INTRODUCTION
Rationale
English has become a vital component of globalization, modernization, and industrialization in Vietnam, prompting the government to prioritize foreign language education, particularly English, during its renovation efforts As a result, learners are increasingly encouraged to master English to enhance their access to information and professional interactions Proficiency in English serves as a powerful tool for individuals seeking to improve their technological skills and career development It has quickly emerged as the most popular foreign language among Vietnamese students, from primary education through university For both English majors and non-majors, writing skills are essential, as proficient writing in a second language bolsters logical thinking and meets the demands of various professions However, achieving writing proficiency remains a significant challenge for many second language learners, requiring substantial effort and practice.
Teaching and learning a foreign language focus on equipping learners with effective communication skills To develop communicative competence, educational institutions emphasize four key language skills: reading, speaking, listening, and writing Among these, writing is considered the most crucial skill, as it enhances the learners' ability to master the other language skills more effectively.
Writing enhances students' understanding of grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary, allowing them to engage more deeply with the language It encourages them to take linguistic risks and explore beyond their current knowledge Through writing, students become actively involved in expressing their ideas, which fosters a genuine need to find the appropriate words and sentences This process not only reinforces their learning but also cultivates their language skills in a meaningful way.
Writing skills are crucial and are included in the high school English syllabus; however, at Đại Cường High School, they receive insufficient attention Many students do not complete writing assignments, and numerous textbook exercises are overlooked Teachers often find teaching writing challenging, leading to a neglect of this essential skill As a result, students exhibit poor writing abilities, characterized by frequent grammatical errors and vocabulary misuse, such as incorrect verb tenses and a lack of coherence in their paragraphs This research aims to identify common writing errors among 10th-grade students and propose solutions to help them improve their paragraph writing skills.
Writing is often regarded as the most challenging skill to master, particularly for second language learners Proficient writing in a second language not only enhances logical thinking but also meets the demands of various professions However, achieving writing proficiency requires significant effort and practice, posing a challenge for many learners In Vietnam, educators and researchers are actively seeking innovative methods to improve teaching and to predict and prevent writing errors Despite this, there is a greater focus on understanding the reasons behind common errors made by Vietnamese learners With the rise of private high schools in Vietnam, concerns about student writing quality have emerged among educators and the government As a teacher at DCHS, the author has observed that 10th-grade students struggle with English, particularly in writing Identifying common mistakes and their causes is crucial for both EFL learners and teachers to minimize writing errors To address this issue, the author will conduct research on "Common errors made by 10th graders in writing English paragraphs at a high school in Hanoi."
M.A thesis It is hopeful that the outcomes of this research will be really meaningful for not only teachers but also students in teaching as well as learning writing skill in particular and in improving their writing capability.
Aims and Objectives of the Study
This study focuses on enhancing English writing skills among Vietnamese students The findings will aid both teachers and students in identifying common writing errors, allowing for adjustments in teaching and learning methods based on the underlying causes of these mistakes To achieve these objectives, specific goals have been established.
- To explore the types of written errors often committed by the 10th grade students at DCHS in writing English paragraphs
- To find out possible causes of common errors made by 10th grade students in writing English paragraphs at DCHS
- To recommend some effective ways of overcoming such errors in students’ writing papers.
Research Questions
For the objectives of the study, the following research questions are addressed:
- What are the common types of errors made by the 10 th grade students in writing English paragraphs at DCHS?
- What are the causes of the common types of errors committed by the
10 th grade students in writing English paragraphs?
Scope of the Study
This study, constrained by the time and scope typical of an M.A thesis, aims to identify common written errors and their causes among 10th graders at DCHS The errors are classified using Chaney’s model (1999), while the underlying causes are analyzed based on the theoretical frameworks established by two researchers.
The study conducted by Norrish (1992) and Richards (1971) highlights the subjective nature of error classification in language learning It involved 19 students from two classes, 10A1 and 10A4, out of a total of 276 tenth graders at DCHS, during the second semester of the 2020-2021 academic year The research categorized errors into six groups: verb errors, noun errors, article errors, word choice errors, sentence structure errors, and mechanical errors Additionally, it identified five primary causes of these errors, including mother tongue interference, overgeneralization, ignorance of rule restrictions, incomplete application of rules, and carelessness.
