Aims and objectives of the study
This research investigates the speech acts realized in marine orders used in radiotelephony and onboard communications, focusing on the linguistic features that enhance their effectiveness in maritime communication The study aims to analyze the specific characteristics of these orders to improve understanding and implementation in marine contexts.
This article examines the effectiveness of marine orders in maritime communication, contrasting those used in on-board interactions with those employed in external radiotelephony communications It investigates various features of these orders, focusing on the types of speech acts they represent, as well as their linguistic characteristics, such as directness, sentence types, sentence length, and the density of technical terminology.
- Helping students in the Navigation Department of VIMARU better understand the effectiveness of maritime orders in terms of the above features.
Scope of the study
This research examines the unique language of navigation, focusing specifically on marine orders and their speech acts It analyzes linguistic features such as directness, sentence types, sentence length, and technical density Additionally, the study compares orders used on board ships with those in external communications The command sentences analyzed are drawn from popular radio broadcasts, marine websites, articles, books, and real-life language recordings.
Significance of the study
This study explores marine orders through the lens of speech acts and their linguistic characteristics, aiming to benefit navigational educators and students engaged in marine order instruction, seafarers who utilize these orders in communication, and researchers focused on related topics.
Understanding the speech acts involved in marine orders and their linguistic characteristics will enable maritime educators and students, who are also seafarers, to grasp the effectiveness of these communications, leading to more appropriate and effective usage in their interactions.
Seafarers can enhance communication efficiency by mastering specific orders relevant to various situations By understanding speech acts and the linguistic characteristics of maritime commands, they can improve their selection and interpretation of message markers, particularly during emergencies.
Research methodology
With such aims, this study is to answer the following questions:
1 What speech act is realized in marine orders?
2 How are directness, types of sentence, length of sentence and the density of technicality realized in maritime orders?
The distinctions between orders used in onboard communications and those in external communications can be analyzed through various speech act theories and linguistic features Onboard orders tend to be more direct and concise, often employing imperative sentences to convey urgency and clarity In contrast, external communications may utilize a mix of declarative and interrogative sentences, resulting in a more formal tone Additionally, onboard communications generally feature shorter sentences with less technical jargon, while external communications may include longer sentences with a higher density of technical terms to provide detailed information Understanding these differences is crucial for effective communication in both contexts.
This study aims to identify the categories of speech acts and linguistic features that enhance the clarity and effectiveness of marine orders in communications Additionally, it seeks to demonstrate how marine orders adapt to various contexts, such as differing weather conditions, to ensure optimal communication effectiveness.
This study employs both quantitative and contrastive analysis methods to address key questions regarding maritime orders The quantitative approach focuses on identifying the speech acts in maritime commands and examining how these orders are conveyed, specifically analyzing their directness, sentence types, length, and technical density In contrast, the contrastive analysis method is utilized to compare on-board orders with radiotelephony (external) orders, highlighting the similarities and differences in their linguistic characteristics.
In a study involving 190 English marine orders sourced from maritime textbooks, websites, and real communication videos, researchers focused on two primary types of communication: external (radio telephony) and on-board interactions External communications encompass radio exchanges between ship officers and shore personnel, while on-board communications involve directives among captains, officers, and helmsmen The analysis categorized these orders based on speech act types, directness, sentence structure, length, and technical density to explore their linguistic characteristics and applications.
A quantitative and contrastive analysis was conducted on 190 English marine orders, focusing on their speech act categories and linguistic features The study generated four tables to aid in this analysis: two tables categorized the speech acts used in both external and on-board communications, while the other two examined the linguistic characteristics of these orders, including directness, sentence types, length, and technical density.
All these data analyses were summed up to find out the most general ideas about how language is used in marine orders.
Design of the study
The study consists three parts as follow:
Part A: INTRODUCTION This part outlines the background of the research In this part, discussions are made about the rationale, aims and objectives, significance, methodology and design of the research
Part B: DEVELOPMENT This part falls into four chapters:
Chapter 1 provides the theoretical foundation for the study by exploring various categories of speech acts, with a particular focus on the act of ordering Additionally, it reviews relevant previous research to contextualize the current investigation.
Chapter 2: Methodology This chapter introduces the research questions, research methods, data, and data analysis methods
Chapter 3: Data analysis The chapter analyses the data collected
Chapter 4: Findings and discussions This chapter discusses the findings of the data analyzed in chapter 3
Part C: CONCLUSION This part draws important conclusions about the study and makes some suggestions for further researches
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Speech act and discourse analysis
Discourse is defined in various ways depending on the perspective According to Richard et al (1985), it refers to language use resulting from communication, encompassing larger units like paragraphs, conversations, and interviews In contrast, Crystal (1992) describes discourse as a continuous stretch of spoken language that is larger than a sentence, often forming a coherent unit such as a sermon, argument, joke, or narrative.
Discourse, as defined by Widdowson (1984), is a communicative process that involves interaction, emphasizing that it goes beyond mere verbal representation to include contextual factors and the speaker's intentions Consequently, discourse analysis focuses on the practical use of language Successful interpretation of discourse relies on establishing coherence, as speakers often convey their intentions in ways that are not directly literal.
