INTRODUCTION
Rationale of the study
English is integral to the daily lives of Vietnamese people, especially for secondary and high school students who engage with English through music, YouTube, and online communication with peers globally Many families work in multinational companies where English is the official language, and Vietnam's membership in ASEAN further emphasizes the importance of English, as it is the organization's official language Additionally, international business interactions with Asian and Western governments predominantly occur in English Overall, English influences nearly every facet of life in Vietnam.
In today's globalized world, the Vietnamese government recognizes the crucial role of English in driving economic growth, industrialization, and modernization To enhance English language education, significant investments have been made, with the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) requiring that all K-12 students in Vietnam receive English instruction.
To enhance English proficiency among Vietnamese students, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has implemented a curriculum aimed at training teachers to conduct classes in English, with the goal of ensuring that all grade 12 students achieve B1 proficiency by 2020 Additionally, high school students seeking admission to university programs must meet specific standards set by their chosen institutions and obtain satisfactory scores on the Upper National Entrance Exam.
Testing is vital in education due to its significant impact and influence on learning outcomes Policymakers worldwide use assessments to enhance educational systems, regulate curricula, and update teaching materials Furthermore, examinations are viewed as a key method to foster talent development, boost school and college performance, and mitigate cronyism in university admissions and employment practices.
Vietnam's integration into the global community has posed significant challenges for both teachers and students, necessitating rapid adaptation to an ever-evolving environment A primary focus of researchers in language education has been English as a Foreign Language (EFL), highlighting its critical role in the teaching and learning process.
Recent research findings reveal that students aim to enhance their English skills, particularly in speaking, to succeed in various professions such as business, information technology, teaching, translation, and interpreting.
In Vietnam, English achievement tests such as the National Upper- Secondary school exam have been used as an exit requirement for all graduating high school students
Voices are emerging concerning the testing framework established by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), particularly in relation to university teacher training and English teaching techniques, as well as student performance on the National Upper Secondary Exam To align with the teaching approach that meets high school students' needs for their chosen majors and future careers, educators utilize the mandated textbooks, which serve as the foundation for the National Upper Secondary School Exam Consequently, teachers design appropriate lesson plans based on the prescribed curricula.
The content-based textbook emphasizes the use of authentic resources to engage high school students in class activities designed to enhance their speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills Additionally, the curriculum aims to expand students' understanding of culture, geography, and social issues However, schools and administrators have only recently begun to evaluate the curriculum in relation to National and certification testing standards.
Chapelle's research (2007, as cited in Car, 2011) highlights the significant role of University Entrance Examinations in determining students' academic success However, contemporary studies in testing and assessment fall short in providing sufficient evidence regarding the ability of prospective students to utilize a foreign language effectively.
Traditional methods of assessing students in Vietnam's National Upper-Secondary school exam primarily focus on written language, making it challenging to evaluate their overall competence, particularly in speaking skills.
In spite of the ample investigations of language programs, the impacts of English testing on teaching and learning have not been adequately researched
This research project examines the Washback effects of the National Upper-Secondary exam, highlighting a significant gap in the understanding of how learners influence language pedagogy among teachers, administrators, and policy-makers While there have been advancements in English testing to assess student competence, the impact of these tests on teaching and learning processes, particularly regarding the National Upper-Secondary exam's effects on English speaking skills, has been largely overlooked.
Aims of the study
On the research of above mentioned aims, the study is conducted in order to answer the following questions:
1 From teachers‟ perspectives, what are the washback effects of the national upper-secondary exam on their teaching practices to develop English speaking skills for Grade 12 students?
2 From students‟ perspectives, what are the washback effects of this exam on their learning practices to develop English speaking skills?
3 What have been done by the teachers and the students to counter the negative washback effects (if any) of this exam?
Scope of the study
This study focuses on two schools in Vietnam, exploring the perceptions of teachers and students regarding the impact of the National Upper-Secondary exam on English speaking skills While the research involves a limited number of teachers and students, the findings shed light on significant issues related to the washback effects of high-stakes testing on both teaching practices and student learning outcomes.
English speaking skills process, which other teachers working in the same situations may encounter, however, it might be only different in terms of the extent of washback effects only.
Research methodology
High-stakes tests significantly impact both test makers and test-takers, presenting a complex challenge recognized by many educators To effectively address these issues, the use of both qualitative and quantitative methods, particularly through triangulation in data collection and analysis, proves essential This approach enables researchers to gain comprehensive insights into the problems at hand and propose effective solutions The study involves teachers and grade 12 students from two Upper-Secondary schools, employing a case study methodology for an in-depth exploration of the topic.
This study employed a triangulated approach using questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and observations to investigate the impact of the National upper-secondary exam on teachers' and students' speaking skills Questionnaires were utilized to gather teachers' perspectives and students' perceptions regarding the exam's effects, providing a comprehensive overview of the issue Semi-structured interviews, guided by prepared questions, facilitated in-depth discussions, while observations allowed for a detailed understanding of classroom practices related to speaking skills The research aimed to enhance positive washback effects of the high-stakes test while minimizing negative impacts, with data being systematically coded and analyzed for insights.
