INTRODUCTION
Rationale
In the last decade, Vietnam's integration into the global economy following its WTO accession has significantly expanded job opportunities for the local labor force This has enabled university graduates to secure positions in both local businesses and multinational corporations Consequently, proficiency in English has emerged as a crucial requirement for candidates seeking employment in this evolving job market.
Despite Vietnam's long exposure to a market economy, there is still a significant gap in the economic terminology system, particularly regarding Vietnamese equivalents for English occupational titles These professional titles are commonly used in both local and international companies Misunderstanding job title responsibilities can lead to poor business contact choices, adversely impacting business cooperation Therefore, it is essential for professionals to possess a clear understanding of business titles.
As an English teacher for management studies students, my primary role is to enhance their language proficiency and equip them with essential communication skills for their future careers To achieve this, I emphasize the importance of pre-teaching common job titles and the associated responsibilities, ensuring that students are well-prepared for the professional world.
Limited research has been conducted on job titles within the economic fields, highlighting a gap in understanding To enhance learners' comprehension of these professional titles and their associated meanings, it is essential to investigate commonly used job titles and the responsibilities of individuals holding these positions.
Joint-stock companies have been a prevalent business model worldwide, including in Vietnam, throughout history Despite being referred to by various names, their management structures are often mirrored in other business models This prompted my investigation into the management systems of joint-stock companies.
Aims of the study
This study aims to explore the intrinsic meanings of common professional titles in the management systems of American joint-stock companies and their Vietnamese counterparts.
Research questions
The study is carried out with a view to answering the following research questions:
1 What are the common English professional titles and their responsibilities in management system of joint-stock companies in the United States?
2 What are the equivalents of these job titles in the Vietnamese language?
Scopes of the study
This study explores the management systems of large joint-stock companies in the United States, focusing on common professional titles and their associated responsibilities The findings will be compared with management titles used in Vietnamese companies to identify equivalent terms in the Vietnamese language.
This study focuses exclusively on the linguistic aspect of the term "joint-stock company," an outdated term that describes companies that raise capital through stock issuance and are owned by shareholders In contemporary English, this term can be effectively replaced with "shareholding company" or "public company."
Significance of the study
This research aims to enhance the understanding of the management systems in joint stock companies among Vietnamese learners of English, particularly those majoring in economics and business administration By clarifying the responsibilities associated with various positions within these companies, the study will aid students in their job applications and assist them in identifying suitable colleagues in their future careers.
The effort to identify and propose Vietnamese equivalents for professional titles aims to reduce the reliance on borrowed terms, thereby playing a significant role in preserving the integrity and value of our national language.
Methods of the study
This qualitative research employs various methods, including listing, descriptive analysis, and comparative and contrastive techniques, to effectively address the research questions By adopting a pragmatic perspective, the author emphasizes the exploration of the intrinsic meanings associated with the professional titles under investigation.
In accordance with James C (1980), the researcher employs a contrastive analysis method that comprises two essential steps: description and comparison This structured approach guides the thesis, ensuring a systematic examination of the subject matter.
- Step one: English and Vietnamese professional titles in are listed and described
- Step two: English and Vietnamese professional titles are compared to find out the equivalents.
Design of the study
The study has three main parts: Introduction, Development, and Conclusion
The introduction presents the rationale for choosing the topic, aims, scope, method, significance, and design of the study
This article is structured into four key chapters Chapter one reviews literature on pragmatics, translation, and contrastive analysis, offering essential linguistic insights for the research Chapter two illustrates the structures of Vietnamese and American joint-stock companies and describes commonly used professional titles Chapter three conducts a contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese professional titles Finally, chapter four explores the pedagogical implications and provides suggestions for translating professional titles into the target language.
The conclusion provides the summary of what has been discussed in the study, states the limitations of the study and makes some suggestions for further research.
DEVELOPMENT
This chapter presents the theoretical foundation on which the study is based and set up It deals with theories of pragmatics, translation, equivalence in translation and contrastive analysis
Pragmatics has been a focal point for various authors since the early twentieth century, with philosopher Charles Morris being a key figure in its initial development Morris aimed to establish a comprehensive framework for a science of signs, termed “semiotics,” which encompasses three main branches: syntactics, the formal relations of signs; semantics, the relations of signs to their objects; and pragmatics, which examines the relationship between signs and interpreters Over time, the concept of pragmatics has undergone numerous redefinitions by different scholars Nonetheless, as noted by Levinson, the contemporary understanding of pragmatics is largely influenced by Morris's foundational theories.
Pragmatics is defined as the study of languages, both natural and artificial, that include indexical or deictic terms (Bar-Hiller, 1954) Carnap (late 1960s) described pragmatics as linguistic investigations that necessitate reference to contextual aspects Levinson (1986) defined pragmatics as the exploration of the relationships between language and context that are grammaticalized or encoded within a language's structure Additionally, Gazdar emphasizes the importance of considering truth conditions in the study of pragmatics.
