The Anti-Newtonian Revolution
From Isaac Newton's time until around 1925, consciousness was viewed as a passive observer, with thoughts and feelings seen as powerless against the deterministic nature of microscopic interactions However, the advent of quantum mechanics marked a significant shift, integrating conscious human experiences into fundamental physical theories This remarkable change highlighted the importance of consciousness after two centuries of neglect, challenging the previous physics paradigm that had thrived by excluding idea-like qualities from physical law formulations.
The creators of quantum theory faced a profound crisis that led them to consider and ultimately accept the revolutionary concept of integrating human consciousness into the fundamental principles of physics.
In December 1900, Max Planck unveiled the 'quantum of action,' known as Planck's constant, marking a pivotal moment in physics This constant, along with the gravitational constant and the speed of light, forms the foundation of the physical universe The gravitational constant, discovered by Isaac Newton, bridged celestial and terrestrial dynamics, linking planetary motion to earthly phenomena such as cannonball trajectories and tidal movements The integration of these fundamental quantities has profoundly transformed our understanding of nature.
The entire physical universe is governed by mathematical equations that connect every particle of matter, determining the complete course of history based on the physical conditions from the primordial past.
Einstein recognized that the ‘speed of light’ is not just the rate of propagation of some special kind of wave-like disturbance, namely
The speed of light is a fundamental constant that plays a crucial role in the equations of motion for all types of matter It serves as a universal maximum speed, preventing any object from exceeding this limit Similar to Newton's gravitational constant, the speed of light is integral to the fundamental structure of nature.
But important as the effects of these two quantities are, they are, in terms of profundity, like child’s play compared to the consequences of Planck’s discovery.
Planck's discovery of the 'quantum of action' originated from the investigation of electromagnetic radiation, particularly light When radiant energy from a small opening in a heated container was analyzed, it became clear that classical physics could not accurately predict the distribution of this energy across different frequencies Planck found that the correct empirical formula could be derived by considering energy as being concentrated in discrete packets, with each packet's energy directly proportional to the radiation's frequency This relationship is defined by Planck's constant, which, while negligible in everyday contexts, plays a crucial role in the behavior of atomic particles and fields that constitute our bodies and the physical world around us.
Planck's groundbreaking discovery challenged the classical laws that had underpinned the scientific worldview for two centuries Subsequent experiments on atomic systems revealed that these classical principles often yielded inaccurate predictions when compared to experimental data The fundamental laws of physics, integral to the education of physics students and the industrial advancements of the time, were proving inadequate More alarmingly, these failures indicated a deeper issue that could not be resolved through minor adjustments, suggesting a fundamental flaw in the established scientific framework.
The World of Actions
The unexpected results in scientific research raised doubts about the existing theories, prompting a search for a new explanation that could restore order to our understanding of nature Central to this inquiry was the realization that Planck's constant played a crucial role in unraveling these complexities.
Werner Heisenberg, a key figure in the development of quantum theory, made a groundbreaking discovery in 1925, revealing that classical physics quantities, previously thought to be mere numbers, should instead be understood as actions Unlike ordinary numbers, which yield the same product regardless of the order of factors, Heisenberg's insights showed that the order of these quantities significantly impacts the outcomes in physical systems This shift in perspective allowed for the application of classical laws to yield accurate results by treating certain physical properties not as static numbers but as dynamic actions.
Mathematicians have discovered that there are logically consistent generalizations of ordinary mathematics where numbers are replaced by 'actions,' emphasizing that the order of application matters The everyday numbers we use are just a special case among a broader spectrum of mathematically coherent possibilities While in simple arithmetic, A times B equals B times A, there is no reason to assume that physical theories must rely solely on these ordinary numbers Quantum mechanics, based on Heisenberg's discovery, utilizes this broader logical framework, distinguished from classical mechanics by Planck's constant Although this adjustment may seem minor, it fundamentally alters our understanding of the universe and our place within it.
The shift from 'being' to 'action' in quantum theory fundamentally alters our understanding of reality and our connection to it This transformation moves us away from viewing the universe as composed of static, self-sufficient matter, and instead presents a dynamic landscape filled with potential actions and their observed feedbacks Consequently, physical theory evolves from a mere examination of matter to an exploration of the intricate relationship between matter and mind, highlighting the importance of actions and interactions in shaping our experience of the universe.
