INTRODUCTION
Rationale of the study
Bilingualism is becoming increasingly prevalent, with estimates suggesting that two-thirds of the world's population is bilingual (Crystal, 2003) As globalization continues to rise, the ability to speak a second language offers numerous advantages, leading to a growing trend in bilingual education for children In Vietnam, there is a significant demand from parents to introduce English to their preschoolers An online survey by the Management Board of National Foreign Languages Project revealed that over 75% of public nursery schools and more than 20% of private nursery schools now include English activities, marking an increase of over 20% from previous years In 2018, approximately 50,000 preschool children in nearly 400 nursery schools across 12 districts in Hanoi participated in English as a Second Language (ESL) activities Evaluations from parents and schools indicate that these programs are well-executed, with substantial investments in facilities, content, methods, and teacher training Children actively engage in these activities, which enhance their cognitive development, skills, and confidence in communication.
Numerous studies, including those by Poulin-Dubois (2011), Bialystock (2001), and Hakuta (1986), have demonstrated the advantages of bilingualism for children Nonetheless, it is essential to examine the various factors that influence bilingual development during early childhood.
This study, titled “A Case Study on Factors Influencing Bilingual Development of a 6-Year-Old Child as Perceived by the Parents,” aims to address the gap in research regarding bilingual development by examining the specific factors that contribute to the bilingual growth of a 6-year-old girl The child's mother, a former colleague of the researcher and an English teacher at a business English center, has successfully raised her daughter to be bilingual, unlike some peers with children of similar ages This success inspired the researcher to explore the conditions and strategies the mother employed to foster her child's bilingualism.
The aims and objectives of the study
This study investigates the factors influencing early bilingual development in a 6-year-old child, while also examining the challenges faced by the mother in raising her bilingual child The research analyzes natural conversations between the child and family members to identify interaction patterns, scaffolding evidence, and activities that promote language development Additionally, it explores the affective factors and challenges reported by the mother in the bilingual upbringing process.
Research questions
To achieve the above-mentioned goal, the study attempted to find answer to the three following research questions:
- What factors influence the early bilingual development of the child as self- reported by the mother?
- What challenges are there in raising a bilingual child according to the mother‟s self-report?
- What can be learned about early bilingualism from this specific case?
Significance of the Study
Theoretically, the current study fills a gap in the bilingual development literature by investigating affective factors that seem to facilitate the bilingual development of the 6-year-old child
Practically, the findings of the study hope to function as a reference that helps parents and teachers who are interested in assisting or facilitating bilingual development among young children.
Scope of the Study
This study explores the factors affecting the language development of a 6-year-old sequential bilingual child, focusing on home interactions, particularly between the child and her mother It also addresses the challenges faced by the mother in raising her bilingual daughter, who communicates in English with her mother and Vietnamese with other family members The research tracks the child's bilingual development over a one-year period, from ages 5 to 6.
Methods of the study
The study utilized naturalistic observation and semi-structured interviews to explore a child's bilingual development A semi-structured interview was conducted with the child's mother in Vietnamese to facilitate open communication about the child's exposure to English, the mother's strategies for language exposure at home, and the challenges encountered Additionally, the researcher recorded natural interactions between the child and family members, focusing on conversations with the mother, over a year-long period at three-month intervals This duration allowed for comprehensive data collection, enabling the observation of the child's growth and the factors influencing her bilingual development.
Structure of the thesis
The thesis consists of five chapters: Chapter I offers an overview of the study, while Chapter II discusses theories and research on language acquisition and bilingual development Chapter III outlines the research methodology used, and Chapter IV presents and analyzes data collected from observations and interviews Finally, Chapter V summarizes the key findings, addresses the study's limitations, suggests areas for further research, and highlights pedagogical implications.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Language Acquisition
Language acquisition refers to the unconscious process through which children naturally acquire their first language(s), emphasizing communication and message reception rather than focusing on syntax and grammar Unlike language learning, which is a conscious effort involving the understanding and application of grammatical rules, language acquisition occurs effortlessly and intuitively.
2.1.2 Theories of children language acquisition
Language acquisition is the unconscious process through which children learn their native language(s) Theories of language acquisition have evolved over time, beginning with Skinner's behaviorist theory, which posits that infants learn language through imitation and reinforcement from role models In contrast, Chomsky's nativist theory argues for an innate linguistic capability, suggesting that children are born with the ability to acquire language Additionally, Piaget's cognitive constructivism emphasizes the role of cognitive development in language learning, while Vygotsky's social constructivism highlights the importance of social interaction.
