specifically "One Concept is Structure in terms of Another." Out of 28 slogans analyzed, 27 employed ontological metaphors, while only one utilized an orientational metaphor.
Table 3: The frequency of each sub-types of Conceptual Metaphor in each group
Table four presents an analysis similar to the previous one, focusing on new and mixed conventional metaphors instead of conceptual ones This approach strengthens the evidence for Hypothesis three, which requires a clear and thorough definition of the conventional elements found in forty slogans that utilize these new and mixed metaphors.
Mixed Conventional Metaphor (Slogans and Metaphor Concepts)
2 Bags of taste without the handles (Weight
Abstract entities are physical entities
Related in concrete space with physical entity (bags)
3 Pleasure is the path to joy
(Haagen-Dazs, ice cream brand)
Abstract entities are physical entities
Based on the typical concept
4 Volvo cut the prices of parts and eases labor pains (Volvo)
One concept is structured in terms of another
A physical object is a living entity
6 For vigorous growth, plant your money with us (Legal and General insurance company)
One concept is structured in terms of another
7.The bank that likes to say Yes
Ready to help and serve
An object is a person/living entity One concept is structured in terms of another
8.The expanding world of the treasurer In
Management a bank should show brains, not
Abstract entities are physical entities
An object is a person just muscle
Abstract entities are physical entities
New Conventional Metaphor (Slogans and Metaphor Concepts)
1 Transparent with a plastic body No wonder it goes down well in
Person An object is a person
2 Satisfaction comes from choosing your own road in life and sticking to it (Lexus)
Table 4: The analysis of target domain, source domain and metaphor concepts in 11 slogans of new and mixed conventional metaphors
Discussion and findings
This section revisits the three hypotheses previously proposed, following a comprehensive analysis and synthesis of the 40 metaphorical slogans, considering various aspects such as target and source domains, metaphor concepts, and their meanings.
The analysis of 40 selected slogans confirms the first hypothesis, demonstrating a clear response to the initial research question Conceptual metaphors are the most prevalent type used by advertisers and marketers, with 28 out of 40 slogans, or 70 percent, employing this approach In the Fashion and Cosmetics sector, every slogan—100 percent—utilizes conceptual metaphors, while other categories also show significant usage, with 6 out of 10 slogans (60 percent) featuring them This indicates a strong preference for conceptual metaphors in advertisements across specific commodity and service groups.
“Abstract is concrete” in ontological metaphor or “An object is a person” in personification or other types of more particular concepts ranging from “Physical objects are living entities” to
“Feelings/Emotions are objects” are employed
Put the fun back into driving-Vauxhall (Abstract is concrete)
The Citi never sleeps-Citibank (An object is a person)
The accuracy of the hypothesis is demonstrated through an analysis of 40 English slogans from four specific groups However, to generalize this hypothesis across all English slogans related to various traded commodities, manufactured goods, and services, further comprehensive research is required This need arises from the continuous emergence of new slogans each year and the necessity for a broader collection of representative advertisements from diverse global product categories.
The statistics indicate partial support for the hypothesis, as shown in Table 3, where ontological metaphors comprise 27 out of 29 conceptual metaphor slogans In contrast, both orientational and structural metaphors are represented by only one instance each.
-Sight for Soaring Eyes-TransWorld Airways (Orientational Metaphor-Good is Up)
-Life can get heavy Mascara shouldn‟t.-Maybeline (Structural Metaphor-Difficulties are Burdens)
The findings confirm the initial part of the hypothesis regarding the preference for ontological metaphors, specifically the concept of "Abstract is Concrete." However, it does not support the second part concerning structural metaphors, which relate one concept to another rather than to spatial orientation The ontological metaphor proves effective for advertisers aiming to adhere to the Law of Truth, as consumers associate product values—such as feelings and emotions—with familiar and trustworthy concrete objects or individuals Additionally, this metaphor enhances consumer engagement by facilitating the initial evaluation of products through sensory and emotional connections.