Organization of the thesis
The study is structured into five chapters, with Chapter 1 providing an overview that includes the rationale, aims, scope, research methodology, research questions, and the significance of the research, along with the organization of the study Chapter 2 discusses the theoretical background, focusing on the washback effects of high-stakes testing.
This article explores the development of speaking skills, focusing on key concepts such as washback, test types, and speaking proficiency Chapter 3 outlines the methodological approach, detailing the procedures for data collection and analysis In Chapter 4, the results address the research questions posed in the study Finally, Chapter 5 provides a conclusion that discusses the findings, offers implications for teaching and learning English—particularly in speaking skills—and highlights the research limitations along with suggestions for future studies.
Significance of the study
This section presents an overview, including visual aids, concise descriptions, and summarized insights to highlight the rationale, aims, research questions, scope, methodology, organization, and significance of the study Additionally, key concepts are systematically illustrated with diverse perspectives from various researchers to enhance understanding of the identified problem.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Language tests and their purposes
Numerous authors have illustrated the variety of language tests that represent the wide opinions and views of what makes – up the field of language proficiency
According to Brown (1995, cited in Narthan Carr 2011), language tests serve as essential tools for decision-making, influencing various stakeholders such as policymakers, administrators, teachers, and students These assessments evaluate test takers' performance and learning processes, allowing for informed adjustments to policies, methods, and strategies aimed at enhancing proficiency in the targeted language.
According to Narthan Carr (2011), it is crucial to recognize that language tests and assessments serve as essential tools in the educational process These assessments play a significant role in guiding stakeholders' decisions, ultimately enhancing the teaching and learning experience to maximize student success.
According to Hedge (2000, p.378), testing refers to the specific methods utilized by educators and examiners to assess language proficiency, serving as a reflection of learners' demonstrated knowledge and skills.
In summary, research indicates that language tests serve as effective instruments for stakeholders to evaluate students' knowledge, abilities, and communication skills in real-world contexts Furthermore, these assessments aid policymakers and educators in making informed decisions Most importantly, language tests play a crucial role in motivating and encouraging students throughout their language learning journey.
Teaching, learning, and testing are interconnected processes that significantly impact language acquisition According to Bachman (1990), advancements in language testing provide valuable practical tools and theoretical insights that enhance both research and development in language teaching Notably, testing plays a crucial role, serving various purposes at both micro and macro levels in the educational landscape.
In addition, on the one hand, Hughes (1989: 45) refers to direct testing as
Testing performance skills should involve authentic texts and tasks that closely resemble real-life language use Bachman (1990) supports this idea, stating that a "direct test" reflects actual language performance He provides examples of direct tests, highlighting that writing samples and oral interviews are commonly used to assess language proficiency.
„direct‟ tests.” In addition, when the test would seem to involve the use of the skills being tested, it is presumably referred as “direct tests”
Bachman (1990) emphasizes that interpreting test results requires understanding the indirect relationship between test scores and the abilities being measured Hughes (1989) adds that indirect testing diminishes students' motivation to practice in desired ways Furthermore, Nathan Carr (2011) notes that direct testing can lead to both negative and positive washback effects.
In Vietnam, speaking skills are not directly assessed in the National upper-secondary exam; instead, they are indirectly evaluated through components like phonology and lexico-grammar This high-stakes testing may lead to washback effects that influence English teaching and learning practices Consequently, further research is essential to explore the specific types of washback effects generated by the exam across various contexts.
In conclusion, the testing process is essential for test designers, policymakers, and educators to innovate teaching methods and support student learning While testing offers numerous benefits, it also has drawbacks; poor performance can undermine students' confidence, leading to a decline in their results over time.
Testing is a crucial component of the educational process in high schools and universities, serving multiple purposes in both teaching and learning The relationship between language testing and education is significant, as assessments are designed to enhance the overall learning experience and measure student progress effectively.
According to Shohamy (1985), testing serves various purposes and can be categorized into classroom tests and external tests Classroom tests, created by teachers, assess students' progress and determine if learning objectives have been met These assessments aid in selecting appropriate materials and guide teachers on areas to focus on Additionally, tests provide valuable insights for student selection, grouping, and evaluating curricula, fulfilling essential pedagogical functions.
External tests are conducted by specific agencies to evaluate students' proficiency, which plays a crucial role in determining their admission into various programs or universities.
In 1987, Henning outlined various purposes of language testing, emphasizing its role in assessing educational programs, curricula, and syllabi Additionally, he highlighted the significance of language tests in diagnosis, placement, selection, and evaluation processes.
In 1987, it was emphasized that language testing serves to assess students' strengths and weaknesses in their learning abilities Teachers utilize diagnostic tests to uncover crucial information about their students, enabling them to implement remedial actions when necessary.
According to Brown (1996), various types of tests can aid teachers and policymakers in making informed decisions, which can be categorized into two main groups: teaching-related tests and curriculum-related tests He notes that curriculum-related tests are more prevalent due to their convenience and ease of use, despite the challenges associated with tests that are not aligned with a specific curriculum.
Achievement Tests
According to Brown (1995, as cited by Nathan Carr, 2011), language tests are normally used to help make academic decisions Therefore, there are many different ways to classify a language test
Achievement tests are defined in various ways by different authors, but they are generally understood to assess the level of knowledge that students acquire during their learning process.