Critiques of behaviorist theory highlight that language input for children is often limited and potentially misleading, featuring incomplete sentences and inconsistent parental corrections In contrast, Chomsky's nativist theory posits that children are born with an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that helps them construct grammar, suggesting that the fundamental structures of all human languages are inborn and activated through maturation However, this theory overlooks the role of environmental influences, as children learn language by imitating the behaviors of those around them Historical evidence indicates that children isolated from society struggle to acquire language, underscoring the importance of social interaction in the language learning process.
According to Piaget's constructivist theory, language learning involves the same cognitive processes as acquiring any other knowledge or skill, developing through the interaction of a child's internal cognitive characteristics and their external environment He posited that language acquisition occurs as children engage with the world around them In contrast, Vygotsky's social constructivist theory emphasizes that language primarily develops through social interactions, where dialogue between the child and their surroundings plays a crucial role Vygotsky, a notable Russian psychologist, highlighted the significance of language, including signs and symbols, in cultural transmission, cognitive development, and learning Central to his psychology is the concept of mediation, which refers to the influence of others in the learning process.
Seven significant individuals play a crucial role in enhancing learners' experiences by shaping their educational journeys Effective learning hinges on social interactions between individuals with varying levels of knowledge and skill Typically, a parent, teacher, or even a peer acts as the more knowledgeable figure, guiding the learner to progress through new layers of understanding This key figure is referred to as a mediator A fundamental concept introduced by Vygotsky is the zone of proximal development, which highlights the gap between what a learner can accomplish independently and what they can achieve with support from a more skilled individual.
Meece (2002) listed some key points in Vygotsky‟s theory as below
- Social interactions are critical, and knowledge is co-constructed between two or more people
- Self-regulation is developed through internalization (developing an internal representation) of actions and mental operations that occur in social interactions
- Human development occurs through the cultural transmission of tools (language, symbols)
- Language is the most critical tool Language develops from social speech, to private speech to covert (inner) speech
- The zone of proximal development is the difference between what children can do on their own and what they can do with assistance from others
- Interactions with adults and peers in the zone of proximal development promote cognitive development
Vygotsky's theories have significant implications for education, particularly through concepts like instructional scaffolding and reciprocal teaching Instructional scaffolding involves the teacher initially managing challenging task elements, allowing students to focus on what they can handle, gradually shifting responsibility to the learners as they gain competence This approach ensures that students remain within their zone of proximal development, where they are optimally challenged Similarly, reciprocal teaching fosters an interactive dialogue between teachers and students, where the teacher first models activities, and then both parties take turns leading the instruction This method emphasizes social interaction and scaffolding, enabling students to develop essential skills, such as questioning strategies for reading comprehension, in a supportive environment.
This study adopts Vygotsky‟s social constructivist theory in which the development of language acquisition among children occurs through their social interactions with other people.
Bilingual Development
This section offers an in-depth exploration of bilingual development, including definitions and types of bilinguals, effective strategies for raising a bilingual child, and the key factors that influence bilingual growth.
The monolingual perspective posits that bilingual individuals must achieve full fluency in two languages, essentially viewing them as two monolinguals in one However, bilingualism encompasses more than just proficiency; it involves the use and experience of languages in various contexts Each language serves distinct purposes and functions for bilinguals, allowing them to adapt their communication based on the conversation partner and situation Research indicates that young bilinguals are adept at selecting the appropriate language for different interactions, demonstrating their nuanced understanding of language use in social settings.
Each language fulfills distinct roles and is utilized in various contexts and among different groups of people Bilingual individuals often demonstrate varying levels of competence depending on the situation, excelling in one language in certain contexts while being more proficient in the other in different scenarios Consequently, bilinguals do not operate as two separate monolingual speakers; their language proficiency is context-dependent.
Bilingualism is shaped by the unique ways individuals use and support each language, which can vary greatly from person to person and evolve over time Each bilingual individual uniquely blends knowledge from both languages, resulting in a richer linguistic experience that transcends mere translation between two separate languages.