What is this momentous change introduced by Heisenberg?
In classical physics, every physical object's center point has a precise location defined by three coordinates (x, y, z) relative to a coordinate system For instance, the position of a spider hanging in a room can be determined by its height from the floor (z) and its distances from two walls (x and y) The spider's velocity while descending can be described by the rates of change of these coordinates By multiplying these rates of change by the spider's mass, we obtain three values (p, q, r) that represent its momentum Thus, in classical physics, the position of an object is represented by the coordinates (x, y, z), while its momentum is captured by the values (p, q, r), all of which adhere to the commutative property of multiplication.
The six-dimensional space of all possible values (x, y, z;p, q, r) is calledphase space: it is the space of all possible instantaneous ‘states’ of the particle.
Heisenberg's analysis revealed that for classical physics formulas to be applicable, the product of position (x*) and momentum (p*) must differ He determined that this difference is equivalent to Planck's constant, specifically Planck's constant divided by 2π and multiplied by the imaginary unit i.
Modern quantum theory emerged from the realization that classical physics symbols, which represent ordinary numbers, actually denote actions where the sequence of these actions is significant This transformation, which involves substituting numbers with corresponding actions to develop the mathematical framework of quantum mechanics, is known as 'quantization'.
The concept of replacing traditional numerical representations of a particle's position and velocity with mathematical quantities that defy basic arithmetic principles may seem counterintuitive at first Many might argue that scientists should strive for simplicity rather than abandoning fundamental truths, such as the commutative property of multiplication However, this approach has proven remarkably effective in practice, as evidenced by the successful predictions of quantum mechanics, which have been confirmed with astonishing accuracy—up to one part in a hundred million This suggests that the shift from numbers to actions in quantum mechanics is fundamentally sound.
In classical physics, each elementary particle is believed to possess a specific location and momentum at any given moment, represented by three numerical coordinates (x, y, z) and (p, q, r), respectively In contrast, quantum theory typically examines systems with multiple particles, but when focusing on a single particle, its state is depicted as a cloud of complex number pairs across three-dimensional space This allows for a probabilistic interpretation of the particle's position and momentum, enabling experimental probing actions to be performed on the system.
In quantum mechanics, each probing action leads to a unique set of distinguishable outcomes, creating a probability cloud that dictates the likelihood of various results The theory provides clear rules for calculating the probabilities of different empirical feedbacks from potential experimental actions However, it does not specify which probing action the experimenter will ultimately select.
In classical physical theory when one descends from the macro- scopic world of visible objects to the microscopic world of their elemen-
In contrast to Newton's concept of solid and impenetrable particles, quantum theory presents a more complex view, describing particles as clouds or quantum smears of probabilities These quantum states, when considered collectively, offer meaningful insights into the likelihood of various potential experiences.
The orthodox formulation of quantum theory posits that to effectively bridge the gap between the mathematically defined state of a physical system and human experience, a sudden intervention is necessary in the otherwise continuous evolution of that system's mathematical state.
Orthodox theory posits that interventions are deliberate actions taken by individuals who can freely select from various probing options The chosen action results in a physical partitioning of the system's prior state into distinct components, with each part representing a perceivable outcome from the array of possible results associated with that probing action.
When a probing action occurs, it triggers a noticeable feedback in the observer's consciousness, causing the state of the probed system to shift abruptly to the corresponding observed feedback According to contemporary physics, the 'free' choices made during probing significantly influence the subsequent psychological and physical events Here, 'free' refers to choices not dictated by current physical laws, rather than being entirely causeless It is likely that these choices stem from some underlying cause within the broader psychophysical reality, though current theories do not assert that this cause is solely defined by the physical aspects of nature.
Setting Planck's constant to zero in quantum mechanical equations leads to classical mechanics, highlighting that classical physics is merely an approximation of quantum physics In this approximation, Planck's constant is effectively replaced by zero, eliminating quantum smearing and reducing each cloud to a point.
Intentional Actions and Experienced Feedbacks
recovers classical physics, along with the physical determinism (the causal closure of the physical) entailed by classical physics.