Achievement tests are essential for evaluating student progress and determining how well they meet course requirements, as highlighted by Nathan Carr (2011) These tests enable teachers to adapt their teaching strategies to align with course objectives, fostering positive Backwash effects Carr emphasizes that the classification of tests as achievement or progress depends on both their intended purpose and their application within specific contexts This understanding aids teachers in effectively utilizing and identifying the appropriate tests for their educational settings.
Hughes (1989:10) suggests that achievement tests are closely linked to language courses, serving to evaluate what students have learned over a specific period and whether they have met the objectives These tests are implemented in schools to provide teachers with insights into students' mastery throughout the English training process.
Achievement tests are essential tools for teachers to assess students' learning outcomes after completing a course, as noted by Heaton (1998:172) These tests should align with the syllabus and coursebook content, allowing educators to monitor the teaching and learning process effectively and make necessary adjustments to enhance student achievement.
In conclusion, achievement tests can be defined in various ways, but they should always be utilized for appropriate purposes and at the right time These tests must be designed in a suitable format that encompasses a significant portion of the syllabus to align with course requirements and foster positive washback effects in the teaching and learning process.
Achievement tests are defined in numerous ways, leading to diverse classifications that make the study of this field particularly intriguing.
According to Hughes (1989), achievement tests are categorized into two main types: progress achievement tests and final achievement tests Progress achievement tests assess students' learning and mastery based on course objectives at specific stages, helping teachers evaluate student progress In contrast, final achievement tests are administered after the completion of a course, providing a broader assessment of students' overall success and enabling teachers to gauge the effectiveness of their instruction throughout the course.
Hughes (1989) categorized achievement tests into two types: content-based and objective-based Content-based achievement tests rely on the detailed course syllabus, textbooks, and materials, allowing teachers to use test results to enhance their teaching methods and promote student progress However, issues arise when the syllabus and materials do not align with course needs In contrast, objective-based achievement tests focus on assessing students' abilities to meet specific course objectives While this approach effectively evaluates student performance, it often emphasizes testing mechanics over actual learning outcomes.
Nathan Carr (2011) highlights that achievement tests are essential for assessing students' progress and their ability to meet course requirements He emphasizes that the classification of tests as achievement or progress depends on both their intended purpose and their contextual application Additionally, progress tests provide valuable insights into students' ongoing development.
„what or how fast to teach‟ (Nathan Carr, 2011) whereas achievement ones mention
„how individual students have learned what they were supposed to‟
Achievement tests can be categorized into two types: final achievement tests and progress tests, which can be based on content or objectives These tests positively influence both teaching and learning processes, enhancing educational outcomes.
Teachers can effectively identify students' strengths and weaknesses, which fosters a positive impact on teaching and enhances student motivation through test results However, it is important to be cautious, as selecting poor-quality materials and course books can lead to negative outcomes.
Washback effect on tests
One of the most important things to keep in mind when making or using language tests is that tests and other assessments are necessary tools (Narthan Carr,
Testing plays a crucial role in the teaching and learning process, serving multiple purposes such as informing decision-making, motivating students, adjusting educational policies, and enhancing instructional materials and strategies Its significant impact underscores the interconnectedness of testing, teaching, and learning practices, highlighting the importance of assessments in education.
The term "backwash" encompasses concepts such as curriculum alignment, test feedback, test impact, measurement-driven instruction, and systemic validity (Brown, 1997) Specifically, "curriculum alignment" refers to the ability of test results to inform modifications to the curriculum, highlighting the connection between assessments and the teaching syllabus (Shohamy, 1996).
The concept of "Washback," introduced by Anderson and Wall in 1993, highlights the significant relationship between teaching, learning, and testing Research by Bachman (1990) and Palmer (1996, as cited in Car 2011) supports this idea, emphasizing that the impact of tests extends to teachers, students, the educational system, and society as a whole.
The analysis of concepts can be approached from two distinct perspectives: a narrower scope and a broader scope Berry (1994) highlights a growing concern regarding the Washback effect, emphasizing the importance of "systemic validity."
The "Washback effect" refers to the influence that a test has on classroom practices and is closely linked to the concept of systemic validity While some researchers focus narrowly on classroom implications, others, like Pierce (1992), adopt a broader perspective, acknowledging that the Washback effect encompasses not only systemic validity but also its impact on pedagogy, curriculum development, and educational policy.
In summary, the Washback effect is a significant concept in test construction and evaluation, though its definitions may vary This thesis will explore the washback effects on both teaching and learning, aiming to propose effective solutions to minimize any negative impacts.
Research has increasingly focused on the significant impacts of the teaching–testing relationship, particularly the Washback effect, which can have both positive and negative influences on education According to Pearson (1988), examinations exert a backwash effect on the teaching and learning process This influence can be categorized into two main types: positive and negative, based on their effects on educational practices.
Positive washback can be categorized into two main areas: the classroom setting and the broader educational or societal system At the micro-level, within the classroom context, Alderson and Wall (1993) argue that testing encourages both students and teachers to engage in desirable activities, enhances motivation, and promotes effective test-taking skills Additionally, creatively designed tests can lead to significant improvements in the curriculum, as highlighted by Davies (1985), who describes tests as “obedient servants” that can guide and support teaching and learning practices.