Mother: The grass is growing fast in the garden
Son: I’m going to have a group study this morning, mother
In conversational contexts, indirect communication often conveys requests without explicit wording For instance, a mother might say, “The grass is growing fast in the garden,” which subtly implies a request for her son to tend to the gardening Despite the absence of a direct command, the son can infer his mother’s intention, indicating that understanding both the propositional and functional meanings in discourse is essential for effective communication.
Language serves not only to express propositional statements about objects and situations but also to perform various functions, including requesting, denying, introducing, and apologizing These communicative actions highlight the multifaceted nature of language beyond mere information exchange.
The term "speech act," introduced by linguistic philosopher Austin in 1962 and further developed by Searle in 1969, refers to the actions people perform through language Central to this theory are three types of acts: locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary, with the illocutionary act being the most significant Common examples of speech acts include promising, ordering, and bequeathing, highlighting the importance of language in facilitating communication and intent.
The statement “The grass is growing fast in the garden” exemplifies an indirect speech act that serves as a request, while the response “I have a group study” functions as an indirect rejection This response is considered indirect because its literal interpretation does not explicitly convey a refusal.
Speech act and the act of ordering
Speech acts, a concept explored by various linguists including Austin, Grice, Hymes, Searle, Levinson, and Brown and Yule, are defined as actions performed by a speaker through their utterances The essence of this theory is captured in the phrase "in saying something, we do something." Austin categorizes speech acts into five types and outlines three dimensions that further elaborate on this concept.
- A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood
- To perform a locutionary act is to produce an utterance with a particular form and a more or less determinate meaning according to the rules of a given language
- An illocutionary act is any speech act that amounts to stating, questioning, commanding, and promising and so on
An illocutionary act refers to the performance of a function through speech, distinguishing it from a locutionary act, which is simply the act of saying something In essence, an illocutionary act utilizes a sentence to convey a specific purpose or intention.
A perlocutionary act occurs when a speaker's utterance generates specific effects on the listener and others involved In essence, it refers to the outcomes or impacts that arise from verbal communication.
1.2.1.1 Types of speech acts (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969)
According to Austin (1962), there are five types of speech acts as follows:
(1) Verdictives: such as acquit, grade, estimate, diagnose, predict, interpret
(2) Exercitives: such as appoint, order, advise, warn, instruct, promote
(3) Commisives: such as promise, guarantee, bet, oppose, ensure, pledge
(4) Behabitives: apologizes, criticize, bless, challenge, congratulate, thank
(5) Expositives: argue, postulate, affirm, concede, oppose, admit
The current classification contains errors and redundancies, particularly with the last two categories, "behavitives" and "explositives," which lack clarity and overlap Consequently, a more precise division of these categories is necessary.
Austin's perspectives on language have significantly impacted various philosophers and linguists Notably, Searle, a prominent follower of Austin, expanded on his theories by clarifying ambiguities in Austin's classifications and categorizing language into five distinct types.
(1) Directives : the acts that are to get people to do something They express what the speaker wants such as “commanding”, “requesting”, “inviting”, “forbidding”,
“suggesting” and they can be positive or negative The form to perform this directive functions can be vary from imperative sentences, questions or statement whose illocutionary force is a directive
Why don’t you turn off the light?
There isn’t any sugar left
Kreidler (1998) identifies three types of directive utterances: commands, requests, and suggestions, each varying in the degree of force they impose on the listener A command is particularly effective when the speaker possesses a certain level of authority or control over the addressee's actions.
E.g.: You must appear in court next Monday at 10 a.m
Commands are produced with various degrees of explicitness which can have the form of You must, imperative sentences or use predicates as command, order, tell
A request is an expression of what speaker wants the addressee to do or refrain from doing something The common request predicates are ask, beg, request…
Suggestions are statements that prompt the listener to consider their options regarding actions they should or should not take The recipient of the suggestion has various choices in how to respond, including offering advice, making recommendations, or providing cautions and warnings.
(2) Commisives : The acts that commit a speaker to do something in the future They express what the speaker intends such as “promising”, “offering”, “threatening”,
E.g.: If you don’t stop fighting, I’ll call the police
I’ll take you to the movies tomorrow
(3) Assertives/ Representatives : the acts that commit a speaker to the truth of expressed proposition such as “describing”, “claiming”, “insisting”, predicting” E.g.: I went home yesterday
Britain has no written constitution
(4) Declaratives : the acts that change the reality via the utterance The speaker has to have a special institutional role, in a specific context in order to perform a declaration appropriately
E.g.: Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife
Chairman: I declare the meeting open
(5) Expressive : the acts that express speaker’s attitudes and emotions towards the propositions such as “apologizing”, “praising”, “congratulating”, “regretting” E.g.: What a great day!
Searle's refinement of Austin's theory reveals key differences, particularly in their interpretations of speech acts While Austin concentrated on the conventional aspects, Searle emphasized the psychological elements, such as belief and intention For my study, I will adopt Searle’s classification, as it aligns with my observation that most marine orders are direct speech acts aimed at prompting specific actions from the hearer This aligns with Searle's category of "directives."
1.2.1.2 Direct and Indirect speech acts
Indirect speech acts involve performing an action through another action, allowing for requests to be made indirectly For example, when someone says, "Open the window, please," it is a direct request However, the same intention can be conveyed more subtly by saying, "It's hot in here," which implies the desire for the window to be opened without explicitly stating it This illustrates how indirect speech can effectively communicate requests while maintaining a more nuanced interaction.