Significance of the Study
This study aims to investigate common writing errors in assignments at DCHS and explore their causes to enhance students' writing skills in Vietnam It highlights the progress students make in foreign language learning, particularly in writing, and emphasizes the importance of understanding error origins to adapt learning methods effectively For educators, the research provides insights into the nature of errors, aiding in the design of syllabi and teaching strategies The study aspires to empower students to improve their writing by avoiding these errors, offer teachers alternative teaching techniques, and enrich readers' knowledge Ultimately, it serves as a resource for the author to enhance their expertise in teaching writing.
Research Methods
This study utilized both quantitative and qualitative research approaches, employing analysis and interviews as primary data collection methods Interviews were conducted with 10 students to investigate the causes of their writing errors in paragraph construction Additionally, nineteen paragraphs from 19 students on five distinct topics were analyzed, with errors identified and categorized Statistical analysis was performed to reveal the common writing errors among 10th grade students at DCHS Data collection involved both interviews and writing tests, with interviews meticulously recorded to ensure reliability.
Structure of the Study
The study consists of five chapters:
Chapter 1 - Introduction: provides the overview of the study with the rationale, the objectives, the research questions, the methods, the scope, the significance and the design of the study
Chapter 2 - Literature review: Dealing with the literature review relevant to errors in the study, the theoretical framewok, previous studies
Chapter 3 - Methodology: Describing the methodology, procedures that will be implemented in the research, and how the study is carried out
Chapter 4 - Referring to the findings, data analysis and discussion
Chapter 5 - Conclusion: Reviews what has been presented in the study and suggests some implications for improving the effectiveness of paragraph writing activities during the process of teaching and learning writing lessons The study includes conclusion, implications, limitations of the study and suggestions for further studies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Writting and paragraph writing
Many linguists give the definition of writing However, it is difficult to choose which is the most exact and trustworthy
According to Flower (1984, p 16), “writing is simply the act of expressing what you think or saying what you mean” whilst Byrne (2000, p 1) thinks the
Writing involves the use of graphic symbols, such as letters or letter combinations, and is defined as the action of forming these symbols on a surface However, writing is a more intricate process than merely producing graphic symbols; it requires the arrangement of these symbols according to specific conventions to create words, which are then organized into sentences As a productive language skill, writing is challenging to master and typically necessitates formal instruction, as it is not a skill that can be easily acquired through mere exposure (Tribble, 1996).
EFL learners encounter significant challenges in developing their writing skills due to various factors, including low language proficiency, lack of motivation, and insufficient background knowledge In the context of learning English at DCHS in Hanoi and throughout Vietnam, these obstacles hinder effective writing As defined by Hornby (1989, p 895), a paragraph is a distinct section of written text that typically comprises several sentences focused on a single theme, beginning on a new line.
According to Tidyman (1987, p 10), a paragraph consists of a group of sentences that collectively develop a central idea, demonstrating unity when all sentences relate to the main point Paragraphs can be categorized into 12 genres, including recount, report, discussion, explanation, analytical exposition, hortatory exposition, news item, episode, narrative, procedure, description, and review, each serving distinct functions and features Writing effectively in a second language is a complex skill that requires the ability to communicate clearly and construct coherent paragraphs Therefore, paragraph writing demands conscious effort and extensive practice in composing, developing, and evaluating ideas.
A paragraph is a distinct section of writing that typically contains multiple sentences focused on a single subject, as defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary It begins with a new line, emphasizing its role as a coherent unit within a larger piece of text.
A paragraph is defined as a collection of related sentences centered around a single idea, which helps clarify the organization of thoughts for readers (Feist, 1996; Oshima & Hogue, 1999) The coherence of these sentences is essential, as they should all pertain to the same topic Additionally, the length of a paragraph may vary based on the writer's intent and purpose.
According to Oshima and Hogue (1999), a paragraph is defined as a cohesive unit of writing where all sentences are interconnected and revolve around a single topic, ensuring clarity and coherence for the reader.
A well-structured paragraph consists of three key components: a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence The topic sentence conveys the main idea, serving as the guiding principle for the paragraph Supporting sentences elaborate on this idea by presenting related concepts, including causes, effects, and examples, while ensuring coherence through cohesive devices Finally, the concluding sentence wraps up the paragraph by summarizing or reiterating the primary objectives articulated by the writer.