Similarly, Pearson (1985) also shared the same idea as Davies (1985) that good tests can be used as well as be designed as advantageous teaching-learning activities so
Positive teaching-learning activities significantly enhance motivation among students Tests are perceived as "coachable" tools that can effectively facilitate valuable changes in general education (Heyneman, 1987) In educational environments, both teachers and learners tend to adopt a constructive attitude toward assessments, fostering a collaborative effort to achieve educational goals Conversely, at the macro level, decision-makers in education leverage their authority to design tests and assessments, which subsequently influence textbook publishing and curriculum development in educational institutions (Shohamy, 1992; Wall & Alderson).
Testing is a profession that is often influenced by political factors, as noted by Heyneman (1987), who emphasizes that the quality of tests is largely determined by the testing agency's ability to operate autonomously To effectively evaluate the results of a test in relation to teaching and learning, it is crucial to consider the educational context in which the test is administered The impact of washback effects, whether positive or negative, significantly depends on the specific educational environment and circumstances surrounding the test, as highlighted in the studies presented in this volume.
Testing, particularly language assessments, is often criticized for its negative impact on education, a phenomenon known as negative washback This issue can restrict the curriculum content, as learners focus solely on test-related material rather than achieving comprehensive understanding (Shohamy, 1992) Vernon (1956) echoes this sentiment, noting that learning activities often lack direct relevance to passing tests, leading teachers to overlook important subjects Consequently, language tests can negatively alter the curriculum and limit students' overall understanding Additionally, negative washback manifests when test-takers experience stress and anxiety, fearing poor performance due to high stakes associated with test results (Shohamy, 1999) Fish (1988) supports this view, highlighting the anxiety levels experienced by students in high-pressure testing environments.
In his analysis, Cheng (2001) highlighted the limitations of tests, suggesting they may not effectively connect learning principles with course objectives Supporting this view, researchers such as Shohamy (1996), Vernon (1956), Smith (1991), Wiseman (1961), and Madaus (1988) have identified negative consequences associated with language testing Specifically, Smith emphasized how language assessments can diminish teachers' abilities to effectively utilize appropriate content, methods, materials, and test-taking strategies.
Wiseman (1961) emphasized the importance of what students need to learn during their education, noting that exam preparation often leads learners to concentrate on test-taking skills rather than genuine language acquisition This focus can limit the breadth of knowledge and content within the curriculum Supporting this view, Madaus (1988) highlighted the detrimental impact of exams on education, coining the term "measurement-driven instruction" to illustrate how such practices promote "cramming" behaviors in students.
In conclusion, language tests serve diverse purposes in education, including evaluation, enhancing teaching effectiveness, providing additional practice materials, identifying student strengths and weaknesses, determining learning styles, and boosting student motivation However, these tests can also lead to negative consequences, such as encouraging teachers to narrow the curriculum to focus on test preparation and inducing anxiety in both test takers and creators, ultimately distorting their true abilities.
Participants in Washback Process
2.4.1 Washback effects on English teachers
Testing significantly impacts teaching and learning, as highlighted by Alderson and Wall (1993), who assert that “tests are held to be powerful determiners of what happens in the classroom.” Consequently, extensive research on washback effects has emerged, often focusing on teachers as the primary subjects Bailey notes that many of these studies frequently select teachers to explore the implications of testing on educational practices.
15 teachers as their primary participants in the Washback process” (1999, p.18)
Messick (1996) argued that the introduction of a test significantly influences language and teacher behavior, prompting actions they might not otherwise take Similarly, Bachman and Palmer (1996) emphasized that tests impact teachers' instructional methods, often leading them to focus excessively on knowledge and skills related to the test They noted that testing can drive changes in classroom dynamics, curriculum innovation, and teaching methodologies To enhance learning outcomes, teachers need revised testing procedures that support effective instruction and curriculum development Their research concluded that both general and language-specific tests can profoundly affect teaching and the educational process, yielding both positive and negative consequences.
Research conducted by Shohamy, Donitsa-Schmidt, and Ferman (1996) in Israel revealed a bi-directional washback effect of testing on teachers Specifically, teachers shifted their focus from introducing new content to reviewing previously covered material.
2 Teachers replaced class textbooks with worksheets that were identical to previous years' tests
3 Teachers and students were highly motivated to master the material
In conclusion, language teachers play a crucial role in program washback, acting as the primary conduits for its processes (Bailey, 1996) The significance of teachers in washback is further highlighted by Alderson and Wall (1993), who emphasize factors such as method, content, attitudes, and the depth of teaching Understanding the teacher's role in washback effects is essential for proposing effective strategies that enhance benefits and mitigate drawbacks in the educational process.
2.4.2 Washback effects on English students
The Washback process significantly influences a wide range of stakeholders in education, including learners, teachers, test creators, educators, curriculum developers, administrators, language inspectors, material producers, publishers, policymakers, and parents (Bailey, 1996, p.24).