2.2.2 Simultaneous bilinguals and sequential bilinguals
Bilinguals can be classified into two categories which are simultaneous bilinguals and sequential ones Below is the description and main stages of bilingual development for each type of bilinguals
Simultaneous bilinguals are young children exposed to two languages from birth to age three, leading to the development of two interconnected linguistic systems (De Houwer, 2009) With consistent and rich exposure to both languages, these children reach language development milestones similar to their monolingual peers (Genesee, 2015) However, individual differences exist, and some bilingual children may achieve these milestones later than others Additionally, language development in simultaneous bilinguals is more complex than in monolinguals due to varying proficiency levels and usage of each language, which can change over time An illustrative example is Leopold's (1970) longitudinal study of his daughter Hildegard, who was raised in a bilingual environment with German and English, showcasing the nuances of bilingual language acquisition.
Hildegard's language development was significantly influenced by her environment; while growing up in Germany, she strengthened her German skills, but upon returning to the United States for school, English became her dominant language This illustrates that language proficiency is largely determined by the level of exposure and experience with each language.
Simultaneous bilinguals initially acquire vocabulary from both languages, often using a single label for each object or action based on their exposure As they progress, they start to differentiate their vocabularies, employing equivalent terms in each language while blending grammatical structures Although their language development may vary due to different experiences, when combined, bilingual children's vocabulary typically matches or exceeds the number of meanings found in monolingual children’s vocabulary.
A longitudinal study by Paradis & Genesee (1996) on children learning French and English in Montréal revealed that simultaneous bilinguals start producing word combinations at the same age as monolinguals, around one-and-a-half to two years old Despite having less exposure to each language compared to their monolingual peers, bilingual children reach similar early language development milestones and exhibit comparable developmental patterns.
Sequential bilingualism occurs when individuals learn one language first and are later introduced to a second language, typically after the age of three These bilinguals often speak a home language that differs from the language used in their educational setting Unlike simultaneous bilinguals, whose language development parallels that of monolinguals, sequential bilinguals experience a distinct process Initially, they undergo a complex journey to acquire their first language, and upon exposure to a second language, they follow a specific sequence of development This process builds on their existing knowledge of the first language, allowing them to integrate new patterns and uses into their linguistic repertoire without reverting to the starting point of infancy for language acquisition (Baker & Wright, 2017).
In the initial stages of sequential bilingualism, children engage in a crucial observation and listening phase During this time, they gather information about the new language and begin to understand its patterns by attentively watching and listening They often rehearse what they hear internally, laying the groundwork for their language acquisition journey.
In the next phase of sequential bilingual development, children begin to utilize the new language through limited telegraphic and formulaic communication They express themselves using single words or short phrases, such as “no go” or “bag baby,” and often rely on commonly heard formulaic expressions like “That’s funny.” However, it is important to note that they may not fully understand the meaning of each word in these phrases or possess the ability to construct them independently.
Sequential bilinguals acquire formulaic phrases by listening to others, absorbing these expressions as complete units, and utilizing them to engage in social interactions, games, and conversations.
As sequential bilingual children gain an understanding of their new language's patterns, they start to apply these patterns, leading to greater control over the language They initially use formulaic phrases but gradually deconstruct them into functional, meaningful components This process allows them to create new phrases and sentences, thereby expanding their communicative skills With more experience, exposure, support, and opportunities to practice, these children begin to use their new language more creatively and expansively over time.
Sequential bilinguals progress through language acquisition stages at varying rates, and a child's proficiency in their first language serves as a crucial foundation for learning additional languages and developing literacy skills.
2.2.3 Strategies to raise bilingual children
A variety of strategies are used by caregivers to support their children‟s bilingual development According to Baker (2000), there are three main strategies used by parents to raise bilingual children
Strategy 1: One person one language (OPOL)
This strategy refers to the strategy in which each parent speaks a single language to the child For example, the mother, a native English speaker, speaks to her
A bilingual approach can be effective for families, where one parent communicates with the child in English and the other, a native speaker, uses Vietnamese This strategy is also beneficial for non-native speakers aiming to teach their children a new language.
Strategy 2: Time and place language strategy
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Description of the context of the Study
This study investigates the factors affecting the bilingual development of a 6-year-old Vietnamese girl over a year The girl communicates in English with her mother and Vietnamese with her father and other family members Initially, both parents spoke Vietnamese to her from birth, but after limited progress in English despite attending language courses at age four, the mother shifted her approach At nearly five, she ceased external English classes and implemented a one-person-one-language strategy at home, primarily using English for communication This method involved engaging the girl in her favorite activities, provided they were conducted in English, fostering her bilingual skills in a supportive environment.