Indirect speech acts can be conveyed through various structures, with interrogatives being a prevalent form in English Unlike typical questions, these interrogative forms are not solely intended to elicit answers; rather, they aim to prompt specific actions from the listener.
For example, the question “Could you pass the salt?” is normally understood as a request
Searle argues that the interpretation of utterances varies among individuals, even within the same speech community, influenced by factors like the speaker-hearer relationship, social distance, hierarchy, and context In cross-cultural interactions, where participants lack a shared social and cultural background, the potential for cultural conflicts and misunderstandings increases significantly.
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) defines the act of ordering as any verbal expression, including words, phrases, or sentences, that serves to request information, make a request, convey intentions, or offer advice This definition highlights the speaker's purpose in communication.
In every conversation, key communicative actions include accepting, acknowledging, agreeing, answering, apologizing, calling off, checking, confirming, disagreeing, greeting, evaluating, informing, inviting, objecting, offering, opposing, questioning, reacting, rejecting, replying, requesting, and thanking.
However, the principle acts in maritime VHF or other spoken communications just focus on the act of question, answer, information, instruction, advice, request, intention, and warning
According to the classification by Austin and Searle, the act of ordering falls under the category of "directives" or "exercitives," which involve exercising power, rights, or influence over the listener This type of speech act is commonly referred to as a command or ordering sentence.
1.2.2.2 Ways of performing the act of ordering
Ordering language possesses distinct linguistic characteristics that convey commands effectively Key features include directness, sentence types, and the length and density of technical terminology, which will be explored in greater detail below.
Literature review
Marine language represents a vast and underexplored linguistic field, with limited attention from linguists Research in this area predominantly focuses on teaching and navigation professions In Vietnam, notable contributions to the study of marine language have been made by English educators at Vietnam Maritime University (VMU).
In her 2004 study, "Nautical Term-Based Metaphor," Ngo Thi Nhan examined the underlying structures and image schemata that drive the creation of metaphors using nautical terminology This research has proven beneficial for marine students and seafarers, helping them navigate potential misunderstandings arising from metaphorical meanings in diverse multicultural settings encountered in their global careers.
The second is Analysis of Ship’s Business Letters by Doan Thi Thanh Thuy
In 2004, a study examined the use of speech acts in English ship business letters, highlighting their significance in effective communication The findings emphasized the importance of understanding speech acts for both writing and interpreting these letters Additionally, the study proposed various teaching methods aimed at enhancing students' skills in composing ship business letters in English.
Pham Van Don's 2002 study, "Elliptical Expressions of Maritime Radiograms in English," examines the use of elliptical expressions in marine radiograms The research aims to leverage these findings to enhance the teaching and learning of English radiograms at VIMARU.
There is a noticeable lack of previous studies on speech acts in marine orders, which has drawn my attention due to its significance for students at VIMARU and seafarers at sea This growing interest in finding effective solutions to students' challenges has intensified my desire to explore this topic further.
METHODOLOGY
Research questions
The study is carried out in order to find out the answer to the following questions:
1 What speech act is realized in marine orders?
2 How are directness, types of sentence, length of sentence and the density of technicality realized in maritime orders?
3 What are the differences between orders used on – board and in external communications in terms of speech act and some linguistic features such as categories, directness, types of sentences, length of sentence and the density of technicality?
The questions above will be answered by analyzing the following aspects of the data collected:
- The speech acts used in orders in external and on board communication phrases
- The linguistic features of the act of ordering realized in orders in external and on board communication phrases (directness, length, types of sentences, and density of technical terms)
- The differences between on – board orders and external orders in terms of these linguistic features
Data
Marine orders are a common element in maritime conversations and can be categorized into two primary types: those used in external communications and those utilized for onboard interactions.
External communications in maritime contexts involve exchanges between ships and shore stations, focusing on navigational safety through instructions, advice, and warnings These communications include critical messages related to emergencies, such as distress and safety alerts, as well as routine requests like pilot and tug services This study prioritizes and analyzes the most common command sentences used in radio communication, encompassing 30 sentences for emergency situations and 50 for routine communications.
On-board communications among seafarers encompass various topics related to maritime situations This research focuses specifically on the most common orders and commands used at sea, including wheel orders (34 instances), engine telegraph orders (13 instances), commands for mooring (42 instances), and commands for anchoring.
(11 sentences) and towing orders (10 sentences)
All these orders and commands will be served as the database for further analysis in chapter 3 Data analysis
The data for this study is primarily sourced from maritime textbooks, websites, and authentic language recordings A key resource is the "IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases" (SMCP), published by IMO in 2002, which serves as the official communication guide for nautical students and all seafarers Additionally, the website mareng.utu.fi/ offers a valuable resource for standard marine orders, functioning as a web-based Maritime English Language Learning Tool developed under the EU's Leonardo da Vinci program All materials are grounded in real-life language used aboard ships and within the shipping industry, ensuring their accuracy and reliability.
The study incorporates real-life recordings of marine orders, gathered by my students and colleagues working on board These audio and video materials capture the context in which marine commands were issued, thereby improving the accuracy and reliability of my research.
Data analysis
This study investigates the linguistic features of marine orders, focusing on aspects such as directness, sentence types, sentence length, and technical density Additionally, it aims to identify differences between orders used on-board and in external communications regarding these linguistic characteristics A quantitative method was employed to address the first objective, while a contrastive method was utilized for the second, as detailed in the analytical framework.