The hypothesis suggesting that structural metaphors are preferred over orientational metaphors in English advertising slogans cannot be substantiated, as both types are used in equal measure This indicates that while some aspects of the hypothesis hold true, others do not, reflecting advertisers' desire for clarity and effectiveness in their slogans Statistical analysis reveals the strengths and weaknesses of various conceptual metaphors, highlighting that the high frequency of these metaphors in advertising underscores their familiarity and understandability However, structural metaphors can often lead to ambiguity due to their complex nature, whereas orientational metaphors, which convey clear positive or negative associations (e.g., "Good is Up" and "Bad is Down"), tend to be more straightforward and effective.
The analysis of 40 selected slogans confirms the accuracy of the third hypothesis, revealing 9 mixed metaphors and 2 new metaphors A closer examination of the target and source domains in the 11 slogans demonstrates that they embody key conceptual metaphors, such as "Abstract is Concrete," "An Object is a Person," and "Abstract Entities are Physical Entities."
More specific, let‟s first consider some samples of mixed metaphors exploited in the classified slogans
-Some only offer umbrellas But Bank Julius Baer offers more-Jullius Baer Bank
-Today's Chevrolet: The Heartbeat of America.-Chevrolet
In Jullius Baer Bank, we may immediately recognize the personification through the word
A bank, as a physical entity, engages in the human action of "offering." This reflects a common conceptual metaphor where an object is perceived as a person, specifically illustrating how a physical entity can embody characteristics of a living being Additionally, the metaphorical use of the term "umbrellas" adds a deeper layer to the meaning of these slogans, suggesting protection and coverage in the services provided by the bank.
Umbrellas symbolize protection and safety, serving as a literal shield against rain and harmful sunlight This metaphor extends to the idea that "umbrellas are safety," illustrating the connection between abstract concepts and physical entities Similarly, Chevrolet's advertisement portrays America as a person with a heart, subtly equating the car to the heart—an essential asset for human health This creative use of metaphor enhances the understanding of both safety and national identity.
“Physical Entities are Living Entities” is tactfully applied to send the desired message
While only 2 out of 40 slogans utilize new metaphors, the significant presence of conceptual metaphors in these slogans is clear For instance, Lexus emphasizes the idea that true satisfaction arises from making personal choices and remaining committed to one's unique path in life.
The metaphor "Life is a Journey" is commonly used in slogans, but this article introduces a fresh perspective by encouraging individuals to take the less traveled road and maintain focus on their chosen path to reach their destination, rather than opting for the more conventional route.
The combination of conventional metaphors and innovative concepts may not produce the poetic masterpieces often found in literature, but they are highly effective in advertising Consumers are drawn to slogans that feel both familiar and unique, creating a compelling connection Just as colors blend seamlessly in a rainbow, new and mixed metaphors naturally enrich our daily experiences.
Conclusion
The research identified three hypotheses regarding the use of metaphor types in advertising slogans The analysis revealed that 70% of the slogans (28 out of 40) employed the appliance metaphor, addressing the first research question However, the second question regarding metaphor understandability remained unclear until further analysis confirmed that conceptual metaphors are more effective due to their familiarity, overshadowing the aesthetic appeal of other metaphor types commonly found in poetry and novels The study highlighted that New/Novel Metaphors and Mixed Metaphors often suffer from abstractness, leading to potential misunderstandings and ambiguity in conveying the product's message.
In addressing the final research question, the findings from all three hypotheses reveal that conceptual metaphors are the most preferred by marketers Among the various sub-types, ontological metaphors emerge as the most effective choice, surpassing both orientational and structural metaphors The familiarity of consumers with personification, container metaphors, entity metaphors, and the common concept of "Abstract is Concrete" enables these metaphors to effectively convey product values and the producer's message This approach not only adheres to the Law of Truth but also fosters a sense of comfort for consumers.