Test-takers, particularly students, are profoundly affected by assessment processes, making it essential to distinguish them from other stakeholders The washback effects of these assessments significantly influence both their language learning and overall educational experiences (Bailey, 1996).
Bachman and Palmer (1996, p.31) assert that Washback effects could impact on test-users in there way:
(1) The experience of taking and, in some cases, of preparing for the test;
(2) The feedback they receive about their performance on the test; and
(3) The decisions that may be made about them on the basis of the test
Bachman and Palmer (1996) highlight the significance of washback effects on students, emphasizing that involving learners in test development can foster positive outcomes They suggest that when test-takers participate in this process and provide feedback on tests and tasks, they are likely to view assessments as more interactive and authentic This involvement can enhance motivation, leading to improved preparation and ultimately better performance.
Fullilove (1992, p 138) conducted research in Hong Kong and found that students experience significant pressure and anxiety during one of their most crucial examinations.
Similarly, Alderson and Wall (1993, pp 120-121) show five points that the Washback effect has on learners:
5 A test will influence what learners learn
6 A test will influence how learners learn
8 A test will influence the rate and sequence of learning
10 A test will influence the degree and depth of learning
Ingulsrud (1994) highlights the financial impact of Japanese university entrance examinations on students and their families, noting that the costs associated with testing and preparation exacerbate economic inequalities in education He argues that high-quality educational services are primarily accessible to those who can afford them, reinforcing existing disparities (pp 72, 79-80).
In conclusion, it cannot be denied that tests play an important role in the teaching and learning process because it can result in a large number of positive
The washback effects of assessments significantly impact students, but it's essential to acknowledge that they can also lead to negative consequences Both teachers and students should be aware of these potential drawbacks and develop appropriate strategies to mitigate them effectively.
Vietnamese National upper – secondary school exam
Language tests play an important role in the investigation of the effects of the exam on the teaching and learning process Moreover, according to Bachman
Language tests play a crucial role in researching language processing by offering valuable data on processing errors and their underlying causes Additionally, these tests serve as effective elicitation tools to gather insights into language processing Moreover, they are essential for assessing educational outcomes, which are key to enhancing educational effectiveness and implementing necessary program modifications.
To investigate the Washback effect of the National upper-secondary exam on the English speaking skills of grade 12 students, it is essential to first outline its objectives The national upper-secondary exam serves two primary purposes: providing students with a general certificate of secondary school education and facilitating their admission to Vietnamese universities and colleges According to Hoang Van Van (2017), the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) annually invites university lecturers and high school English teachers to develop the tests, typically about a month before the exam date He notes that critical aspects of the test, such as validity, reliability, fairness, and consistency, are often overlooked or accepted without scrutiny, as the test format and materials are provided only upon arrival at the test-designing site.
In 2016, the test was structured into four key components: the first two focused on assessing students' phonology, vocabulary, and grammar, while the latter two evaluated their reading and writing skills Specifically, the phonology section comprised 5 questions, accounting for 6.25% of the total score, and the lexico-grammar section included 27 questions, contributing 33.75% to the overall assessment.
32 items that take up 40% score, and all of them have the same form multiple-
According to Hoang Van Van (2017), the test consists of 18 multiple-choice questions, accounting for 20% of the overall score, while the writing section has been eliminated The 2016 test was designed in both objective and subjective formats; however, it has since transitioned to a solely objective format, aligning better with the teaching and learning context in Vietnam Each test item is scored out of 10 points, with scores calculated to three decimal places, specifically in increments of 0.125 points, as determined by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET).
The National upper-secondary exam in Vietnam indirectly assesses speaking skills through components like phonology, which includes word stress and pronunciation, as well as lexico-grammar Additionally, this high-stakes test can significantly influence English teaching and learning practices, highlighting the need for further research to explore these impacts.
In summary, testing is crucial in the educational process as it offers numerous benefits for both test-takers and test designers, although it is important to acknowledge its potential drawbacks.
Speaking skills
There have excited various ways of defining speaking skills in language teaching and learning In fact, many definitions of speaking have been proposed by language experts
Speaking is an interactive process that involves producing and conveying meaning through both verbal and non-verbal systems in various contexts (Chaney, 1998) However, speakers may struggle to express their ideas fluently and accurately due to a lack of knowledge in this area.
According to Bygate (1987), speaking serves as a system of signals that convey meaning to listeners, resulting in varied verbal interactions Although speaking can be challenging, it plays a crucial role in expressing emotions, ideas, and stories, highlighting the importance of fluent English communication for effective interaction.
Speaking is defined as the systematic combination of sounds to create meaningful sentences According to Chaney and Burk (1998), it is a two-way process that facilitates genuine communication of opinions, information, or emotions This perspective emphasizes that spoken interactions are collaborative efforts occurring between two or more individuals within a shared time and context.
According to Nunan (1991), speaking skills are essential in foreign language education, as they significantly influence the acquisition of other language skills Proficiency in speaking facilitates effective information exchange, idea generation, knowledge sharing, and comprehension of others' perspectives However, the unpredictable nature of conversation content makes speaking a challenging and complex process, requiring strong linguistic abilities from speakers.