My analytical framework covers the following analytical units:
- Categories of speech acts realized in marine orders used in external and on-board communications
- The directness, types of sentence, length and density of technicality in the orders
- The differences between on board orders and external orders
Four tables were created to facilitate the analysis of speech acts in marine orders, focusing on both external and on-board communications Two tables examined the categories of these speech acts, while the other two analyzed the linguistic characteristics of the orders, including directness, sentence types, length, and technical density.
The differences between on – board orders and external orders were then extracted from the analyses drawn out of the tables.
DATA ANALYSIS
Types of speech acts realized in marine orders
The following two tables show the speech act categories realized in 80 external communication marine orders and 110 on-board communication orders
3.1.1 Types of speech acts realized in orders used in external communications
External communications at sea, primarily consisting of radio conversations between ships and shore stations, are crucial for effective maritime operations These communications can be categorized into two main subtypes: emergency communications and routine communications Table 1 illustrates the various speech acts involved in orders within these two categories of external communications.
Table 1: Speech acts used in external communications
The data indicates that directives are the predominant type of speech acts utilized in external communications, particularly in orders This aligns with the speech act theory, which defines directives as actions aimed at prompting individuals to take specific actions Additionally, this is consistent with the function of ordering in navigation, where directives are employed to provide advice, directions, requests, and suggestions.
In maritime communication, ships typically initiate requests for assistance when nearing the coast or encountering difficulties The coast station responds with instructions, advice, and warnings to enhance navigational safety Adhering to the IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases is essential, and each message must begin with a message marker to clarify its purpose Among the eight message markers outlined in Chapter 1, the most commonly used for orders and commands are REQUEST, INTENTION, INSTRUCTION, ADVICE, and WARNING, as detailed in Appendix 1.
ADVICE: Stand by on channel 6-8
INSTRUCTION: You must alter course
WARNING: Obstruction in the fairway Do not overtake
The analysis of various sentence types, including imperative (both positive and negative) and declarative forms, reveals that their primary illocutionary function is to prompt action, serving as directives within speech acts.
3.1.2 Types of speech acts realized in orders used in on-board communications
Onboard communications refer to the direct exchanges between seafarers aboard a ship, with the captain assuming full responsibility for all commands and orders There are five key types of orders essential for the smooth operation of the vessel: wheel orders, engine telegraph orders, mooring commands, anchoring commands, and towing orders A total of 110 specific orders are categorized based on their functions in ship handling, resulting in varying numbers of commands for each type.
The table below shows the categories of speech acts realized in each types of ordering
Table 2: Types of speech acts used in orders in on-board communications
Onboard communications primarily utilize directive speech acts, which aim to impose authority on the listener Unlike external orders that can take various forms such as advice or suggestions, onboard directives are straightforward and require acknowledgment from the hearer For instance, when the officer of the watch commands "Midship," the helmsman must respond with "Midship, sir" to confirm receipt of the order After executing the command, the helmsman must again report, saying "Midship now, sir," to indicate that the order has been properly executed This protocol ensures clarity and compliance in maritime operations.
- Full speech ahead! (Engine telegraph order)
- Have the fenders ready! (Command for mooring)
- Get both anchor ready! (Command for anchoring)
- Come along side (Towing orders)
Linguistic features of marine orders used in external communications and on-
A study by Trenker (2007) identified that the proficiency of seafarers in English is a significant factor contributing to maritime accidents To enhance communication effectiveness, especially in issuing orders and commands, it's crucial that maritime language possesses distinct linguistic characteristics Key elements influencing the effectiveness of orders include directness, sentence types, length, and the density of technical terminology, which will be explored in the following sections.
3.2.1 Linguistic features of marine orders in external communications
Radiotelephony is the most widely used form of communication at sea, facilitating information exchange between ships and between ships and shore To prevent misunderstandings, safety communications must employ straightforward and clear language This study will analyze 80 marine orders used in radiotelephony, focusing on their directness, length, sentence types, and the density of technical terms to assess the safety and efficiency of maritime English.
Table 3: Linguistic features of marine orders used in external communications
Indirect speech acts, particularly interrogatives like "Can you?", "Could you?", and "Would you?", are often used to convey politeness in communication, as noted in Chapter 1 While these indirect requests appear in navigational language to make polite inquiries, they account for only about 7.5% of routine communications Typically, these messages are preceded by a marker to clarify the speaker's intent In routine contexts, such as ship handling and cargo operations, the use of indirect questions is optional, allowing speakers to maintain politeness in stress-free situations This is exemplified in communications between ships and shore stations, especially when requesting permission to berth.
“Could you spell me your vessel’s name, please?”
“Can you sail to distress position?”
However, the frequency of using is very limited to eliminate the misunderstanding in conversations
The data indicates that 78.8% of marine orders are expressed using imperative sentences Searle notes that the directive function can manifest through various forms, including questions and statements, but imperative sentences remain the most prevalent Consequently, command sentences are often referred to as imperative sentences This form is advantageous due to its directness and clarity, emphasizing the action Imperative sentences typically start with the base form of a verb.
- INSTRUCTION: Do not cross the fairway
(orders in emergency situation- Appendix 1)
- Stand by the pilot ladder
(orders in routine communications- Appendix 1)
In certain situations, individuals utilize declarative sentences to convey requests, which essentially represent the complete form of imperative sentences where the implied subject "you" is made explicit This structure appears in six variations within both emergency and routine communications.