(1979, cited in Levinson, 1986:12) proposed that pragmatics has those aspects of meaning of utterances which cannot be accounted for by straightforward reference to the truth conditions of the sentences uttered
Pragmatics, as defined by Mey (1993), explores how language is used in human communication shaped by societal conditions Stalnaker (1972, cited in Horn and Ward, 2006) emphasizes that pragmatics involves examining linguistic acts within their contextual frameworks Additionally, Sperber and Wilson (1986, cited in Kirsten and Williams, 1998) propose that pragmatics focuses on the interpretation of utterances.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theory of Pragmatics
Pragmatics has been a focal point for various authors since the early twentieth century, with philosopher Charles Morris being a key figure in its initial development (Banjar, 2009) Morris aimed to define a science of signs, which he termed "semiotics," and identified three branches of inquiry: syntactics, the formal relationships among signs; semantics, the relationship between signs and their referents; and pragmatics, which explores the connection between signs and their interpreters (Morris, 1938, cited in Levinson, 1986:1) Over time, the concept of pragmatics has been redefined by numerous scholars, yet as Levinson (1986) notes, the contemporary understanding of "pragmatics" owes much to Morris's foundational theories.
Pragmatics, as defined by Bar-Hiller (1954), is the study of both natural and artificial languages that include indexical or deictic terms Carnap, in the late 1960s, characterized pragmatics as linguistic investigations that necessitate reference to contextual aspects Levinson (1986) described pragmatics as the examination of the relationships between language and context that are encoded within a language's structure Gazdar's work further explores the implications of truth conditions in the context of pragmatics.
(1979, cited in Levinson, 1986:12) proposed that pragmatics has those aspects of meaning of utterances which cannot be accounted for by straightforward reference to the truth conditions of the sentences uttered
Pragmatics, as defined by Mey (1993), explores how language is utilized in human communication influenced by societal conditions Stalnaker (1972, cited in Horn & Ward, 2006) emphasizes pragmatics as the examination of linguistic acts within their contexts, while Sperber and Wilson (1986, cited in Kirsten & Williams, 1998) focus on the interpretation of utterances as a key aspect of pragmatics.
Yule (1996) is also concerned with the interpretation of utterances in the Sperber and Wilson‟s sense In his book, the writer gives a detailed description of what is called
“pragmatics” According to this author, the approach falls into four areas including speaker meaning, contextual meaning, listeners‟ inference and the expression of relative distance
Pragmatics explores the distinction between what is said and what is meant, focusing on the meaning conveyed by speakers and interpreted by listeners The author defines pragmatics as "the study of speaker meaning," highlighting its importance in understanding communication.
Pragmatics focuses on understanding the meaning behind words in specific contexts and how these contexts shape communication Essentially, it is the study of contextual meaning in language.
Listeners often need to make inferences to grasp the speaker's intended meaning, highlighting the importance of the unsaid in communication This aspect of understanding is central to pragmatics, as noted by Yule (1996:3).
“the study of how more gets communicated than is said”
Proximity between individuals often leads to a greater number of shared experiences, impacting the communication dynamics between speakers and listeners The distance between them plays a crucial role in determining the extent of information conveyed Pragmatic studies can explore the factors influencing the balance between what is expressed and what remains unspoken Thus, pragmatics is defined as the study of how relative distance affects communication (Yule, 1996:3).
The author, then, concludes that pragmatics is “the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms” (Yule, 1996:3)
Yongping (2002), a well-known Chinese scholar, also explained the norm of
In "A Survey of Pragmatics," the author defines pragmatics as a discipline focused on both the sense and the derivation of meaning, emphasizing the understanding of underlying implications in communication This field aims to unravel how meaning is negotiated and constructed during interactions (Yongping, R and Ziran, H., 2002).
Pragmatics is defined as the study of language use in specific contexts, focusing on how meaning can be conveyed beyond the literal interpretation of words.
This study adopts a pragmatic perspective, focusing on uncovering the intrinsic meanings of commonly used professional titles to understand their roles within a company’s management system.
Theory of Translation
Translation has been approached by a number of linguists According to Catford
Translation involves substituting a text in one language with an equivalent text in another language According to Nida (1969), the translation process seeks the closest natural equivalent to the source language's message, encompassing both meaning and style.
Translation is defined by Newmark (1986:5) as the process of conveying the meaning of a text from one language to another, ensuring that the author's original intent is preserved This perspective is supported by various scholars, including Meetham and Hudson (1972) and House, highlighting the importance of maintaining the essence of the source material during translation.
Translation involves substituting a text in one language with an equivalent representation in another language According to Meetham and Hudson (1972, cited in Bell, 1991), this process ensures that the meaning and context are preserved House (1981) further emphasizes that translation should maintain both semantic and pragmatic equivalence, ensuring that the translated text conveys the same intent and nuances as the original.
While linguists may define "translation" in various ways, a common aspect across these definitions is the focus on identifying equivalents that share similar characteristics with the original text, achieved through careful selection of appropriate vocabulary and grammatical structures.
Translation is fundamentally centered around the concept of "equivalence," which is crucial for understanding the relationship between source and target languages Catford (1965, cited in Van den Broek, 1978) explains that translation equivalence arises when the texts in both languages share relevant features of the same situational context Halverson also supports this notion, emphasizing the importance of identifying these shared characteristics in effective translation practices.