In summary, various definitions of speaking skills provide researchers and readers with a comprehensive understanding of these abilities This clarity facilitates a deeper insight into the relationship and washback effects of the National Upper Secondary Exam on the development of speaking skills.
Before the advent of reading and writing, humans primarily communicated through verbal and non-verbal signals, with oral interaction being the dominant form of information exchange Speaking is a vital skill, recognized as the most effective means of conveying meaning, and English speaking serves as an essential language tool (Brown, 1994) However, mastering English speaking skills can be challenging, as learners must understand various components such as grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and the unique characteristics of the language to achieve proficiency.
Speaking performance is characterized by its reliance on meaning and form, which are contingent on specific contexts or situations To effectively communicate, speakers must grasp the significance and appropriate structure of their speech by considering factors such as their conversation partners, personal experiences, emotional states, environmental influences, and the objectives of the dialogue However, it is important to note that speech can sometimes be unpredictable.
The second characteristic of speaking performance is fluency and accuracy
According to Ur (1996) and other researchers, speaking skills encompass two interrelated components: accuracy and fluency Fluency refers to the ability to communicate effectively without interruptions, which helps maintain the interest of conversation partners Hedge (2000) emphasizes that fluency involves responding coherently and understandably, utilizing cohesive devices along with elements like stress, intonation, and pronunciation On the other hand, accuracy is crucial for learners, as it focuses on the correctness and completeness of language use, including grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation Therefore, educators should prioritize accuracy in their teaching methods to enhance learners' overall communication skills (Gower, Phillips, Walters, 2005; Burkart, 1998).
The third key aspect of speaking performance is the use of grammatical structures Effective speakers utilize grammatical forms correctly when their speech is appropriately complex and well-structured Learners enhance their accuracy in vocabulary by selecting suitable words for specific contexts However, speakers sometimes use similar words or phrases in different contexts, leading to misunderstandings Therefore, it is crucial for speakers to apply words and expressions accurately, while listeners must also be able to comprehend and infer meanings (Thornbury, 2005).
In conclusion, speaking is considered one of the most powerful communication tools, with distinct features that set it apart To effectively assess English-speaking skills, educators can create tailored tests to collect data, enabling them to refine their teaching methods.
English has emerged as a global language essential for various aspects of life, prompting the Ministry of Education in Vietnam to update high school English curriculum standards This led to the introduction of new textbooks designed to align with the revised educational objectives Additionally, there has been an increased focus on enhancing students' speaking skills to better equip them for communication in English.
21 to, especially for grade 12 students
The new English textbook, Tieng Anh 12, edited by Prof Hoang Van Van and authored by Hoang Thi Xuan Hoa, Dao Ngoc Loc, Do Tuan Minh, Vu Thi Loi, and Nguyen Quoc Tuan, was published by Nha Xuat Ban Giao Duc in 2006 This textbook continues the series from Tieng Anh 10 and 11, utilizing a theme-based approach across 16 diverse units designed to enhance students' speaking skills through various speaking activities Each unit includes a dedicated speaking lesson that employs theme-based and task-based methodologies, encouraging students to engage in discussions about real-life topics Despite this focus, the assessment of speaking skills in high schools is often inadequate, with some evaluations relying on indirect methods such as multiple-choice pronunciation tests.
In addition, in terms of the requirements of speaking skills, according to the Ministry of Education and Training (2018:46), by the end of the 12th form students should be able:
+ Pronounce clearly and accurately in terms of stress words, sentences, assimilation, liaison;
+ Describe simple discourse in terms of familiar topic, and tell a short story with a common topic;
+ Present a project basically with preparation about the topic in the textbook
In conclusion, the washback effect of the National upper-secondary exam on the teaching and learning of the new speaking curriculum, including the new textbooks and speaking requirements, needs thorough investigation to determine its impact and whether it is positive or negative.
Vietnamese Language proficiency
2.7.1 Vietnamese high school English proficiency
Speaking is essential for achieving proficiency in a second language, as it involves constructing and conveying meaning through verbal and non-verbal signals (Chaney, 1998, p.13) Despite its significance, the teaching of speaking skills has often been undervalued due to an overemphasis on grammar, reliance on outdated materials, and traditional lecture methods that encourage passive learning Additionally, the lack of technology and poor classroom environments further hinder effective speaking instruction.
The objectives of teaching speaking skills have significantly evolved from an emphasis on grammar rules to prioritizing students' communicative abilities, enabling them to express their ideas and interact with others effectively and fluently.
Despite Vietnam's emphasis on teaching speaking skills, rural schools face significant challenges For instance, at Thuong Cat and Bac Thang Long high schools, there is a notable shortage of proficient Vietnamese English teachers, which hampers effective instruction Additionally, low student participation and the interference of their mother tongue further complicate the learning process Another critical issue is the lack of relevant and updated teaching materials, alongside insufficient use of technology to enhance and motivate students in practicing their speaking skills.
The challenges facing English speaking skills negatively affect both teaching and learning, ultimately limiting students' proficiency Key micro factors include insufficient pedagogical feedback from teachers, a lack of interactive materials, outdated teaching methods, and students' inadequate learning strategies Additionally, high-stakes multiple-choice testing significantly restricts students' speaking abilities Teaching methodologies focused on test preparation, such as passive learning and reliance on uninspiring course materials, further diminish students' motivation to enhance their speaking skills Consequently, these factors create limited opportunities for students to practice and improve their speaking capabilities.