- ADVICE: You must keep clear from the dredge
- You must rig another pilot ladder
- You have permission to enter the traffic lane
Especially, there are few orders omitting the main verb, the imperative force realized by just a noun phrase:
The orders in this context are recognized as performative verbs transformed into nouns, with clarity enhanced by the use of message markers However, for safety reasons, the application of this form is restricted Notably, there are only six interrogative sentences among the eighty imperative ones, reflecting the characteristics of indirect speech acts previously discussed This limited employment of indirect speech acts stems from the guidelines established by the IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP).
The IMO SMCP identifies model verbs as potentially ambiguous, leading to misunderstandings For example, "can" and "could" may indicate either possibility or capability To enhance clarity, it is recommended to phrase requests more explicitly, such as replacing "Can you send me immediate assistance?" with a clearer alternative.
Marine orders are characterized by the use of technical terminology, as Maritime English falls under English for Specific Purposes (ESP) An analysis of various orders reveals a predominance of medium density technical terms, which account for 61% of the total, nearly double the 36% found in the sparse category In contrast, orders containing three or more technical terms, such as "Rig pilot ladder on portside 2 metres above water," are infrequently used, comprising only 3% of the analyzed content.
Effective communication in a multi-cultural environment relies on the appropriate length of orders, ideally between four to six words This range provides enough information and is commonly found in 60% of marine orders used in external communications However, context can influence sentence length; routine communication may involve longer orders (over seven words), while stressful situations benefit from shorter, simpler commands (one to three words).
- Request telephone call connection (four words)
- Report injured persons (three words)
- Keep minimum passing distance of five cables when passing her (more than 7 words)
3.2.2 Linguistic features of marine orders in on-board communications
On-board communication among seafarers at sea involves face-to-face conversations, contrasting with external communication, which relies on radiotelephony Consequently, the linguistic features of orders used on board vary across different contexts, as illustrated in the accompanying table.
Table 4: Linguistic features of marine orders used in on-board communications
Effective communication on board vessels follows a direct order-giving approach, akin to military hierarchy, where authority dictates who can issue commands Only individuals in positions of authority are permitted to give orders, and these commands must adhere strictly to established protocols for safety reasons For instance, according to the IMO SCMP guidelines, when an officer of the watch directs the helmsman to steer a specific course, the command must be clear and precise, such as "Port, steer zero eight two," with each numeral articulated individually The helmsman must then confirm by stating, "Steady on zero eight two," and the order-giver should acknowledge this response to ensure accurate execution of the command.
Orders on board are typically conveyed using imperative sentences Many of these commands are streamlined by omitting predicates and extraneous words, resulting in concise sentences that consist of only one or two phrases.
“Amidships”, “Steady”, “Port 5” These kinds of omitted sentences can be found a lot in wheel orders
On-board orders are characterized by their brevity, typically consisting of one to three words, in contrast to the medium-length sentences (four to six words) often used in radiotelephony communications This concise language is essential for clear and direct instructions related to ship operations, which are standardized and fixed regardless of circumstances Unlike external orders exchanged between ships or between ship and shore, which allow for more flexibility in structure and delivery, on-board commands must be precise, simple, and unambiguous, typically issued by authoritative personnel The use of block language, which minimizes or omits function words, contributes to the prevalence of short orders such as “Stand by engine” and “All starboard.” In fact, 54% of on-board orders are short sentences, 42% are medium sentences, and only 4% are long sentences.
Orders on board a ship are primarily composed of technical language, with 90% of commands featuring specialized terms, despite often being just three to six words long Examples include phrases like “Heave in the port anchor chain” and “Slack away the bow spring.” However, only 7% of these orders include navigation-related terminology, while 36% of external communications do This discrepancy poses a challenge for seafarers, as efficient shipboard operations require all crew members to be well-versed in the precise terminology related to vessel equipment, its usage, and safe handling practices.
Comparison between orders used in external and on-board communications
Marine orders, whether used in external or on-board communications, exhibit common linguistic features of Maritime English An analysis of 190 marine orders reveals that grammatical, lexical, and idiomatic variations are minimized through standardized structures to enhance functionality and reduce misunderstandings in safety-related verbal communications This simplified approach aims to accurately reflect current Maritime English usage in ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore interactions The following section will delve deeper into the similarities and differences between external and on-board marine orders, focusing on speech act categories and linguistic characteristics.
In chapter 1, we established that orders and commands align closely with the language function of directives, a key category of speech acts identified by Searle This indicates that the directives category is consistently present in all marine orders utilized in both external and on-board communications The analysis of the data supports this conclusion, as illustrated in the accompanying chart.
External communications On-board communications
Kreidler (1998) identifies three types of directive utterances: commands, requests, and suggestions, differentiated by the level of force they impose on the listener This framework aligns with the illocutionary force of marine orders in radio communications, where message markers such as REQUEST, INSTRUCTION, WARNING, and ADVICE clarify the speaker's intent The markers ADVICE, WARNING, and INSTRUCTION fall under the suggestion category, guiding the listener on recommended actions In contrast, orders on board primarily function as commands, reflecting the speaker's authority over the addressee's actions, often conveyed through imperative sentences even when the verbs like require, order, or demand are omitted.