Equivalence in translation refers to the relationship between a source text and a target text, highlighting their similarities in potential qualities Proponents of equivalence-based theories assert that this relationship allows the target text to be recognized as a valid translation of the source text Moreover, equivalence can also exist between segments of the source and target texts However, this concept is contentious, as noted by Pym (1992), who argues that the definition of equivalence relies on the definition of translation, creating a circularity This has led theorists like Snell-Hornby (1988) to view translation equivalence as an "imaginative" phenomenon.
The concept of "equivalence" in translation studies is controversial, with scholars like Snell-Hornby (1988) and Gentzler (1993) debating its relevance Despite claims that it may hinder progress, equivalence is often seen as essential for translation, a barrier to advancement in the field, and a valuable framework for analyzing translations.
The study of equivalence in translation has been explored through both quantitative and qualitative approaches by theorists Notably, Kade (1968) and Hann (1992) identified six distinct categories of equivalence within the quantitative framework.
No Types of equivalence relationship Description Explanation
A single expression in the target language (TL) for a single source language (SL) expression is used
More than one TL expression for a single SL expression is used
More than one SL expression for a single TL expression is used
More than one TL expression for more than one SL expression is used
5 Whole-part/Part-whole equivalence
A TL expression covers part of a concept designated by a single SL expression or vice versa
There is no TL expression for an SL expression
Table 1: Types of equivalence relationship
The qualitative approach in linguistics is divided into three key subdivisions: function-based, meaning-based, and form-based approaches Renowned researchers Nida, Koller, and Baker are recognized as the pioneers of these approaches, contributing significantly to the field through their influential works.
Nida (1964) identifies two types of function-based equivalence in translation: formal equivalence, also known as formal correspondence (Nida & Taber, 1969), which prioritizes both form and content, and dynamic equivalence, which focuses on enhancing the readability of the text.
Koller (1977) identifies five types of meaning-based equivalence: denotative, connotative, text-formative, pragmatic, and formal equivalence Denotative equivalence refers to the extralinguistic content, encompassing the literal meaning of words and phrases.
Content invariance refers to the relationship where source language (SL) and target language (TL) words denote the same real-world concepts Connotative equivalence ensures that SL and TL words evoke similar communicative values for native speakers of both languages, involving careful lexical choices and often termed "stylistic equivalence." Text-formative equivalence emphasizes that SL and TL should utilize the same or similar text types within their respective languages Lastly, pragmatic equivalence focuses on the contextual meaning and implications of the words in both languages.
Koller (1977) emphasizes that source language (SL) and target language (TL) words should evoke the same response in readers, focusing on the intended audience of the translation This concept of pragmatic equivalence aligns with Nida's notion of dynamic equivalence, as both prioritize communicative equivalence and the receiver's experience of the text In contrast, formal equivalence, also known as "expressive equivalence," prioritizes maintaining the form and aesthetic qualities of the original text.
Baker (1992) examines form-based equivalence in translation, identifying two main types: word-level equivalence and above word-level equivalence He emphasizes that translation equivalence encompasses grammatical, textual, and pragmatic aspects Baker also highlights that words can possess varying meanings across different languages, underscoring the complexity of conveying meaning accurately in translation.
In his discussion on translation challenges, Baker identifies issues at both the word and above-word levels, proposing strategies to address them He highlights grammatical equivalence, noting the variations in grammatical categories across different languages, which can complicate finding direct correspondences in the target language (TL) Additionally, Baker emphasizes textual equivalence, which focuses on the relationship between the source language (SL) text and the TL text in terms of information and cohesion Lastly, he addresses pragmatic equivalence, which involves understanding the implied meanings within the SL text The translator's role is to recognize these implications and convey them in a manner that ensures clarity and cultural understanding for TL readers.
Contrastive Analysis
In the latter half of the 20th century, linguists like Lado and Postman highlighted the impact of a learner's first language on acquiring a second language Lado (1957) observed that second language learners often transfer elements from their native language, affecting both their understanding and use of the new language Postman (1971) further emphasized that learning is cumulative, where past knowledge and experiences shape new learning He noted that adults rarely learn entirely new concepts, as their previous information and habits serve as a foundation for tackling unfamiliar tasks This idea of transferring knowledge from old to new contexts underpins the principles of contrastive analysis in behaviorism.
Contrastive analysis (CA), also known as contrastive linguistics, was introduced by Whorf in 1941 and is defined as a sub-discipline of linguistics that compares two or more languages or their subsystems to identify their similarities and differences (Fisiak, 1981) This definition highlights that CA examines both the commonalities and distinctions between the languages being analyzed.
James (1980) argues that Contrastive Analysis (CA) focuses more on the differences between languages rather than their similarities, as suggested by the term "contrastive." He defines CA as a linguistic approach that aims to create inverted two-valued typologies, emphasizing comparisons between pairs of languages based on the premise that such comparisons are feasible.
In the 1960s and early 1970s, contrastive analysis played a significant role in Second Language Acquisition, despite facing various criticisms Its relevance extends beyond language teaching to include applications in machine translation and linguistic typology Chaturvedi (1973) outlines key principles for contrastive studies, emphasizing the need to analyze both the mother tongue and target language independently, compare them at all structural levels, and categorize their features as similar, partially similar, or dissimilar Additionally, James (1980) highlights that the process of contrastive analysis involves two main steps: description and comparison, which are essential for effectively executing a contrastive analysis.