A well-structured paragraph requires unity and coherence in addition to its three main components Unity ensures that the writer focuses on a single major idea, while coherence makes the paragraph easy to read and understand To achieve coherence, sentences should flow logically and smoothly, avoiding any abrupt transitions This seamless progression from one sentence to the next enhances the overall clarity and effectiveness of the writing.
According to Feist (1996), there are four main kinds of paragraph: informative, descriptive, narrative and persuasive
An informative paragraph is a paragraph that informs information
A narrative paragraph is a paragraph that explains something that happened
Persuasive writing aims to convince readers to take action or endorse a particular idea (Feist, 1996, p 54) The core of a persuasive paragraph is the writer's opinion, typically expressed in a clear topic sentence, with subsequent sentences providing supporting reasons and evidence To effectively encourage the reader to act, the tone should be assertive yet respectful.
A descriptive paragraph vividly illustrates the characteristics of a person or object, allowing readers to engage their senses of sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch The topic sentence conveys the main idea or overall impression, while supporting sentences provide specific details that enhance the description and create a more immersive experience for the reader.
A well-structured paragraph consists of three key elements: the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and the closing sentence The topic sentence, typically found at the beginning, introduces the main idea of the paragraph Following this, supporting sentences elaborate on the topic by providing detailed explanations and examples, forming the body of the paragraph Finally, the closing sentence summarizes the main idea in different words, reinforcing the paragraph's overall message.
The English 10 textbook emphasizes the importance of writing descriptive paragraphs, with the primary goal being for students to master the skill of crafting complete paragraphs To facilitate this learning process, the author selects relevant topics that encourage students to engage in descriptive writing, ultimately aiding in data collection and skill development.
Errors
Error has been given various definitions Choon (1993) describes
Errors in language learning are often viewed as structural mistakes that native speakers find unacceptable As noted by Richards (1989), these errors reflect incomplete linguistic acquisition Defining errors can be challenging, as making mistakes is a natural part of learning any language Both native and non-native speakers can make errors, although the types of mistakes may differ Writing, in particular, presents significant challenges that test an individual's language skills and ability to convey thoughts, making students more prone to errors Various definitions of errors have been proposed by experts in the field.
Some scholars advocate for defining errors based on their frequency, with Cunning Worth (1987) describing them as "systematic deviations from the norms of the language being learned." This definition highlights repeated violations of language rules, but it raises challenges since the term "learned" is relative Students may acquire language skills outside the classroom or forget what they have previously learned, complicating language teachers' ability to assess their students' knowledge accurately.
Some scholars associate the term "errors" with students' inability to self-correct their mistakes According to Edge (1997), an "error" is defined as a mistake that a student cannot rectify on their own, even when the teacher believes the class understands the correct form.
Edge's definition of language learning errors aligns with Cunning's (1987) perspective, highlighting that certain aspects of the language pose challenges for students These difficulties often lead to unconscious mistakes, preventing learners from self-correcting Additionally, some experts integrate these dimensions when discussing the concept of "errors," as noted by Corder (1967).
22) regards "errors" as the "systematic and regular deviant form of language produced by second language learners at competence level due to linguistic reason.” Accordingly, second language learners repeatedly produce deviant forms of language because of their deficient competence of selective items of the target language but not because of their carelessness or lack of attention
Based on the definitions discussed, the researcher opts for Corder's (1967) third perspective, which offers the most comprehensive understanding of errors Corder identifies two key features of an error: systematic deviancy and the learner's inability to self-correct Various linguists and methodologists have also contributed to the definition of writing errors.
Errors in language use indicate a learner's limited proficiency in the target language, highlighting areas that need improvement This occurrence is common across nearly all languages globally.
2.2.2 The differences between Errors and mistakes
Understanding the distinction between errors and mistakes is essential for language learners According to Brown (2000), a mistake is a performance error resulting from random guesses or slips, often due to carelessness or fatigue, which learners can usually correct themselves In contrast, errors are systematic and stem from a learner's lack of competence, ignorance of the correct rules, or interference from their mother tongue Recognizing these differences can help learners address their language challenges more effectively.
The distinction between "errors" and "mistakes" is often discussed by linguists, though a clear differentiation can be challenging Klassen (1991) defines "errors" as structural issues perceived as unacceptable by native speakers due to a lack of language proficiency Chomsky (1965) introduced the idea that errors can arise from either verbal performance factors or inadequate language capability Corder (1967) further categorized these as mistakes and errors, with mistakes being unsystematic and correctable when attention is given, while errors are systematic deviations from the target language rules Essentially, errors stem from insufficient understanding of the language or incorrect assumptions, whereas mistakes are due to temporary lapses in concentration To determine whether a learner has made an error or a mistake, one must assess if they can self-correct; if they can, it is likely a mistake, but if they cannot, it is classified as an error.