In summary, both teachers and students face significant pressure to achieve positive test results, leading to a compromise in the teaching and learning of speaking skills This pressure can negatively impact their ability to effectively teach and communicate in the target language, resulting in detrimental washback effects on the overall learning experience.
2.7.2 Context of English learning by grade 12 students at a Vietnamese high school
Byrne (1997) asserts that the purpose of teaching speaking skills would be fluency and the ability to express reasonably and exactly, therefore students learn a
Practicing a foreign language is crucial for mastering speaking skills, as emphasized by Byrne (1997) Engaging actively with the language enhances students' proficiency and confidence in their communication abilities.
Students face significant challenges in developing their speaking skills, both in and out of the classroom A common issue is the fear of making mistakes, which can lead to anxiety about being ridiculed by peers The cultural stigma in Vietnam surrounding "losing face," along with concerns about negative feedback from teachers, significantly hinders students' ability to enhance their communicative skills in a second language.
According to Littlewood (2007), a language classroom can sometimes lead to a decline in student interest and discourage the practice of speaking skills Additionally, learners often struggle to communicate effectively due to limited topical knowledge and insufficient lexical resources Savignon (1991) emphasizes the importance of addressing these issues to enhance communication skills in language learning.
In 2005, Bailey emphasized the concept of communicative competence, highlighting that language learners should be evaluated on their ability to interact meaningfully with others, rather than solely on their performance in isolated grammatical tests.
In Vietnam, students often face challenges in speaking classes due to limited vocabulary, ideas, and confidence in pronunciation, especially when discussing unfamiliar topics Additionally, the large class sizes reduce opportunities for individual practice, hindering their communication skills development.
According to Harmer (1991), the use of students' mother tongue in English speaking classes can hinder their speaking skills, as it may lead to "fossilization." Various objective and subjective factors contribute to students' challenges in developing speaking abilities Notably, high-stakes tests, particularly those using a multiple-choice format, significantly influence the learning of speaking skills In rural high schools in Vietnam, such as the one where my research will take place, the emphasis is often on test results rather than on practicing speaking skills, compounded by a lack of opportunities to engage in English conversation This situation highlights the urgent need for further investigation and recommendations to enhance students' speaking proficiency.
In summary, mastering English speaking skills is crucial, yet it remains a considerable challenge for many learners Several factors contribute to this difficulty, with inadequate time spent on practice and testing being a primary concern.
2.8 Areas affected by washback effects
Prodromous (1993) highlights that while washback effects significantly influence classroom dynamics, they remain underexplored in second language research He points out that many assumptions regarding these effects are broad and lack rigorous testing Furthermore, Alderson and North (1991) emphasize that washback is a complex issue that requires a closer examination of specific aspects, including teaching content, activities, and available resources, as well as the nature and extent of their influence, whether positive or negative.
Research by Prodomous (1993) highlights the significant impact of materials on the teaching and learning process, noting that washback is evident when examination papers and textbook examples emphasize the skills assessed in tests He observed that educators often treat textbooks as if they were test preparation tools Supporting this, Watanabe (1996b) found that teachers in Japan utilized materials designed to mirror past exam papers Additionally, Shohamy (1993) confirmed that the format of new tests dictates the selection of classroom materials.
Wall and Alderson (1993) noted minimal changes in teaching methods despite shifts in content areas, while Cheng (1997) observed that although teaching content evolved due to test washback, the teaching methods remained consistent In contrast, Shohamy et al (1996) and Hayes (2003) argued that teaching methodologies are significantly influenced by test washback Hawkey (2006) highlighted that the distinction between course content and methodology often lacks clarity.
Solutions for the washback effects
Tests have long been viewed as assessment tools that negatively impact teaching and learning However, various strategies have been identified to enhance the positive influence of tests (Shohamy, 1992; Bailey, 1996; Wall, 1996; Brown, 2000) Hughes (1989) outlined seven effective methods to encourage beneficial washback from tests.
+Test the possibilities who development you want to encourage
+Base achievement tests on objectives
+Ensure that the test is known and understood by students and teachers +Where necessary provide assistance to teachers
Bailey (1996) proposed strategies to enhance positive test washback, many of which align with those suggested by Hughes (1989) He emphasized the importance of incorporating authentic tasks in assessments to achieve language-learning objectives while promoting learner autonomy and self-assessment.
Related studies and research gap
Empirical studies examining the washback effects of international and national exams on teaching and learning within specific educational contexts have identified significant research gaps These gaps highlight a lack of sufficient anecdotal, qualitative, or quantitative data, making it challenging to generalize findings across different countries or methodologies.
In an empirical study on the Washback effect, Shohamy (1992) conducted research in Israel, paralleling the findings of Alderson and Wall (1993) in Sri Lanka, where three language tests were introduced The initial reading test faced criticism from educational professors, leading to limited societal application In contrast, the Arabic as a Second Language (ASL) test and an oral EFL test positively influenced teaching and learning activities in preparation for the assessments The researcher utilized various data collection tools, including questionnaires and interviews, revealing that both teachers and students were motivated to engage in activities beyond mere test preparation.