The linguistic features of external and on-board orders share similarities due to their common application in navigation; however, their distinct contexts and purposes lead to notable differences in language use This study analyzes these differences by examining directness, sentence types, sentence length, and the density of technical vocabulary Key findings highlight that external and on-board orders predominantly utilize direct language, imperative sentence structures, concise lengths of 4-6 words, and a technical vocabulary density of 1-2 words, as illustrated in the accompanying table.
In maritime communication, clarity is paramount, with direct orders being a fundamental aspect to eliminate ambiguity While all orders are communicated directly, the execution varies, especially in external communications where ship-to-ship interactions are crucial for ensuring message comprehension Key message markers such as INSTRUCTION, ADVICE, WARNING, and REQUEST should precede the message as recommended by the IMO VTS Guidelines Although shore personnel and ship officers may choose to use indirect requests like "Can you" or "Could you," this practice is discouraged by the IMO SMCP due to the potential for misunderstandings.
Effective external communications utilize message markers to prevent misunderstandings, while on-board orders rely exclusively on imperative sentences for clarity Consequently, all commands related to ship operations are delivered directly as imperatives To ensure accurate comprehension, it is essential for the receiver to repeat the order.
To enhance clarity in maritime communication, it is essential to utilize block language by avoiding function words, synonyms, and modal verbs The International Maritime Organization's Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) recommends using short, straightforward sentences for issuing commands on board For example, a standard wheel command would simply be "Midships."
On-board orders are notably shorter than external orders, often consisting of concise phrases like “Steady”, “Port 5”, “Full ahead”, and “Ease” Data analysis indicates that over half of these on-board commands are simple sentences ranging from one to three words In contrast, external communication typically features longer orders, with 68% comprising four to six words.
On-board orders exhibit a higher density of technical terms compared to external orders, with 90% of on-board communications containing specialized vocabulary, whereas only 64% of radiotelephony communications do Consequently, on-board orders frequently include one to three technical terms, significantly surpassing the number found in external orders.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Findings
4.1.1 Speech act categories realized in marine orders
The analysis of 190 marine orders reveals that all these directives primarily fall into three categories: commands, requests, and suggestions External orders tend to be suggestions, while on-board orders are predominantly commands and requests, reflecting the speaker's control over the addressee's actions Despite the frequent omission of predicates, the intentions behind these orders remain clear and explicit.
4.1.2 Linguistic features of marine orders
Orders communicated on board and in external interactions are typically explicit and delivered directly Indirect requests may occur in low-pressure situations, such as routine communications between ship and shore, where the speaker can employ a more polite approach However, this indirectness is primarily limited to interrogative sentences that usually begin with a question word.
“Can you”, “Could you” The main reason is that Maritime English always tries to reduce misunderstanding in communications which may cause incidents and accidents
A key aspect of marine communication is the brevity of sentences The IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) emphasizes that each sentence should convey a single event, which naturally shortens sentence length As a result, most commands and orders consist of only four to six words, while lengthy sentences exceeding seven words are seldom encountered.
Marine orders typically consist of concise sentences that are rich in technical terminology, with approximately two-thirds containing at least one specialized term The use of block language minimizes unnecessary words, focusing solely on essential and meaningful content As a result, marine orders are crafted to be densely packed with terminology relevant to navigational areas, ensuring clarity and precision in communication.
4.1.3 Orders used in external communications and on-board communications
On-board and external orders share similarities in speech act categories, directness, sentence types, and technical terminology; however, their communication effectiveness varies due to different contexts At sea, clarity and conciseness are crucial for the safety of the ship, crew, and passengers While radiotelephony relies on message markers to convey intentions, on-board orders utilize short, imperative sentences Given the outdoor environment, where distractions from engine noise, waves, and wind are prevalent, it is essential for the receiver to repeat messages for accuracy Additionally, on-board orders typically omit predicates, consisting mainly of content words, resulting in significantly shorter sentences compared to those used in external communications.
Discussions
4.2.1 Speech act categories realized in marine orders
The International Regulations for Preventing Collision at Sea emphasize the importance of relevant language in specific situations This study reveals that the directive speech acts present in all 190 marine orders are clear and comply with these regulations While various methods can be employed to convey these orders, their primary objective remains consistent: to prompt action from individuals Most of these directives are expressed through imperative sentences, typically issued by authoritative figures such as captains and chief officers to crew members.
4.2.2 Linguistic features of marine orders
The linguistic features of marine orders, such as directness, sentence types, length, and density of nautical terms, are essential for ensuring clarity and precision In a multinational environment, a simplified and standardized language is crucial to minimize misunderstandings and errors However, these features may vary slightly based on context; for example, emergency orders differ from routine communications due to the psychological stress and time pressure experienced in critical situations Consequently, routine communication often involves longer and more complex orders.
4.2.3 Orders used in external communications and on-board communications
External and on-board communications at sea serve distinct purposes, with external orders typically conveyed through radiotelephony and on-board orders communicated directly among seafarers This difference leads to unique linguistic characteristics for each type of communication On-board orders primarily consist of operational directions, incorporating specialized vocabulary related to equipment, course, and position In contrast, radio communications involve broadcasting meteorological forecasts, navigation aids, and incident reporting, resulting in external orders that are generally longer but utilize fewer nautical terms.