In the classical approximation, the influence of probing actions is irrelevant, as the uncertainty associated with the quantum cloud is effectively nullified by setting Planck's constant to zero This means that any physical or mathematical effects arising from the choices made by agents are disregarded within this framework Therefore, attempting to explore the physical effects of consciousness through classical physics is inherently flawed, as the classical model omits the very effects that are being investigated.
3.3 Intentional Actions and Experienced Feedbacks
Intentional actions by agents play a crucial role in producing experiential feedback For instance, a scientist strategically places a Geiger counter near a radioactive source to observe its response, either by detecting radiation or not.
‘not fire’, during a certain time interval The experienced response,
In quantum theory, the question "Does the counter fire?" encapsulates a single piece of information This theory fundamentally transitions from abstract concepts, like the precise trajectories of invisible particles, to the tangible realities of intentional actions and their feedback It emphasizes the importance of mathematical procedures that enable accurate predictions of relationships among these empirical phenomena.
Probing actions are not exclusive to scientists; even healthy infants actively engage in willful efforts that yield experiential feedback As they explore, infants develop expectations about the feedback resulting from their actions This interplay of action and response underpins both empirical science and everyday human experiences, with our physical and psychological theories striving to comprehend these interconnected realities within a rational framework.
A purposeful action by a human agent has two aspects One as- pect is his conscious intention, which is described in psychological
The relationship between actions, knowledge, and information is crucial for successful living Physical actions must correspond to conscious intentions, where these actions are defined mathematically in relation to spacetime Through effective learning processes, individuals can refine their intentional acts, ensuring that the physical aspect of these actions aligns with the desired experiential outcomes.
In his influential work, "Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics," John von Neumann introduces the concept of 'process 1,' which refers to the probing action that divides a continuum of physical possibilities into a countable set of observable alternatives He also describes 'process 2' as the orderly evolution controlled by the Schrödinger equation, highlighting that orthodox quantum theory necessitates first acquiring knowledge and then mathematically propagating this knowledge over time Additionally, there is a crucial 'process 3' that involves the selection of outcomes, termed by Dirac as a "choice on the part of nature," which adheres to statistical rules outlined in quantum theory.
In contemporary quantum theory, there exists a process, referred to as 'process zero', that influences the experimenter's free choice, which is not adequately described by current models This selection process is shaped by conscious reasoning, valuations, and the experimenter's brain state The omission of process zero from orthodox quantum theory highlights a significant causal gap in our understanding of physical processes.
The quantum formalism provides a unique latitude that, in conjunction with the concept of "freedom of experimentation" articulated by Bohr, disrupts the causal closure of the physical realm, ultimately allowing for the possibility of human actions.
3.5 Simple Harmonic Oscillators 25 from the immediate bondage of the physically described aspects of reality.
Cloudlike Forms
The quantum state of an elementary particle can be visualized as a continuous cloud of complex numbers distributed throughout three-dimensional space This evolving cloud represents the probabilities of various experiential outcomes at any given moment, determining the likelihood of observing specific results in allowed processes.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that when a spatial cloud is compressed into a very small area, it will explosively expand once the constricting force is lifted.
Simple Harmonic Oscillators
from the immediate bondage of the physically described aspects of reality.
The quantum state of an elementary particle can be conceptualized as a continuous cloud of complex numbers distributed throughout three-dimensional space This evolving cloud determines the potential experiential outcomes associated with various processes, providing a probability for each possible result.
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states that when a spatial cloud is compressed into a very small area, it will rapidly expand outward once the compressive force is released.
A key illustration of the cloudlike nature of quantum states is found in the simple harmonic oscillator, exemplified by a pendulum This system features a restoring force that drives the object's center point towards a specific base point, with the force's strength being directly proportional to the distance from that base point.
In classical physics, a system achieves its lowest possible energy state with its center point motionless at the base point Conversely, quantum theory also identifies a lowest energy state, but this state is not confined to the base point; instead, it manifests as a cloudlike spatial structure that extends infinitely This cloud represents a probability distribution shaped like a bell, peaking at the base point and diminishing as the distance from the base point increases.
When a low-energy state is confined and then released, it expands explosively before settling into an oscillating motion This behavior resembles a swarm of bees, where increased spatial confinement leads to a faster movement.