Alderson and Hamp-Lyons (1996) conducted a follow-up study examining the impact of the TOEFL test on the teaching and learning process, utilizing interviews and observations to gather data from both TOEFL preparation classes and non-preparation classes Their findings aligned with those of Alderson and Wall (1993) in Sri Lanka, indicating that the TOEFL test influences both teaching content and methodology However, they discovered that teachers' teaching styles had a more significant effect on teaching methodology than the test itself.
Shohamy, Donitsa-Schmidt, and Ferman (1996) conducted a study on the effects of Israel's examination system on teaching and learning Through questionnaires, interviews, and analysis of teaching materials, they found that the impact of tests on both teaching and learning can change over time Additionally, factors such as the significance, purpose, and format of the tests play a crucial role in determining their influence.
2.10.1.1 Studies of washback in the world
Sturman (1996) concluded that students' academic performance is closely linked to their emotional comfort, influenced by various factors including the school environment, lesson content, educational materials, and teacher interactions.
Cheng (1997) highlights that language testing significantly influences students' English development and future job prospects In a study conducted in Hong Kong, it was found that students perceived the HKCEE to play a crucial role in their learning, accounting for approximately 30% of their educational experience Additionally, factors such as parental concerns and competition among classmates further impacted their learning outcomes.
Alderson and Hamp-Lyons (1996) conducted a study on TOEFL preparation courses in the United States, interviewing students from three universities Their findings highlighted that implementing a placement test prior to the course enhances student participation, facilitates the identification of individual weaknesses, and promotes a blend of self-study with in-class revision Students emphasized the necessity of consistent English practice However, the study did not address the actual impacts of TOEFL teaching and learning.
Hughes (1993) found that students' performance on the Michigan Test improved after the implementation of a new exam and revisions to the English program, especially among those who participated in a summer English course at a Turkish university.
In summary, numerous studies have explored the washback effects on teaching and learning globally; however, additional research is essential to gain a deeper understanding of how to enhance both processes effectively.
2.10.1.2 Studies of washback in Vietnam
In Vietnam, limited research has been conducted on the Washback effect related to high-stakes tests, primarily focusing on proficiency and achievement assessments such as the VSTEP (Nguyen, 2017) and the 2016 National Matriculation and General Certificate of Secondary Education English Test (Hoang, 2017) The existing studies and articles provide only a partial illustration of the Washback effect on these tests, lacking comprehensive direct examination and investigation.
A study by Hoang Van Van (2017) in Vietnam examined the content and impact of the Washback effect related to the 2016 National Matriculation and the General Certificate of Secondary Education English Test, focusing on classroom teaching methodologies Through test analysis and interviews with upper-secondary English teachers, the research found that while the test's objectiveness was well-validated, its representativeness and discrimination power were lacking This was primarily attributed to the test being multiple-choice and not adequately assessing listening and speaking skills.
The majority of test scores, with 90% falling below average, highlight a significant concern regarding student performance Additionally, the test's findings indicate a negative Washback effect, as it fails to assess the teaching methods and learning strategies employed by students Consequently, the results suggest that teachers tend to focus on test preparation rather than fostering genuine English proficiency.
A study by Nguyen Thuy Lan and Nguyen Thuy Nga (2019) investigated the Washback effect of the high-stakes VSTEP test on student motivation at Vietnam National University in Hanoi Surveying 751 students, the research found that the test positively influenced their learning motivation However, the authors noted that the VSTEP was not the sole factor affecting students' abilities or their motivation to learn English They emphasized the importance of exploring additional factors that could enhance the positive impact of the test, aiming to improve the overall effectiveness of teaching and learning processes.
Nguyen Thuy Lan's (2017) study explored the Washback effects of the VSTEP exam on English teaching at ULIS – VNU, utilizing a survey to gather insights on this impact.
The washback effects of VESTEP on the teaching and management of English skill reform subjects reveal both positive impacts and challenges While the test has been shown to enhance certain aspects of English education, it also places significant pressure on teachers, who may prioritize test preparation over the development of students' overall English abilities Additionally, the findings offer valuable insights for ULIS-VNU managers to improve the teaching, learning, and assessment processes in English language education.
Summary
In summary, this chapter highlights the significant influence of high-stakes testing on teaching and learning, particularly in the context of developing speaking skills in Vietnam The impact of these tests extends to teachers, students, education managers, policymakers, and even publishers While some studies indicate that high-stakes tests can have positive effects on educational outcomes, others reveal potential negative consequences.
31 on teaching and learning speaking skills negatively According to Cheng (2008),
The bidirectional nature of the washback effect, as defined by Messick (1996), highlights how tests can influence language teaching and learning practices Despite its significance, there is a lack of research examining the washback effects of the National Upper-Secondary exam on speaking skills in Vietnam This study aims to fill this gap, contributing valuable insights for teachers, students, and education managers to develop effective strategies for enhancing speaking skills Additionally, the findings will be beneficial for researchers interested in this area The subsequent chapter will outline the methodology used to investigate the impact of testing on teaching and learning speaking skills in the classroom.