In this study, the researcher would like to follow the procedures suggested by James
(1980) as the framework and carry out the research through two steps:
- Step one: English and Vietnamese professional titles in are listed and described
- Step two: English and Vietnamese professional titles are compared to find the equivalents.
A DESCRIPTION OF AMERICAN AND VIETNAMESE JOINT-STOCK
Definition of American and Vietnamese joint-stock companies
The term "joint-stock company" has been widely used since the enactment of the Joint-stock Companies Acts in 1800s England According to the Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English (2009), a joint-stock company is defined as a business entity whose stock is collectively owned by its shareholders.
A joint-stock company, originally defined as a corporation with limited liability for shareholders, allows investors to receive transferable shares and elect a board of directors to oversee operations According to Downes and Goodman (2006), this business organization merges characteristics of both corporations and partnerships West’s Encyclopedia of American Law (2005) further describes it as an association formed for profit, with ownership interests represented by shares While it primarily functions like a corporation, a joint-stock company also retains elements of partnership, as members hold personal liability for the company's actions.
While the term "joint-stock company" has historical significance, it is rarely used in the United States today Instead, as noted by Plessis & Grobfeld (2007), this type of company is commonly referred to as "public companies" or "corporations," including terms like "publicly-traded companies," "public companies limited by shares," or "public limited companies."
In this study, the author will use these terms interchangeably when referring to “joint-stock company”
Vietnam Enterprise Law (2005), Article 77 defines joint-stock companies as follows:
A joint-stock company is a type of enterprise characterized by its charter capital being divided into shares, which can be owned by both individuals and organizations It requires a minimum of three shareholders, with no upper limit on their number Shareholders are liable for the company’s debts only up to the amount of their capital contributions Additionally, they have the right to transfer their shares freely, subject to specific legal restrictions outlined in Clause 3 of Article 81 and Clause 5 of Article 84 of the applicable law.
2 A joint-stock company shall have the legal person status from the date it is granted a business registration certificate
3 A joint-stock company shall be entitled to issue securities of all kinds for capital mobilization
Under the Vietnam Enterprise Law of 2005, a Vietnamese joint-stock company is defined as a business entity owned by shareholders who enjoy limited liability This means that shareholders are only responsible for the company's debts up to the nominal value of their shares Additionally, shareholders, with some exceptions, have the right to transfer their shares to others, which does not affect the company's ongoing operations.
Organizational structures of American and Vietnamese joint-stock companies
Most companies consist of three key groups: shareholders who supply capital, management who oversee operations, and the workforce that executes tasks This structure is typically illustrated in an organizational chart, highlighting the relationships and roles within the company.
Figure 1: Company structure introduced by Tullis and Trappe (2004)
At the pinnacle of a company's hierarchy is the Board of Directors, led by the Chairperson or President, who is tasked with making critical policy decisions and setting strategic direction The Managing Director (MD) or Chief Executive Officer (CEO) follows in authority, overseeing the overall operations of the business Supporting these top leaders are senior and middle management teams that manage various departments, including Marketing, Public Relations, Information Technology (IT), Human Resources, Finance, Production, and Research and Development (R&D).
Companies typically have shareholders who provide capital and are managed by a board of directors, led by a Chairman or President The day-to-day operations are overseen by a Managing Director or Chief Executive Officer (CEO), with smaller firms often combining these roles In the U.S., the terms President and CEO are more commonly used than Chairman and Managing Director The CEO or MD is assisted by executive officers or vice-presidents (VPs), each holding specific authority and responsibilities.
Figure 2: Company structure introduced by Mackenzie (1997)
In a typical company, the key functional departments include Production, Finance, Human Resources, and Marketing Executive Directors, often titled Vice Presidents, oversee the strategic decisions and operations of these departments, while managers within each department handle specific functions Each functional department is further divided into various sections to enhance operational efficiency.
1 Marketing Department consists of three sections, that is, sales, sales promotion and advertising;
2 Human Resources Department is made up of of Recruiment and Personnel, and Training section
3 Production Department is composed of five sections including Production Control, Purchasing, Manufacturing, Quality Control and Engineering Support
4 Finance Depatment con sists of Financial Management and Accounting
(Mackenzie, 1997:13) Regarding business structure, McKellen (1990:29) also introduced an organization chart that is, as he stated, one of the most usual
Managing Director or Chief Executive Officer
VP of Finance VP of Human
Figure 3: Company structure introduced by McKellen (1990)
According to McKellen (1990:29), the highest position in a company's hierarchy is held by the Managing Director, Chief Executive, or President Companies are overseen by a team of directors and managers, where directors focus on strategic planning and decision-making, while departmental managers handle daily operations and report to the directors.
The essential functional departments within a company typically encompass Finance, Sales, Marketing, Production, Research and Development (R&D), and Personnel While these are the most prevalent departments, certain organizations may also feature additional divisions (McKellen, 1990:29).
In "Test Your Professional English – Management," Sweeney (2002:66) presents a structured model of a company's management system, emphasizing the importance of the chain of command This diagram effectively illustrates the hierarchical organization essential for effective management.