Actions, knowledge, and information are dynamic and interact with their surroundings, leading to explosive reactions when confined states are released This explosive characteristic is crucial for understanding quantum brain dynamics and is rooted in Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which states that confining a cloud in spatial dimensions results in a significant dispersion in momentum and velocity dimensions.
The Double-Slit Experiment
The double-slit experiment highlights a crucial difference between the behavior of quantum cloudlike forms and classical statistical mechanics' probability distributions When particles like electrons or calcium ions pass through a single narrow slit, their associated cloudlike form fans out over a wide angle due to reaction to squeezing However, when two closely neighboring narrow slits are opened, the resulting probability distribution is not a simple sum of the two individual fanlike structures Instead, the probability values exhibit non-additivity or interference, with some areas showing nearly twice the sum of individual values and others dropping nearly to zero, even where both individual structures predict high probabilities This unique property of quantum cloudlike structures sets them apart from classical probability distributions, which would simply add probabilities from individual slits.
The non-additivity property observed in quantum particles, such as electrons and calcium ions, remains evident even when these particles are introduced individually Classical physics suggests that each particle should pass through one slit or the other, leading to a probability distribution that is simply the sum of contributions from both slits However, empirical evidence contradicts this expectation Quantum mechanics effectively addresses this non-additivity and other non-classical characteristics of these cloudlike structures Accepting that reality is not fundamentally material helps demystify the non-additivity property in quantum phenomena.
The Double-Slit Experiment reveals that the fundamental nature of reality is composed of 'events' and their associated 'potentialities' rather than material substances In quantum theory, these potentialities exhibit a wave-like behavior, allowing for interference similar to that of waves, rather than being merely additive This insight challenges traditional notions of material reality and underscores the complex interplay of quantum phenomena.
4 Nerve Terminals and the Need to Use Quantum Theory
Many neuroscientists believe that classical physics can adequately explain the relationship between consciousness and brain processes; however, this perspective relies on the assumption that classical physics applies at the microscopic level Despite this belief, there is a lack of empirical evidence regarding the activity occurring at the trillions of synapses within the billions of neurons in a conscious brain Furthermore, the uncertainty principle suggests that it is fundamentally impossible to confirm that deterministic behavior exists at the microscopic (ionic) scale in the brain Consequently, the assertion that classical determinism applies to living brains is empirically indefensible, as sufficient evidence neither exists nor can exist in principle.
To determine the applicability of the classical approximation to macroscopic brain dynamics, it is essential to analyze the specific physical context through the lens of quantum theory This involves assessing the significance of the uncertainty principle at the microscopic (ionic) level and understanding why any microscopic indeterminacy does not influence the macroscopic scale.
Classical physical theory is fundamentally sufficient when the potentialities created at the microscopic level by the uncertainty principle translate into a single, classically describable macroscopic brain state This state represents a unified conscious experience rather than a collection of alternative possibilities Consequently, the quantum mechanical state of the brain must be reduced to align with the experienced phenomenal reality.
30 4 Nerve Terminals and the Need to Use Quantum Theory
To answer the physics question of the extent of the micro-level uncertainties we turn first to an examination of the quantum dynamics of nerve terminals.
Nerve Terminals
Nerve terminals serve as crucial junctions between neurons, facilitating their functional connections Neuroscientists have developed detailed classical models based on empirical data to explain their operation When a neuron 'fires,' it generates an action potential that travels along its output fiber to the nerve terminal This electrical signal opens channels in the terminal membrane, allowing calcium ions to flow in Inside the terminal, vesicles store neurotransmitters, which are released into the synaptic gap when triggered by the influx of calcium ions This release influences the likelihood of the neighboring neuron firing, highlighting the essential role of nerve terminals in brain dynamics.
Calcium ions enter nerve terminals through ion channels, which are only about a nanometer wide, comparable in size to the ions themselves This extreme narrowness has significant quantum mechanical implications, similar to the effects seen in the double-slit experiments The confined space restricts lateral spatial dimensions, resulting in a non-zero uncertainty in lateral velocity, approximately 1% of the ion's longitudinal velocity As the calcium ion moves away from the channel, its quantum probability cloud expands over a larger area, ultimately reaching a target region where it may be absorbed at a specific triggering site The estimated transit distance for this process is around 50 nanometers, although the total distance traveled may be greater.