Conclusions
Effective maritime communication is crucial to prevent costly breakdowns that can lead to property damage, environmental harm, or loss of life Research into human factors in maritime disasters has shown that one-third of accidents are primarily due to inadequate command of maritime English (Trenker, 2007) This highlights the need for a comprehensive marine order system for both radio and face-to-face communication on ships In 1995, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) designated English as the official language of the sea and introduced Standard Maritime Communication Phrases (SMCP) in 2001, which include essential marine orders An analysis of 190 frequently used marine orders has demonstrated the effectiveness and clarity of communication at sea, addressing key research questions related to maritime communication practices.
The effectiveness of marine orders is assessed through various criteria, including speech act categories, directness, sentence length, sentence types, and the density of nautical terms All marine orders analyzed adhere to the IMO SMCP standard, ensuring they are explicit and direct Typically, these orders are conveyed using imperative sentences, which are prevalent in marine communication Additionally, spoken marine orders exhibit an authoritative tone, characterized by the use of formal, Latin-based vocabulary and a general avoidance of politeness formulas, making the inclusion of markers like "please" quite rare.
In marine communication, the verbs "can" and "could" are often avoided due to their polysemous nature, which conveys both ability and permission To reduce the risk of misunderstandings, it is essential to use clearer language in these contexts.
Spoken marine orders are characterized by a standardized structure, often leading to the omission of less significant sentence elements As a result, these orders tend to be concise, averaging four to six words, primarily consisting of nautical terminology.
Onboard and external orders share similar characteristics but differ in their communication effectiveness To prevent confusion and misunderstandings in non-face-to-face interactions, it is crucial for speakers to employ message markers before delivering their intended messages The frequent use of the imperative form serves various pragmatic functions, including advising, requesting, and ordering, highlighting the need for clarity In contrast, onboard orders utilize concise language with short, simple sentences to minimize ambiguity and ensure clear communication.
The research emphasizes the importance of implementing standard marine orders both at sea and in nautical education, highlighting the need for effective teaching methods to convey these essential maritime terms.
Implications
2.1 The act of ordering realized in marine orders
A critical analysis of 190 marine orders reveals that these phrases are essential for effective communication at sea, emphasizing the need for seafarers and nautical educators to adopt them With many ships operating with multinational crews, a standardized language helps eliminate language barriers and enhances voyage safety Seafarers must memorize these marine orders to respond accurately under pressure during emergencies Nautical instructors should incorporate these standards into their training, creating ample learning opportunities and engaging in regular communications on various topics, including marine pollution prevention and safety procedures, to ensure students can issue orders precisely in accordance with the IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP).
2.2 Orders used in external communications and on-board communications
Effective communication on board ships and between vessels or shore involves distinct language features, which educators must highlight when teaching marine orders As Maritime English is intrinsically linked to life at sea, instructors can create real-life simulations for students to practice communication This approach not only boosts student motivation and comprehension through engaging, relevant topics but also helps them envision their future working environment in the maritime industry.
Seafarers are required to adhere to the communication guidelines established by the IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) when using radiotelephony Additionally, it is essential for all crew members to be familiar with the specific terminology related to the vessel's equipment, including its usage and safe handling, as outlined in marine orders, to ensure effective operation during routine shipboard activities.
Limitations of the study
Every research has its limitations, and mine is no different Unfortunately, during the data collection phase, I was unable to encompass all marine orders utilized in various contexts, such as cargo handling and passenger care, which also exhibit distinct characteristics of Maritime English.
Suggestions for further study
This research aims to contribute significantly to both theoretical and practical aspects of speech acts, particularly in the context of marine orders While numerous studies have explored Maritime English, the specific language of ordering in marine communications remains largely unexplored Practically, this study promotes the adoption of standardized marine orders in conversations among seafarers and within navigational training It is anticipated that those interested in speech acts and marine orders will find this research to be a valuable resource Additionally, the findings pave the way for future investigations into other linguistic features of Maritime languages, such as simple sentences in marine orders, language substitution using flags, and the transformation of parts of speech in shipping contexts.
1 Austin J.L (1962) How to do things with words Oxford University Press
2 Bobrovski, V.I Business English for Seamen (Nghiệp vụ Hàng hải, translated by Lê Đình Ngà) Vietnam Maritime University Publishing House
3 Brown G and Yule G Discourse analysis Cambridge University Press
4 Goergakopoulou, A & Goutsos, D (2004) Discoures Analysis Edinburgh
5 Hoa, N (2004) Understanding English Semantics Hanoi VNU Publishing
6 Kreidler, W (1998) Introduce English Semantics Routledge Taylor &
7 Leech G N (1983) Principles of Pragmatics, Longman Pearson Education
8 Nunan, D (1993) Discourse Analysis Penguin English
9 Searle J.R (1969) Speech acts: An Essay in the philosophy of language Cambridge University Press
10 Pritchard, B (2003) Maritime Communications and IMO SMCP 2001
11 Thuy, D.T.T (2004) Analysis of Ship’s Business Letter PhD Thesis
12 Thomas J (1995) Meaning in interaction: An introduce to pragmatics
13 Valeria, A (2006) Maritime English valuing a common language Nautical Institute of Great Britain
14 Winbow, A (2002) “The importance of effective communication” International Seminar on Maritime English, Turkey 2002
15 Widdowson H.G (2007) Discouse Analysis (Oxford introduction to language study) Oxford University Press
16 IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases 2002 International Maritime
I don't know!