Departments each headed by a Director
Figure 4: Company structure introduced by Sweeney (2002)
At the pinnacle of a company's hierarchy is the Chief Executive or Managing Director, overseeing a senior management team that includes the Production Director, Sales Director, Marketing Director, Finance Director, Human Resources Director, and Company Secretary Below them, middle management typically consists of Managers who are responsible for operating the various functional departments within the organization.
The organizational chart of Fun and Sun Holidays, as presented in the book "Business Vocabulary in Use" by Mascull (2002:26), exhibits a structure comparable to that of previously examined companies.
Market Research, PR and Publicity Officers
Figure 5: Company structure introduced by Mascull (2002)
The company’s organizational structure features non-executive directors, including the Chairman or Chairwoman and the Chief Executive or Managing Director Senior executives, also known as top executives or executive directors, encompass roles such as Chief Financial Officer, Marketing Director, Human Resources Director, IT Director, and Research Director These senior managers oversee middle managers, like the Account Department Manager under the Finance Director, and the Sales and Customer Services Managers under the Marketing Director This clear chain of command establishes that each manager's direct supervisor is their line manager, ensuring effective organizational hierarchy.
2.2.2 Organizational structures of some Vietnamese companies
According to the Vietnam Enterprise Law (2005, Article 95), the management structure of a joint-stock company includes the General Meeting of Shareholders, the Board of Directors, and the Director or General Director The Chairman of the Board of Directors holds the highest position within the board, while the Director or General Director may serve as the legal representative of the company If a company has more than eleven individual shareholders or an organization holding over 50% of the total shares, it is required to establish a Supervisory Board Additional management positions vary based on the company's specific characteristics and must comply with its internal regulations.
Chairperson Chief executive/ managing director
Chief Financial Officer / Finance director
Bình Minh Plastic Joint-stock Company, established in 1977 through the merger of two enterprises, is a leading manufacturer in Vietnam's plastic industry Renowned for its success, the company operates as both a manufacturer and trader, featuring a comprehensive organizational structure comprised of various essential departments typical of a joint-stock company.
Figure 6: Structure of Bình Minh Plastics Joint-stock Company
The management system structure of Bình Minh Plastics Joint-stock Company is depicted in the diagram, with the head of the company positioned at the top of the hierarchy.
The company's governance structure is led by the "Board of Directors," with the "Chairman of the Board" at the helm The second-in-command is the "General Director," supported by two "Deputy General Directors." One deputy focuses on marketing, referred to as the "Deputy General Director of Business," while the other oversees technological issues, known as the "Deputy General Director of Technology." The organization also includes key functional departments such as "Sales Department," "Marketing Department," and "Administrative Management Department."
“Phòng nhân sự”, “Phòng tài chính kế toán”, “Phòng đầu tư nghiên cứu và phát triển”,
“Phòng đảm bảo chất lượng” The head of a department of the company is denoted as
“Trưởng phòng” In the company, the leader of “Phòng tài chính kế toán” also serves as “Kế
Chủ tịch Hội đồng quản trị
Trưởng phòng quản trị hành chính
Kế toán trưởng- Trưởng phòng tài chính kế toán
Trưởng phòng đầu tư nghiên cứu và phát triển (R&D)
Trưởng phòng đảm bảo chất lượng (QA)
The company employs two factory directors responsible for overseeing and managing the operations of its manufacturing facilities, while the head of the audit committee serves as the chief accountant.
Main titles in management system of American and Vietnamese joint-stock companies
2.3.1 Main titles in American joint-stock companies
The 2010 Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) by the U.S Bureau of Labor Statistics reveals a vast array of occupational titles in the U.S business landscape, making comprehensive investigation a significant challenge This research focuses specifically on the prevalent professional titles of top managers, who primarily engage in planning and organizing critical tasks that influence an organization's long-term performance, as well as middle managers who lead and oversee first-line managers.
In a company's hierarchy, Shareholders' Meetings and the Board of Directors hold the highest positions (Mackenzie, 1997; Tullis and Trappe, 2004) The Board typically includes Non-Executive Directors who do not manage the company directly (Mascull, 2002) Executive Officers, appointed from within the company or hired externally, oversee daily operations The Board is led by a Chairman or President, followed by the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) or Managing Director, and sometimes a Chief Operating Officer (COO) Additionally, several Vice Presidents (VPs) assist the CEO or COO in managing specific functions within the organization.
To effectively manage marketing and sales activities, companies typically employ Marketing Managers and Sales Managers, often referred to as Marketing Directors and Sales Directors In contemporary business, these roles may be elevated to Chief Customer Officer, with the Sales Director overseeing the Export Manager and various Regional Sales Managers In larger organizations, sales and marketing functions may be led by C-level executives such as the Chief Marketing Officer (CMO) and Chief Sales Officer (CSO) Additionally, to handle specific aspects of marketing, companies may appoint an Advertising Manager and a Promotion Manager to strategize and oversee advertising and promotional efforts.
In a company, the individual overseeing financial matters is referred to as the Financial Director In larger organizations, this role may be elevated to titles such as Vice President of Finance or Chief Financial Officer (CFO) Additionally, the position of Accounting Manager is commonly found across various business enterprises, playing a crucial role in financial management.