The diffusion mechanism significantly expands the probability cloud of calcium ions, resulting in a distribution that exceeds the size of the ion or the triggering site Consequently, this dispersion of the ion wave packet creates uncertainty regarding whether the ion will be absorbed at the small triggering location.
Calcium ions play a crucial role in neurotransmitter release from vesicles in cerebral neurons, with an estimated release probability of around 50% per action potential This significant quantum uncertainty at the calcium level leads to a mixture of states at the nerve terminal, where neurotransmitters may or may not be released This phenomenon occurs across trillions of nerve terminals in the brain, resulting in a quantum splitting that influences neuronal behavior and ultimately affects the entire brain Consequently, according to quantum theory, the brain's state can be described as a cloudlike mixture of various classical brain states.
In complex situations where the outcome at the classical level depends on noisy elements the corresponding quantum brain will evolve into a quantum mixture of the corresponding states.
The evolution of the brain's processes is highly nonlinear, meaning small events can trigger significant outcomes due to sensitive dependencies and strong feedback loops among neurons This sensitivity implies that minor variations in firing times can influence whether a neuron fires, making it unreasonable to expect that the brain's dynamical evolution will consistently lead to a single, classically describable quantum state While there may be specific instances where the brain's parallel processing aligns to create deterministic behavior, during periods of uncertainty, bifurcation points can emerge, causing different parts of the brain's quantum potential to diverge Consequently, this results in a quantum mixture of diverse classical potentialities, challenging the validity of classical approximations in such complex conditions.
The significant impact of the uncertainty principle at the synaptic level suggests that it is unreasonable to dismiss the possibility of quantum mixtures of macroscopically different states in neural dynamics.
The replacement of a singular, classical brain model with a quantum brain state introduces a mixture of multiple, classically describable states, each representing different potential experiences This shift raises questions about the implications for understanding consciousness and cognitive processes, as the quantum brain state allows for a broader range of experiences compared to traditional models.
The brain's primary role is to interpret environmental cues, develop a suitable action plan, and guide the brain and body's activities accordingly The specifics of this plan are influenced by numerous unpredictable variables, especially near critical decision points where noise can sway responses, such as choosing between 'fight' or 'flight.' In quantum scenarios, both responses may coexist, leading to a blend of classical alternatives at a macroscopic level This inherent uncertainty is a result of the automatic mechanical processes of evolution, which cannot eliminate or clarify these ambiguities.
Orthodox quantum theory posits that a satisfactory reduction of the smeared-out brain state to one aligned with the subject's conscious experiences occurs through a process 1 intervention This intervention selects a specific separation of the physical state from the array of potentialities produced by the mechanical process 2 evolution, resulting in distinct components that correspond to definite experiences Unlike classical physics, where the deterministic continuous dynamical process dictates the form of intervention, quantum theory requires a different type of input to achieve this separation.
The decisions made during interventions appear to be shaped by consciously experienced evaluations There is no logical justification for dismissing the impact of these conscious perceptions, as they undeniably influence outcomes in a significant way.
A brain state that generates specific experiential feedback is characterized by a highly organized, large-scale pattern of brain activity This pattern must persist for tens or hundreds of milliseconds to effectively coordinate the sequence of neuron firings necessary for the desired feedback Consequently, the neural correlate of an intentional act resembles the coordinated vibratory modes of a drumhead, where multiple particles move in unison over an extended duration.
In quantum theory, enduring states are characterized by vibratory patterns, akin to the lowest-energy state of a simple harmonic oscillator These states persist over time, maintaining organization through oscillation rather than succumbing to chaotic disorder, even when influenced by spatial displacements and changes in velocity.
A "template for action" refers to a brain state that, when maintained over time, encourages specific behaviors Through trial and error learning, both in evolutionary history and individual experiences, agents develop intentional actions categorized as 'Yes–No' responses A sustained 'Yes' response is likely to yield positive feedback, indicating the successful fulfillment of an intention Ultimately, thriving in life necessitates the creation of these templates for action through effort-based learning.