The child has been restricted to consuming only English-language content, including television programs and YouTube videos, as well as reading English stories and books Additionally, they utilize educational apps such as Monkey Junior, Razkids, and Farfaria, and engage in mobile games that are in English.
Case study
A case study is defined as an empirical inquiry that explores a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, particularly when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly defined, utilizing multiple sources of evidence (Yin, 1984) Additionally, it is characterized as a study of a "bounded system," focusing on the unity and wholeness of that system while concentrating on aspects pertinent to the research problem at hand (Stake, 1988).
A case study is a research method that gathers data about a specific individual, object, or group by utilizing multiple sources of evidence, including firsthand accounts from the subjects involved It examines real-life contexts, ensuring that conclusions are applicable only to the defined subjects within those contexts Additionally, a case study aims to comprehend complex phenomena from the perspective of the participants.
According to Yin (1984), case studies can be classified into three types based on their outcomes: exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory Exploratory case studies serve as preliminary investigations, helping to define research questions and hypotheses Descriptive case studies offer a comprehensive overview of a phenomenon within its contextual framework In contrast, explanatory case studies focus on establishing cause-effect relationships and are frequently utilized to test existing theories Additionally, Stake introduced another classification for case studies, further enriching the understanding of this research method.
In 1994, Stake categorized case studies into three distinct types: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective Intrinsic case studies focus on a specific situation for its own merit, while instrumental case studies examine particular situations to gain insights into broader issues Collective case studies involve the simultaneous analysis of multiple cases to better understand a phenomenon, population, or general condition.
A case study aims to contextualize and comprehend the intricate dynamics of a specific entity, offering in-depth insights into an individual learner's unique processes, strategies, and communication styles It explores the learner's personality, attitudes, and goals as they interact with their learning environment, ultimately revealing the nuanced aspects of their linguistic development Consequently, the findings and conclusions drawn are deeply rooted in the particulars of the case study.
3.2.2 Rationale for the use of a case study
This study investigates the factors affecting bilingual development in a 6-year-old Vietnamese child exposed to both English and Vietnamese at home The child began learning English around the age of 5, primarily through her mother's input The research aligns with the case study approach in applied linguistics, making it a suitable methodology for this exploration.
By adopting a case study research design, this study could intensively analyze the case under investigation to figure out features specific to this particular case
This study employs an ethnographic case study approach, focusing on the child's home as the naturalistic setting for data collection By utilizing narratives provided by the child's mother, the research examines the phenomenon without any external intervention, ensuring an authentic understanding of the child's environment.
This study focuses on a 6-year-old Vietnamese girl who communicates in English with her mother and Vietnamese with her father and other family members Currently a grade-one student in Yen Bai city, she receives instruction in Vietnamese and has never lived abroad As a sequential bilingual, she began learning English after becoming fluent in Vietnamese At age three, she was introduced to English through songs and flashcards but showed little interest Her mother enrolled her in an English center at nearly four, yet progress was minimal After moving to a new apartment, the mother organized an English class at home with a native teacher, but the child's proficiency did not significantly improve It was only after the mother took a more active role in providing English exposure at home, when the child was nearly five, that her English skills flourished Now, at over six years old, she speaks English fluently with her mother and enjoys reading stories in the language.
Over the age of three: The mother let her daughter get exposed to English for the first time through songs and flash cards The child learned some English words,
21 but she showed no interest in English and paid no attention The mother got impatient about teaching her daughter English Then, she gave up teaching her daughter English
At nearly four years old, a mother in Hanoi enrolled her daughter in an English center, believing that financial investment in her education would provide her with the same opportunities as her peers The child attended classes twice a week for 90 minutes, taught by a mix of 50% Vietnamese and 50% native teachers, in groups of 12 to 15 students, with a tuition fee of approximately VND 100,000 per lesson Despite this effort, the child struggled to focus, frequently disrupted the class, forgot vocabulary, and exhibited poor pronunciation.
At the age of four, the family relocated to a new home, where the mother chose not to support her daughter's English learning journey Instead, she and five other mothers in the building established a home-based English class for their children, hiring a native UK teacher to provide weekly lessons at a rate of £27 per hour (approximately VND).