The Human Resources Manager, also known as the Vice President of Human Resources, Personnel Director, or Chief Human Resources Officer (CHRO), plays a crucial role in managing a company's workforce To enhance employee skills and foster professional growth, organizations may also employ a Training and Development Manager or Labor Training Manager, who focuses on labor training and development initiatives.
The Production Department, typically composed of five key sections—Production Control, Purchasing, Manufacturing, Quality Control, and Engineering Support (Mackenzie, 1997)—features several common management titles These include Vice President of Production, Chief Production Officer, Manufacturing Director, Production Director, Quality Assurance Manager, Research and Development Director, and Purchasing Manager (SOC, 2010).
Briefly, common titles denoting general managers are: Board of Directors, Chairman/ President, Chief Executive Officer and Chief Operating Officer
According to the U.S Bureau of Labor Statistics and data from CNN Money in 2010, a review of company structures reveals a variety of common titles for functional managers in the best jobs in America.
Titles denoting Sales and Marketing Managers
Chief Customer Officer, VP-Marketing, Marketing Director, Chief Marketing Officer (CMO), Marketing Manager, Advertising and Promotion Manager
Chief Sales Officer, VP-Sales, Sales Director, Regional Sales Manager
Chief Financial Officer (CFO), VP-Finance, Financial Director, Chief Accounting Officer, Accounting Manager, Chief Accountant
Titles denoting Human Resources Managers
VP-Human Resources, Chief Human Resources Officer, Human Resources Director; Training and Development Manager
Titles denoting Production and Engineering Managers
VP-Production, Chief Production Officer, Production Director, Manufacturing Director, Quality Assurance Manager, VP-Engineering, Engineering Manager
2.3.2 Main titles in Vietnamese joint-stock companies
According to the Vietnam Enterprise Law (2005, Article 95), the top management of a joint-stock company consists of the Shareholders' Meeting, the Board of Directors, and the General Director or Director The Chairman of the Board holds the highest position within the Board of Directors and may serve as the legal representative of the company Additionally, companies can appoint Deputy Directors to oversee specific functions If a company has more than eleven individual shareholders or an organization holding over 50% of total shares, it must establish a Supervisory Board In many Vietnamese companies, the General Director and Deputy Directors form a group known as the Executive Board The key titles that define the general management structure of a Vietnamese joint-stock company include Shareholders' Meeting, Board of Directors, Chairman of the Board, General Director, Deputy Director, Executive Board, and Supervisory Board.
In Vietnamese companies, common managerial titles for individuals overseeing specific functions include various roles that reflect the organizational structure Information sourced from platforms like www.vietnamworks.com and www.vieclam.vn highlights these titles, emphasizing the importance of functional departments within the corporate framework.
Titles denoting Sales and Marketing Managers
Trong lĩnh vực kinh doanh, các vị trí quan trọng như Phó tổng giám đốc kinh doanh, Giám đốc Kinh doanh, Giám đốc tiếp thị, Giám đốc bán hàng, Trưởng phòng kinh doanh, Trưởng phòng tiếp thị và Trưởng phòng chăm sóc khách hàng đóng vai trò then chốt trong việc phát triển và duy trì mối quan hệ với khách hàng, tối ưu hóa chiến lược tiếp thị và nâng cao doanh thu cho công ty.
Phó tổng giám đốc tài chính/ Giám đốc tài chính, Kế toán trưởng-Trưởng phòng tài chính kế toán
Titles denoting Human Resources Managers
Giám đốc nhân sự, Trưởng phòng nhân sự, Trưởng phòng đào tạo và phát triển nguồn nhân lực
Titles denoting Production and Engineering Managers
Phó tổng giám đốc kỹ thuật và Phó (tổng) giám đốc sản xuất đóng vai trò quan trọng trong việc quản lý và điều hành hoạt động sản xuất Giám đốc sản xuất và Trưởng phòng đảm bảo chất lượng đảm bảo rằng quy trình sản xuất diễn ra hiệu quả và sản phẩm đạt tiêu chuẩn chất lượng cao Đồng thời, Giám đốc nhà máy và Trưởng phòng nghiên cứu và phát triển sản phẩm cũng góp phần không nhỏ vào việc cải tiến quy trình và phát triển sản phẩm mới, từ đó nâng cao năng lực cạnh tranh của doanh nghiệp.
A CONTRATIVE STUDY ON PROFESSIONAL TITLES IN THE
A description of professional titles in management system of American and
3.1.1.1 Descriptions of Titles Denoting General Managers
Board of Directors: As provided by U.S Model Business Corporation Act
Every corporation is required to have a board of directors, elected by shareholders during the Shareholders' Meeting This board serves as the governing body of the company, holding overall responsibility for policy decisions and strategic direction.
According to the U.S Model Business Corporation Act (2002:95), the management and affairs of a corporation are overseen by the board of directors, which is why many companies feature both Executive Directors, who engage in daily operations, and Non-Executive Directors, who participate in board meetings without being involved in day-to-day management (Mascull, 2002:26) This dual structure is prevalent in large U.S corporations, such as IBM.
In large corporations like GM and GE, the Board of Directors typically delegates operational management to executive officers and professional managers, resulting in a limited number of individuals being directly accountable for the company's day-to-day operations.