The brain should be regarded as a quantum system due to the influence of quantum indeterminacies, particularly related to the entry of calcium ions into nerve terminals While these indeterminacies affect brain dynamics at a microscopic level, they highlight the necessity for targeted interventions in understanding brain processes.
The evolving state of a person's brain is intricately linked to their conscious experiences, requiring a microscopic approach to understanding this relationship According to von Neumann's formulas, each intervention in this process is defined by a set of nonlocal projection operators, highlighting that the effects of actions on the brain are often macroscopic Quantum indeterminacies at the microscopic level influence brain dynamics, propagating through the Schrödinger equation to the macroscopic level, where they create a range of potentialities that must be refined to facilitate conscious thought This dynamic illustrates the core principle of the quantum theory of observation, which posits that reduction events correlate with increments in knowledge, thereby narrowing the physical state to align with the knowledge that enters the stream of consciousness.
The Quantum Zeno Effect
A well studied feature of the dynamical rules of quantum theory is this:Suppose a process 1 query that leads to a ‘Yes’ outcome is followed
The physical effectiveness of conscious will can be observed when a rapid sequence of identical or similar actions is performed If the initial outcome is ‘Yes’, the subsequent actions, occurring in quick succession, are likely to maintain this ‘Yes’ state Quantum theory suggests that this rapid succession can preserve the original state against strong physical forces that would otherwise lead to a significant change.
The timing of process 1 actions is influenced by the agent's free choices, with increased mental effort enhancing the intensity of experiences This suggests that mental effort can accelerate a series of identical actions According to von Neumann's quantum mechanics, this acceleration creates a significant impact on the brain, as applying mental effort can speed up intentional acts and stabilize the action template This stabilization leads to brain activity that aims to generate the desired feedback, a phenomenon known as the quantum Zeno effect, named by physicists E.C.G Sudarshan and others.
The quantum Zeno effect, akin to Zeno the Eleatic's 'arrow' paradox, suggests that focused mental intention can maintain a beneficial state despite disruptive forces This phenomenon implies that individuals capable of enhancing their mental efforts can sustain advantageous actions longer than their competitors Consequently, those who can effectively harness this conscious effort may gain a survival advantage, allowing for the evolution of these traits through natural selection.
William James’s Theory of Volition
6.2 William James’s Theory of Volition
Dr Jeffrey Schwartz highlighted passages from William James's "Psychology: The Briefer Course," which align with an existing theory on attention In the concluding section of the chapter, James emphasizes the significance of attention in psychological processes, underscoring its foundational role in understanding human cognition.
Our attention is influenced by neural conditions, determining what we can focus on, but once an object captures our interest, the effort we exert to maintain that focus plays a crucial role This effort may feel like a personal choice and, if it acts as a spiritual force, it works alongside our brain's processes to enhance our awareness of various ideas Even a brief extension of attention can be pivotal, as it can determine which competing thoughts gain prominence and influence our actions Ultimately, the dynamics of attention are essential to understanding the voluntary aspects of our lives, as they can lead to significant outcomes based on slight variations in focus.
In the chapter on Will, in the section entitledVolitional Effort is Effort of Attention, James writes:
At the core of our investigation into volition lies the question of how a specific action's thought process gains stable dominance in the mind, ultimately driving decision-making and behavior This inquiry seeks to uncover the underlying mechanisms that enable a particular action to prevail over others, influencing an individual's choices and actions By examining this process, we can gain a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between thoughts, intentions, and actions that underlies human volition.
The essential achievement of the will, in short, when it is most
‘voluntary’, is to attend to a difficult object and hold it fast
38 6 The Physical Effectiveness of Conscious Will before the mind [ .] Effort of attention is thus the essential phenomenon of will.
The primary achievement of effort lies in maintaining a constant awareness of an idea This consistent reinforcement is crucial, as without it, the thought would easily fade away.
James acknowledged the inconsistencies between certain statements and the physics of his time In his work, "Psychology: The Briefer Course," he foresaw that future scientists would eventually shed light on the mind-body problem.
To effectively navigate the complexities we face, it is essential to recognize the profound challenges of our current situation We must remain mindful that the scientific assumptions we initially rely on are not absolute; they are tentative and subject to change.