The mother, who worked as a teaching assistant in her child's class, invested 150,000 per lesson to closely monitor her child's learning progress Despite her efforts, the child only managed to learn a few new words While the teacher offered compliments to the daughter, the mother felt that these were merely expressions of encouragement rather than genuine assessments of her child's abilities.
Nearly the age of five: After finding out the root cause of her daughter‟s slow progress in English, the mother decided to stop the English class She wanted to
The mother actively supported her daughter's English language acquisition by consistently using the OPPL (one person, one language) strategy and providing daily exposure to English through films, videos, and audio resources This immersive approach has led to remarkable results, with the child now showing a strong preference for using English after just over a year of dedicated practice.
The child predominantly uses English at home, favoring it over Vietnamese While she communicates with family members in Vietnamese, her interactions with her mother often involve a mix of both languages, depending on the mother's responses Notably, even when her mother replies in Vietnamese, the child frequently continues the conversation in English.
The mother of the child in this study, a former colleague of the researcher, successfully raised a bilingual child while working as an English teacher at a business English center The researcher admired her achievement, especially as other colleagues with children of similar ages struggled to do the same This admiration motivated the researcher to explore the specific conditions and strategies the mother implemented to foster her child's bilingual language and literacy development.
The child's mother holds a bachelor's degree in Business Administration from Hanoi University and completed a one-year internship in America during her final year of studies Additionally, she pursued a master's course to further enhance her education.
Data collection instruments and analysis
The data collection criteria involved two naturalistic techniques, allowing the researcher to gather information unobtrusively within a natural setting In addition to these observations, the researcher conducted an interview with the mother to obtain elicited information.
This study utilized data from two key sources, primarily focusing on a year-long analysis of recorded verbal interactions between a girl and her mother within their family setting, with observations conducted over three-month intervals.
The study utilized 24 intervals to assess the child's language development in both Vietnamese and English over time Additionally, data was gathered through an interview with the child's mother, which aimed to identify the factors influencing the child's bilingual development as reported by her.
The corpus of the child’s language use
The researcher conducted observations of natural communication within the child's home, focusing on oral interactions with family members By video-recording these conversations, the researcher was able to document the physical setting, identify the participants, and analyze various aspects of non-verbal communication, including gestures and eye contact.
Every three months, the researcher recorded unstructured conversations lasting 10-20 minutes in both English and Vietnamese between the child and her family members To gather data on past natural interactions, the researcher requested videos from the mother, which she had saved on her mobile phone, resulting in varying lengths of conversations.
The questions were meticulously crafted and sequenced in advance, ensuring they were presented in an open-ended format While the specific wording was predetermined, the responses remained open-ended, allowing respondents to express their thoughts in their own words.
In conducting interviews, it is essential to formulate 25 relevant questions that effectively address the research inquiries regarding the influential factors affecting a child's bilingual development and the challenges mothers encounter in raising bilingual children Each question should provide valuable insights that contribute to understanding these dynamics.
The researcher informed the mother about the study's purpose and the interview beforehand, leading to an informal conversation rather than a formal interview, which resulted in the exclusion of irrelevant information from the transcription Conducted in Vietnamese, the interview aimed to facilitate the mother's expression without the stress of using a second language The questions focused on the child's English exposure journey, the mother's methods of introducing English at home, the child's English usage, the challenges faced by the mother, and factors affecting the child's bilingual development as reported by her The semi-structured format allowed for flexibility, enabling the generation of additional questions and deeper insights into the research topic (Schauer, 2009).
The interviews and conversations were transcribed and analyzed to identify interaction patterns and instances of scaffolding between the mother and child This analysis revealed evidence of language development resulting from these scaffolded interactions, as well as the types of activities that encouraged such engagement.
The researcher took on the role of a detached observer to study the child in her natural environment, aiming to collect information unobtrusively Data was gathered through two main instruments: observing spontaneous conversations between the child and her family and conducting a semi-structured interview with the mother After collecting the data, the researcher transcribed and analyzed the conversations and interview, leading to an objective interpretation of the phenomena under investigation This approach allowed for a comprehensive understanding of the child's interactions and behaviors within her family context.