Chairman: As explained by the Oxford Learners‟ Dictionary of Business
English (2006), Chairman is the person who leads a company‟s Board of Directors The chairman‟s responsibility is to oversee the company‟s operations and usually has no operational role (Mackenzie, 1997)
President: Different authors such as Mackenzie (1997) and Tullis and Trappe
(2004) agree that “President” and “Chairman” refer to the same position These authors explain that Chairman is British English while President is an American English term
In the Oxford Learners' Dictionary of Business English (2006), the title "President" refers to the primary leader of a company, tasked with policy decisions According to www.shrm.org, the President provides strategic leadership by collaborating with the Board and management to set long-term goals, strategies, and policies, while reporting to the Board of Directors This role shares similarities with that of a chairman and a chief executive officer As noted by www.investopedia.com, in companies without subsidiaries, the roles of Chairman, President, and CEO are often combined, whereas larger enterprises may have a CEO overseeing multiple Presidents, each managing a different business unit.
The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) is the highest-ranking executive in a company, appointed by the board of directors to oversee the entire business Key responsibilities of the CEO include developing and implementing high-level strategies, making significant corporate decisions, managing overall operations and resources, and serving as the primary communication link between the board and corporate operations In some organizations, the CEO also holds a position on the board and may even serve as the chairperson Additionally, in certain companies, the roles of Chairman, President, and CEO are often consolidated into one position.
The Chief Operating Officer (COO) serves as a key partner to the CEO, providing essential day-to-day leadership and feedback to the President/CEO, as noted by Bennet and Miles (2007) Introducing a COO alters the top-level reporting structure, often requiring executives who previously reported directly to the CEO to now communicate through the COO Companies may seek to appoint a COO for various reasons, including alleviating the CEO's heavy workload, executing specific strategic initiatives, retaining executive talent, or enabling the CEO to learn from the COO's expertise.
The title of Vice President (VP) is widely recognized across various organizations, serving to identify strategic leaders of specific functions, such as marketing or finance In larger corporations, it often signifies the individual overseeing a subsidiary, reflecting the title's importance in organizational hierarchy and function management.
In companies without a VP system, the role of a marketing director is equivalent to that of a VP of marketing However, when both positions exist within the same organization, the VP typically holds a higher strategic role, while the director focuses more on tactical execution (Kraft, 2013).
In large organizations, vice presidents hold various ranking titles, with the executive VP being the highest, followed by senior vice presidents, VPs, assistant VPs, and associate VPs, each carrying distinct management responsibilities that can differ across companies For instance, at GE Corporation, a Senior Vice President of the parent company also fulfills the role of President and CEO of its subsidiary.
3.1.1.2 Descriptions of Titles Denoting Functional Managers
Titles denoting Sales and Marketing Managers
The VP of Marketing, Sales and Marketing Director, Chief Sales and Marketing Officer, and Chief Customer Officer (CCO) oversee all sales and marketing activities, including business development, market research, and strategic advertising direction Their role involves coordinating with sales teams, managing marketing staff, and directing daily operations The title of Chief Customer Officer is increasingly gaining popularity among American companies, reflecting the evolving focus on customer-centric strategies in sales and marketing.
A Marketing Manager oversees the marketing, advertising, and promotional efforts within a company or organization Their role involves measuring and improving the company's position and image by setting and achieving specific goals and objectives.
An Advertising and Promotion Manager is responsible for planning, directing, and coordinating advertising policies and programs This role involves creating collateral materials, including posters, contests, coupons, and giveaways, to generate increased interest in purchasing a product or service for a department, organization, or specific account.
The Chief Sales Officer, VP of Sales, Commercial Director, Chief Commercial Officer, and Sales Director play crucial roles in shaping high-level strategic decisions within their respective domains They are tasked with establishing and achieving sales targets, acquiring new clients, and providing mentorship and training to new team members.
A Territory Sales Manager is responsible for fostering and sustaining relationships with key accounts in a designated region, while also overseeing the sales team within that area This role involves strategic management of sales professionals to drive performance and achieve market objectives.
Titles denoting Finance and Accounting Managers
The Chief Financial Officer (CFO) plays a crucial role in guiding an organization's financial goals, objectives, and budgets According to American Job Exchange, the CFO not only oversees the accounting department but also actively participates in managing accounting activities As the financial leader, as defined by SHRM, the CFO is responsible for the overall financial operations, including accounting, finance, payroll, and tax departments This role involves preparing budgets, forecasts, and ensuring compliance with all forms of financial reporting.
A contrastive analysis of professional titles in management system of American
The Board of Directors represents the highest authority in a U.S company, elected by shareholders, with some members serving as Independent Directors According to the American Model Business Corporation Act, the board exercises all corporate powers and oversees the management of the company, often functioning as non-executive directors in public corporations While the board supervises the company's performance, it designates executives to handle daily operations, even if those executives do not own shares This structure effectively combines the roles of management and supervision into a single-tiered board.
In Vietnam, the corporate structure features a distinct separation between management and the supervisory board, with the "Hội đồng quản trị" (Board of Directors) at the helm This board, akin to its American counterparts, is composed of individuals appointed by shareholders to oversee company governance and make critical decisions, as outlined in the Vietnam Enterprise Law.