Corder (1974) differentiates between "systematic errors" and "non-systematic errors," the latter being referred to as "mistakes." He explains that mistakes arise from a deviation from language norms but occur inconsistently, meaning the application of these norms can be both correct and incorrect In contrast, systematic errors are characterized by their repetitive nature, indicating a consistent misunderstanding of the language rules.
“when people do not fully command some institutionalized language system” (Corder, 1974)
Distinguishing between errors and mistakes in language use can be challenging Mistakes typically arise from misapplication of language skills, whereas errors, particularly fossilized errors, are repeated mistakes made by language learners This study aims to examine common errors among tenth graders, identify their causes, and propose potential solutions.
Choon (1993) identifies various types of language errors, including semantic errors (such as incorrect word usage), grammatical errors (like tense and preposition mistakes), as well as global and local errors She emphasizes the importance of a flexible error classification system, suggesting that teachers can better tailor their syllabi by understanding both individual and common language challenges faced by their students.
In 1982, it was noted that many students often make similar grammatical errors in their language learning process Hendrickson (1980) emphasized the importance of examining these frequently committed errors at different stages of foreign language acquisition, as this analysis can yield valuable insights for improving language instruction.
Research has identified common errors made by English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and English as a Second Language (ESL) learners, as highlighted by Dulay et al in 1982 These errors reflect the hierarchies of language learning features that affect learners' proficiency.
1) Omitting grammatical morphemes, which are elements that do not bring much contribution to the meaning of sentences, as in He hit car
2) Double marking, as semantic feature (e.g., past tense) when only one marker is requiring, as in she didn’t went back
3) Regularizing rules, as in womans for women
4) Using archiforms - one form in place of several- such as the use of her for both she and her, as in I met her last sunday Her had dinner with my boyfriend
Previous studies on error analysis
During the 1970s and 1980s, numerous studies focused on error analysis, which involves identifying, describing, and explaining errors in spoken or written language Structuralist linguists viewed language as a mechanical process, believing that errors could be avoided early in the learning phase However, with the emergence of generative-transformational theory, researchers and educators began to embrace errors as a natural aspect of the learning process This shift in perspective towards errors is essential for fostering a positive learning environment.
Communicative Language Learning and Teaching Numerous studies in language teaching and learning were carried out by scholars like Corder
(1967), which categorized errors that learners caused, researcher workers could learn a lot about the second language acquisition mechanism by guessing the approaches that the learners were selecting
In Vietnam, there has been an effort generated by researchers to contribute to the treasure of error analysis
In her 2011 study, Đinh Thị Phương Anh examined common errors in English article usage among first-year students at Hung Yen Industrial College, highlighting that the misuse of articles is a prevalent issue, often exacerbated by a lack of prepositions This research specifically focuses on article errors, reflecting a broader trend among Vietnamese researchers who tend to emphasize grammatical aspects such as cohesive devices, articles, and verb usage in their studies.
A significant amount of research has focused on college students, with Đặng Thị Hoàng Lan (2016) examining common verb-tense errors among 42 grade 10 students at Kim Thanh Upper-Secondary School Utilizing students' written paragraphs and individual open-ended interviews as data collection methods, the study revealed that errors in verb-tense forms were more prevalent than those in verb-tense choice Notably, the Past Simple tense was identified as the most frequently erroneous tense, while the Future Simple tense had the least errors Additionally, omission errors were the most common type of mistake, while misordering errors occurred the least frequently.
Research indicates that learners encounter various errors during their English writing process, highlighting the need for further investigation into these mistakes While the causes of errors may be similar across different backgrounds, the specific types of errors vary significantly Etherton (1977) emphasizes that learners with diverse mother tongues tend to produce distinct mistakes This study aims to identify the common written errors made by 10th-grade Vietnamese students, explore the underlying causes of these errors, and propose potential solutions for improvement.