3.3.3 Data analysis: qualitative data analysis
This study utilized a qualitative analysis approach (Dornyei, 2017) to examine the interactions between a mother and her child through Interaction Analysis (Miller, 2018) Interaction Analysis serves as an umbrella term encompassing various methods aimed at empirically investigating human interactions (Jordan & Henderson, 1995) In the context of language learning research, this approach facilitates the exploration of how knowledge is shared among participants and how language learning is influenced by specific contexts Rather than relying on traditional research methods that assess stored language competence, such as grammaticality tests, Interaction Analysis focuses on how individuals exhibit learning through their evolving participation in collaborative discursive practices (Hellermann & Harris, 2015; Young & Miller, 2004).
According to Miller (2018), Interaction Analysis emphasizes the sequential development of interaction, particularly how participants engage in turn-taking Researchers focus on identifying subtle behaviors that facilitate language learning and compare these behaviors to different moments in the interaction This approach helps in recognizing language learners' participation patterns and any changes in those patterns over time.
In Conversation No 12, a mother engages her child in a discussion about the four steps of roller skating, showcasing the child's active participation and ability to take conversational turns The child's contributions are relevant and build on previous topics, demonstrating effective interaction The mother employs scaffolding techniques by using sentence starters such as “so step one?” and “OK, and step number 4?” to guide the conversation and support the child's learning process Furthermore, she reinforces the child's language by repeating phrases like “stand still?”, enhancing comprehension and engagement.
“and back to me” to emphasize the use of language that was valued when describing steps to roller skate
The interview data was analyzed by categorizing the data into theme (i.e., factors that influence the child‟s language development) (Dornyei, 2017)
This chapter gave an outline of the research methodology adopted in this chapter
It provided information on the study context, the participants, the instruments
The following chapter will present and analyze the data collected through natural observations and interviews, outlining the procedures used for data collection and analysis.
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Evidence of the child‟s language development
Knowledge is co-constructed through social interaction and contextual learning experiences In Conversation No 13, a child discusses a long-horned beetle with her father, reflecting on her understanding and questioning whether the beetle can cut human hair The father facilitates her learning by conducting an experiment to see if the beetle can indeed cut hair, creating an engaging and playful atmosphere with jokes and comparisons to scissors This interaction not only provides the child with new insights about long-horned beetles but also emphasizes the importance of experiential learning in a supportive environment.
Social interactions significantly influence a child's cognitive and language development, particularly in Vietnamese Through experimentation and observation, it becomes clear that the child's background knowledge is enriched and collaboratively built through engagement with their conversational partner.
In the initial days of introducing English at home, the mother engaged her child through activities like drawing, object description, and repetition of new vocabulary As the child communicated in incomplete sentences, the mother rephrased these ideas into complete sentences, such as transforming “mine” into “This is your paper.” Initially, the child mixed English and Vietnamese, saying phrases like “Mẹ draw sun,” demonstrating code-switching This behavior may stem from the child's ongoing language development; when unable to quickly recall a word in one language, she may resort to her bilingual vocabulary for alternatives Additionally, the child’s language use is influenced by the conversational context, including the partner's language, the topic, and the communicative intent.
The child gradually gained proficiency in both languages, as evidenced in Conversation No 3 Initially, during the early exposure to English, the child struggled with pronouncing the final sound /s/ in words like "birds," "let's," "yes," and "basket."
A child mispronounced the word "basket" as "ma…ket," initially relying on her Vietnamese language skills to develop her English proficiency Vietnamese phonology, vocabulary, and grammar served as a foundation for her second language acquisition, particularly affecting her pronunciation of final consonants, such as the English /s/ Discourse analysis indicated that the child utilized her existing knowledge of Vietnamese to learn English, aligning with Gort's (2019) assertion that errors are a natural part of language acquisition for both monolingual and bilingual children Improvement in pronunciation takes time and is enhanced through meaningful language practice By the age of 5.5 years, the child demonstrated progress in pronouncing final sounds, successfully articulating words like "apples," "bananas," and "carrots."
Before starting grade one, the child demonstrated fluent reading skills, easily navigating various stories However, she struggled with spelling simple words, such as "apple," often seeking her mother's assistance Her mother explained that the child tends to visualize words, recognizing them in context but needing help with their written forms.
The mother reported that her child's language development has progressed significantly, noting that initially, the child frequently mixed English and Vietnamese within single sentences Now, she is able to deliver extended speeches in either language.