APPENDIX 1 COMMANDS AND ORDERS IN EXTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
3 REQUEST Immediate assistance/ I require a tug
5 REQUEST MV SEADOG requires escort
7 REQUEST: Permission to enter the Fairway
9 REQUEST Assist with search vicinity of position
10 REQUEST I require fire fighting assistance
11 INSTRUCTION Stop your engines immediately
12 INSTRUCTION Stay where you are Wait for tug to arrive
13 INSTRUCTION You must close up on the vessel ahead of you
14 INSTRUCTION Stop your engine immediately
15 INSTRUCTION Cary out radar search
17 ADVICE You may stop search and proceed with voyage
18 ADVICE (Advise you) stand by on VHF channel six nine
21 ADVICE Keep minimum passing distance of five cables when passing her
22 ADVICE Recommend you alter course to 125 degrees True
24 ADVICE Stand by for giving instruction
25 ADVICE You must keep clear from the dredge
26 ADVICE Alter course to port/starboard side
28 WARNING Do not enter Traffic Lane
29 WARNING Vessel must avoid this area
1 ADVICE Stand by on channel 6-8
2 INSTRUCTION You must anchor in different position
3 REQUEST Please give instructions to reach Soumenlinna
4 INSTRUCTION You cannot enter the channel Wait until
6 ADVICE Steer course: 2-53-3 degrees true
7 Please call me again beam of Delta Bravo 17
8 Can you see the name of the vessel on your starboard side?
10 Could you take one passenger pilot up to Brunsmittel?
11 Could you spell me your vessel’s name, please?
12 Please pass on my starboard side
13 You can keep coming in until you get close to the buoy
14 WARNING Fishing are prohibited 3 miles around this position
16 Can you throw cargo overboard to refloat?
17 Can you sail to distress position?
18 Can you control major flow of water into vessel?
20 Change the radar to miles range scale
21 Stand by for cutting the manila lashing if requested
22 Rig the pilot ladder on port side/ starboard side/ leeside
23 You must rig another pilot ladder
24 Move/Stand by the pilot ladder
25 REQUEST Correct the list of the vessel
26 Keep the sea on your port quarter/ starboard quarter
27 ADVICE Steer 25 degrees to make a lee
28 INSTRUCTION Go ahead and follow me
29 WARNING Do not follow me
31 INSTRUCTION Stop in present position
32 INSTRUCTION Go to berth No.15
33 ADVICE Make lee on your port/starboard side
34 You must heave up anchor
38 REQUEST Repeat your position for identification
39 Advise you change to larger range scale
41 INSTRUCTION You must anchor at 14:00 UTC
42 INSTRUCTION You must heave up anchor
43 ADVICE Keep pilot boat on port/starboard side
44 INSTRUCTION You have permission to enter the traffic lane
45 ADVICE Stop in present position Wait for pilot
46 ADVICE Rig pilot ladder on portside 2 metres above water
47 Advise you keep present course
50 INSTRUCTION Move ahead/ astern 3 metres
COMMANDS AND ORDERS IN ON-BOARD
2 More starboard (port)/ Starboard (Port) little more
5 Little bit a starboard (port)/ Starboard (port) handsomely!
6 Starboard (port) five/ ten/ twenty/ five to port
10 Meet her !/ Meet (check) the helm !
11 Steady!/ Steady as she goes !/ Steady so! / Right so !/ Steady this course
12 Shift the helm to starboard (port) !
15 Change from auto pilot to hand steering
20 Steer for that light (buoy)!
22 Leave the red buoy on the starboard (port) side!
26 Keep straight to the lighthouse
27 Keep to middle of channel
30 Keep the buoy on port/starboard side
33 Finish with the wheel/ engine No more steering
34 Report if she does not answer the wheel
6 Stop !/ Stop her !/Stop the engine !
2 Give on shore (ashore) the heaving line!
4 Fenders on the starboard (port) side !
6 Run out the head (bow) rope (stern rope) !
7 Send on shore the bow (stern) spring !
8 Slack away (pay away) the bow (stern) spring !
12 Check your head rope (stern rope) !
13 Check her on the spring !
14 Haul in (pick up) the slack !
15 Heave way (in) the head rope !
18 Tie her up like that !
21 Let go the spring rope (the head, stern rope) !
22 Heave away (in) the head rope
24 Lower (heave up) the ladder !
25 Hoist (haul down) the flag !
26 Double up fore and aft !
27 Heave away (in) the tow rope
28 Give her a short kick ahead/ astern
29 We must make fast stern to !
30 Heave in the port (starboard) anchor chain !
31 Cant the stern (the bow) off the pier !
32 Get in the bow (stern) !
33 Send on shore the forward breast line !
34 Check the aft breast line !
35 Avast heaving in (on) the cable !
38 Pay away some more chain
39 Put out (veer out, slack away) the towing hawser
42 Give out two lies, one from each side
1 Get the starboard (port) anchor ready !
3 Let go (drop) the starboard (port) anchor !
5 Veer out the anchor to the bottom !
6 Slack away (pay away) the chain (cable) !
7 Slack away(pay away)two(three etc)shackles of the chain!
8 Pay away some more chain !
10 Make fast (secure) the chain !
2 Pass (give) the tow line(the heaving line) to the tugboat