In 2005, it was established that members of the "Board of Directors" do not need to be shareholders of the company The Board has the authority to appoint its own members or hire external individuals to oversee the company's daily operations.
An analysis of the American Board of Directors and the "Hội đồng quản trị" in Vietnam reveals that while both serve similar functions in their respective companies, a key difference lies in the absence of independent oversight in U.S boards.
In American corporations, the titles "Chairman" or "President" refer to the leader of the board of directors, a role that parallels the Vietnamese term "Chủ tịch Hội đồng quản trị," which signifies the head of a company's highest governance board.
The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) in American companies and "Giám đốc/Tổng Giám đốc" in Vietnamese businesses refer to the highest-ranking executives responsible for managing daily operations These executives operate under the supervision of the Board of Directors, known as "Hội đồng quản trị" in Vietnam Thus, "Giám đốc/Tổng Giám đốc" serves as the Vietnamese equivalent of the CEO title Additionally, a chairman who also holds the CEO position in an American company is comparable to "Chủ tịch Hội đồng quản trị kiêm Tổng Giám đốc" in Vietnamese firms.
In American companies, the Chief Operating Officer (COO) serves as a key ally to the CEO, overseeing daily operations and reporting directly to them (Bennet & Miles, 2007) The COO's responsibilities often mirror those of the CEO in their absence, ensuring smooth management within the organization Therefore, in contexts where both positions exist, the CEO is referred to as “Tổng Giám đốc” and the COO as “Giám đốc điều hành,” reflecting their distinct roles in company leadership.
The titles of "Vice President" in American companies and "Phó giám đốc/ Phó tổng giám đốc" in Vietnamese firms share similarities, both representing key allies to the company's top leader However, unlike in the U.S., where multiple levels of Vice Presidents exist, Vietnamese companies typically do not have such hierarchical distinctions Consequently, there are no direct Vietnamese equivalents for titles like Executive, Senior, Assistant, or Associate Vice President.
The position of Sales and Marketing Managers
The roles of Sales and Marketing Directors, often referred to as Chief Customer Officers (CCO) in modern businesses, involve planning and executing marketing and sales strategies In some American companies, sales falls under the marketing department, leading to titles like VP-Marketing, akin to “Phó tổng giám đốc kinh doanh” in Vietnam When sales and marketing are distinct departments, the heads may hold titles such as Chief Marketing Officer or Marketing Manager for marketing, and Chief Sales Officer or Sales Manager for sales, corresponding to “Trưởng phòng tiếp thị” and “Trưởng phòng/giám đốc kinh doanh” in Vietnam Additionally, Sales Managers typically oversee specific regions, earning titles like area, regional, or territory sales manager, which translates to “Giám đốc bán hàng khu vực” in Vietnamese.
The position of Finance and Accounting Managers
In many U.S companies, the Chief Financial Officer (CFO) oversees all financial activities, including accounting management, with the Accounting Manager or Chief Accounting Officer (CAO) reporting directly to them In some organizations, the CFO focuses solely on financial operations while the CAO manages accounting tasks, placing both roles at an equal level in the company hierarchy However, it is more typical for the CFO to lead both the finance and accounting departments within U.S firms.
The Chief Financial Officer (CFO) role, known as "Giám đốc tài chính" in Vietnamese companies, oversees all financial activities within the organization Despite its significance, the position of "Giám đốc tài chính" remains relatively uncommon in Vietnamese businesses today.
The Chief Accounting Officer (CAO), known as "Kế toán trưởng" in Vietnamese companies, oversees daily accounting operations and often combines the roles of "Kế toán trưởng" and "Trưởng phòng tài chính kế toán," managing both financial and accounting functions Unlike American companies where the Chief Financial Officer (CFO) handles both financial and accounting tasks, the CAO in Vietnam focuses solely on accounting Consequently, the dual role of "Kế toán trưởng kiêm Trưởng phòng tài chính-kế toán" in Vietnam aligns more closely with the responsibilities of a CFO in the U.S.
The position of Human Resources Managers
The Chief Human Resources Officer (CHRO), also known as the Chief Personnel Officer, Chief People Officer, or VP of Human Resources, oversees all personnel-related functions within a company, including planning, recruiting, and training In Vietnamese companies, human resources professionals typically hold titles such as “Giám đốc nhân sự” or “Trưởng phòng nhân sự,” which vary based on the company's specific regulations.
The position of Production and Engineering Managers
In American companies, the role of Vice President of Production, also known as Chief Production Officer or Manufacturing Director, is crucial for directing and overseeing manufacturing activities While some organizations have a VP of Engineering responsible for strategic planning and product design, others may only have an Engineering Manager, placing the VP of Production in a superior position In such cases, the VP of Production receives reports from the Engineering Manager, highlighting the hierarchical structure within the manufacturing and engineering departments.
In Vietnamese companies, the role of "Phó tổng giám đốc kỹ thuật" is highly esteemed, as this position encompasses both engineering and production responsibilities This role is akin to the combined functions of VP-Production and VP-Engineering in American firms Typically, the VP-Production in a U.S company oversees both manufacturing and engineering activities, making the titles "Phó tổng giám đốc kỹ thuật" and "VP-Production" equivalent in terms of their responsibilities.