The child communicates with her mother in both English and Vietnamese, often responding in Vietnamese, yet her mother prefers English at home Remarkably, she can now enjoy two- to three-hour films without subtitles and even re-watches certain series This highlights the significance of exposing her to engaging, authentic content, as her interest drives her to seek out more entertainment, allowing her to learn without the pressure of formal study.
Research Question 1
An analysis of interviews and recorded conversations revealed four key factors that significantly impact a child's bilingual language and literacy development These factors encompass the quality and quantity of language input, the interaction between the child and her mother, and the overall home environment.
Language acquisition depends largely on the quantity and quality of input (Hoff
High-quality language exposure is essential for effective language acquisition, involving diverse social interactions and authentic materials A mother encouraged her daughter’s English language development by introducing her to genuine English content, such as programs from Arts for Kids Hub, cartoons, and prank shows on platforms like YouTube and Netflix These "authentic English materials," created by native speakers for a native audience, significantly improved her daughter's pronunciation and helped her develop a native-like accent Through this immersive approach, the child also acquired a broad vocabulary and a deeper understanding of the language.
In an interview, a mother shared that she often learns new English words from TV shows and films, which she then teaches her child For instance, after watching a Netflix film, she explained the word "weirdo" to her child in English This highlights the importance of exposing children to engaging, authentic resources, as their interest can lead to incidental learning The child enjoys scientific programs like "Bright Side" and brain riddles, while the mother, busy with extra classes, allows her to watch games, cartoons, and prank shows on platforms like YouTube and Netflix Research supports that watching foreign language TV programs can lead to incidental language acquisition (Lekkai, 2014), and children who watched American cartoons often develop an American accent over time (Poštič, 2015) Such exposure immerses young learners in a foreign culture, fostering an environment conducive to learning English Several studies have also noted that engaging TV content motivates children to continue watching, enhancing their language skills (San Jose & Vicencio, 2018; Sipra, Alsolami, & Farooq, 2016; Nurhayati, 2015; Prosic-Santovac, 2017).
The mother utilized a variety of reading materials to foster her child's love for books, purchasing numerous comic and storybooks such as Little Fox, Potato Pals, and Peppa Pig In addition to traditional paper books, she encouraged her daughter to explore reading apps like Monkey Stories, Razkids, and Farfaria to reduce costs Through trial and error, she discovered that her child particularly enjoyed Farfaria, highlighting the importance of selecting age-appropriate and engaging materials It’s crucial to consider factors like material authenticity, difficulty level, and the child's interests and background knowledge when choosing reading resources As Dale and Chall (1949) stated, success in reading is determined by comprehension, reading speed, and interest in the material.
Research indicates that both the quality and quantity of language input significantly influence a child's bilingual language and literacy development In this study, the mother, despite lacking formal teaching experience, applied her background in linguistics and relevant research to support her child's learning She recognizes that languages vary in difficulty; for instance, an English native speaker finds languages like French and Spanish easier to learn, while languages such as Chinese, Japanese, and Korean are considered more challenging To effectively communicate in an easier language, a learner typically requires around 480 hours of practice, whereas mastering more complex languages demands even greater effort.
To effectively communicate in English, a Vietnamese child may require between 720 to 5000 hours of practice, depending on their individual learning pace If English is perceived as an easy language for them, dedicating just one hour each day would enable them to achieve basic communication skills in approximately one and a half years.
The mother's strong belief in the importance of consistent English exposure for her child led her to integrate the language into their daily routine without interruption By providing authentic resources for the child to watch and listen to, as well as engaging in daily reading and interactions in English, she emphasized that language input is essential for developing speaking and writing skills.
Research indicates that bilingual individuals with greater exposure to a language demonstrate enhanced proficiency and processing efficiency in that language (Hoff et al., 2012; Pearson & Fernández, 1994; Conboy & Mills, 2006; Hurtado et al., 2013; Marchman et al., 2010) This underscores the necessity of providing children with regular opportunities to engage with each language for diverse, authentic purposes In this study, the child was exposed to authentic English sources daily According to the mother, when the child began hearing English at home at age five, she listened to nursery MP3 songs for one to two hours daily, which she had previously seen on TV, allowing her to connect the audio with visual imagery Over time, the child even began to sing along Additionally, she was permitted to watch her favorite prank shows, scientific programs, and cartoons, as well as play mobile games, provided they were in English.
The child actively participated in daily reading challenges, sharing stories on Facebook, which provided her with valuable opportunities to engage with English in diverse contexts This aligns with existing research indicating that effective language acquisition is significantly influenced by both the volume and quality of linguistic input.