The enduring influence of outdated concepts on scientists and philosophers is evident in the reluctance to embrace William James's 1892 insight that a revision of nineteenth-century physics is necessary to understand conscious experiences Despite the collapse of classical physics, which James anticipated, many professionals still do not acknowledge this need for change over three-quarters of a century later.
James's insights into the impact of volition on mind-brain processes align closely with theoretical proposals from quantum physics His connections are rooted in the same dynamical principles used by physicists to explain atomic phenomena This integration of science, spanning from atomic physics to mind-brain dynamics, forms a coherent theory that redefines our understanding of the world—not as mere matter, but as an informational structure This structure effectively links the psychological aspects of our conscious experiences with the mathematical tendencies that connect our actions to those experiences.
6.2 William James’s Theory of Volition 39
Classical physics has not achieved comparable success over three centuries due to its exclusion of consciousness from its principles, which eliminates any logical basis for integrating mind into its framework In contrast, quantum physics suggests that consciousness can influence outcomes within the bounds of the uncertainty principle; however, this influence diminishes to nothing in classical physics, effectively negating any causal role of consciousness.
Since the era of William James, psychology has evolved significantly; however, many psychologists, neuroscientists, and philosophers have clung to outdated nineteenth-century physical concepts This adherence has led them to overlook the advancements made by twentieth-century physicists, who moved away from classical materialism and the idea of the causal closure of the physical world While physicists began to integrate effects linked to human consciousness into their dynamic models, mainstream psychologists, influenced by behaviorism, attempted to eliminate these elements from psychology, a trend that many philosophers of mind also adopted.
The inadequacy of the behaviorist approach in explaining human behavior, especially linguistic behavior, prompted a renewed focus on 'attention' in the 1950s, leading to numerous experiments over the last fifty years aimed at empirically exploring the facets of human behavior associated with consciousness This raises an important question: How effectively does the quantum-theory-based perspective on mind-brain dynamics align with these contemporary findings?
In Harold Pashler’s 1998 book, *The Psychology of Attention*, extensive empirical research is explored alongside theoretical frameworks aimed at understanding the intricacies of information processing systems Central to this discussion are the concepts of 'attention' and 'processing capacity', where attention involves the internal selection of available processing resources Additionally, the concept of 'effort' is highlighted, demonstrating its empirical connection to incentives and self-reported increases in exertion, which subsequently enhance the allocation of processing capacity towards cognitive tasks.
Pashler organizes his discussion by separating perceptual processing from post-perceptual processing The former covers processing that,
The human brain processes visual and auditory information in two distinct stages: perceptual and post-perceptual Initially, the brain identifies basic physical properties of stimuli, including location, color, loudness, and pitch, and categorizes them based on meaning Following this, the post-perceptual process involves generating motor actions and cognitive responses beyond mere identification Notably, research on attention highlights a clear distinction between limitations in perception and those in higher-level cognitive processes, such as thought and action planning, as emphasized by Pashler.
Orthodox quantum theory encompasses two distinct processes relevant to the mind-brain system, as outlined by von Neumann The first process, known as process 2, refers to the unconscious mechanical operations of the brain, which have been extensively studied within a classical framework However, contemporary physics also acknowledges a second process, termed process 1, which plays a crucial role in the causal structure of brain activity This process is linked to an impulsive feeling known as 'effort,' which influences brain function and ultimately manifests in intentional behaviors through the 'effort of attention.'
Two types of process 1 actions can occur: one driven solely by brain activity, as suggested by James's assertion that attention is captured by neural mechanisms, and another influenced by internal coherence, as outlined by von Neumann This latter action arises from positive evaluations of experiential quality, leading to the repetition of psychophysical events, which can be accelerated by the effort associated with those events Within the quantum framework, such actions could trigger a rapid sequence of similar behaviors, potentially activating a quantum Zeno effect that injects mental intentions into brain activity This quantum perspective aligns well with Pashler's data, which, while not necessarily requiring a detailed structure from non-quantum theories, indeed exhibits the complexity that classical theories do not account for.
7 Support from Contemporary Psychology 43 pirical support for this quantum-physics-based idea of the mind–brain connection