The study highlights that, alongside the quality and quantity of language input, interaction plays a crucial role in a child's bilingual language and literacy development According to Long (1996), the significance of interaction in this developmental process cannot be overlooked.
Interaction and meaning negotiation play a crucial role in language acquisition by effectively linking input, internal learner capacities such as selective attention, and output This connection enhances both language learning and the overall acquisition process, highlighting the importance of engaging with language in productive ways.
Vygotsky's social constructivist theory emphasizes that language development occurs mainly through social interactions In this context, a mother played a crucial role by engaging her child in dialogues, particularly encouraging her to express herself in English during her favorite leisure activities This approach allowed the child to actively participate in daily tasks, discussing her experiences, reviewing games or books, and providing guidance The mother skillfully adapted her support to enhance the child's involvement, believing that her most significant achievement was allowing her child the freedom to explore language use independently.
The article highlights a child who engages in 37 leisure activities, all conducted in English, as her mother encourages her to express herself in the language for effective communication This dynamic fosters social interaction in various contexts and utilizes diverse materials and media for authentic purposes The child, aspiring to be a YouTuber, enjoys playing mobile games and creating video reviews of them, with her mother assisting in recording these reviews.
Today, I want to share my favorite game with you, where you can engage in thrilling battles against various dragons Let's dive into the excitement of the Twister Cup and prepare for an epic fight!
In this game, I face my opponent by tapping to attack, leading to an easy victory As I progress through the levels, I find myself using the same attack strategy frequently, which proves effective While I encounter various events, my initial experiences are straightforward, allowing me to open chests and discover new dragons Overall, the gameplay remains enjoyable and accessible.
Research Question 2
The analysis of interview data highlighted challenges encountered by a mother raising a bilingual child Unlike some sequential bilinguals who may resist speaking a second language, her child willingly communicated in English while being fluent in Vietnamese Consequently, the mother perceived that the primary difficulties stemmed from her own approach to bilingualism.
Time management posed a significant challenge for the mother, an English teacher with a demanding schedule of evening classes With limited time to connect with her child, they could only spend moments together around 10 p.m., when both were exhausted after a long day Initially struggling to find time for her child, she eventually learned to balance her commitments, allowing them to tackle new challenges together.
100 days reading stories or 365 days reading English books These challenges helped motivate and stop them from being lazy because the mother believed that
“if either of us fails to complete their tasks, we will feel embarrassed.”
The child exhibited signs of inattention, forgetfulness, and sleepiness in class, which the mother attributed to several factors She noted that allowing her daughter extensive access to electronic devices from an early age may have contributed to her recent diagnosis of myopia and astigmatism While the mother believed these devices aided in her child's bilingual language development, she regretted not moderating their use to prevent negative effects on eyesight and concentration Research supports this concern, highlighting that excessive screen time can lead to health issues such as obesity, sleep disorders, and reduced engagement in vital activities like reading and creative play Additionally, the child frequently went to bed late due to a busy schedule filled with schoolwork and quality time spent with her mother, who also had evening classes This routine often resulted in the child arriving late to school or dozing off in class To address these challenges, the mother planned to reduce her evening class load to better support her child's academic and bilingual growth, acknowledging the difficulty of this decision.
Many children find themselves trapped in unfulfilling educational environments, which may stem from an unsuitable or unengaging school curriculum A concerned mother is exploring two homeschooling options, Abeka and Acellus, to determine if her child shows a greater interest in these programs By trying out these alternatives, she hopes to foster a more engaging learning experience for her child.
Research Question 3
This study reveals that consistent exposure to both languages, along with interaction and a supportive home environment, significantly enhances a child's language development To foster bilingualism, parents should create opportunities for their young children to engage in social interactions across diverse contexts and utilize authentic resources regularly Thus, it is crucial for parents of bilingual children to ensure systematic exposure to both languages on a daily or weekly basis.
Engaging young children in fun activities such as songs, stories, films, and games can significantly enhance their participation and interest However, since each child has unique interests and abilities, parents may need to explore various resources to identify the most suitable materials for their individual needs.
This chapter analyzed data collected from natural observations and interviews to address the research questions The upcoming chapter will summarize the key findings, outline the study's limitations, propose suggestions for future research, and discuss relevant pedagogical implications.