Chapter Summary
Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive overview of teaching methods, paragraph teaching, and error classifications, highlighting the distinction between errors and mistakes It identifies five key reasons for student errors: mother tongue interference, overgeneralization, ignorance of rule restrictions, incomplete application of rules, and carelessness The chapter also discusses various error correction techniques and references previous studies that contribute to the literary framework of the research These studies explore different aspects of errors, their frequency, and underlying causes For the researcher, it is crucial to adopt effective methods for identifying common error types and their causes, as well as to implement suitable correction techniques to assist tenth graders in overcoming these challenges.
METHODOLOGY
Context of the Study
3.1.1 The setting of teaching and learning English at DCHS
Dai Cuong High School, situated in the rural Ung Hoa district of Hanoi, faces challenges in English language education due to the area's agricultural focus and traditional mindset Residents believe that proficiency in Vietnamese suffices, leading to a lack of emphasis on learning English, which is viewed as a secondary subject in lower secondary schools Consequently, both teachers and students exhibit negative attitudes towards English, treating it as an unimportant requirement merely to pass exams, resulting in minimal engagement and attention to language learning.
Upon entering DCHS, students are required to take exams in Maths, Literature, and English, often excelling in the first two subjects while struggling with English Despite four years of English education in lower secondary schools, many students lack engagement, making it challenging for DCHS teachers to build upon their foundational knowledge The new high school English textbooks are designed to follow the lower secondary curriculum, but teachers are pressed for time and cannot revisit previously learned material, leading to fatigue and disinterest among both students and educators Throughout the teaching period, it has become evident that writing is the most challenging language skill for students, with many expressing frustration and teachers often shying away from the complexities of teaching writing The linguistic challenges associated with composing paragraphs significantly hinder students' writing proficiency.
3.1.2 Writing lessons in the new “Tieng Anh 10” textbook
The "Tieng Anh 10" textbook aims to enhance students' linguistic and communicative skills, structured over two terms with a total of 10 units Each term consists of 5 units, covering 105 periods throughout the school year, and includes 4 review lessons after every 2 or 3 units The content is organized into four primary activities, ensuring a comprehensive approach to developing writing competencies as outlined in the accompanying table.
Table 3.1: The topics, forms of writing periods in the New Tieng Anh 10
Units Themes / Topics Forms of writing
1 Family life Writing about doing household chores
2 Your body and you Writing about what to eat and not to eat
Review 1 Think about two types of people who have very different lifestyles and write about what each Person’s daily life is like
Writing an application letter letter for volunteer Work
5 Inventions Writing about the benefits of an invention
Review 2 Write about the benifits of a handheld device like the one in the photo below Use the following prompts or your own ideas: For information
6 Gender Equality Writing about the disadvantages of working
7 Cultural Diversity Writing about some typical characteristics of the
8 New Ways to learn Writing about the advantages of electronic devices as learning tools Review 3 Write about what customs a visitor to Vietnam should know (Dos and Don’ts)
Writing about environmental problems and gives some practical advice on how to preserve
10 Ecotourism writing a travel brochure promoting an eco tour
Review 4 Write a paragraph about one of the environmental problems and give advice on how to solve them ( Problem and advice)
Participants
The study focuses on a group of 19 students from the 10th grade at DCHS Due to time constraints, it is not feasible to conduct individual assessments with all 10th-grade students Consequently, the research utilizes a cluster sampling method to gather data from a representative subset of the population.
Information of students Number of responses Percentage
A survey conducted with nineteen students revealed a homogenous age group, with 94.7% (18 students) aged 15 and 5.3% aged 16 Among the participants, 73.7% were female and 26.3% were male, studying in various classes Despite nearly seven years of English study, their proficiency remains at a primary level.
Nineteen students from classes 10A1 and 10A4 were randomly selected from a total of 276 tenth-grade students at DCHS This selection process was conducted after the students had been assigned to their respective classes.
The study focused on two groups of students from grades 10A1 to 10A6, categorized by their preference for subjects Students in classes 10A1 to 10A3 showed a strong interest in natural science, while those in classes 10A4 to 10A6 were enrolled in basic classes This selection allowed the researcher to obtain more reliable and objective results.
Tenth-grade students at DCHS are studying foundational English using the new textbook TIENG ANH 10, which features a theme-based approach The textbook consists of 10 units and 4 review sections, with each unit organized into 8 segments: Getting Started, Language, Reading, Speaking, Listening, Writing, Communication and Culture, Looking Back, and Projects.
In the first term of the school year, students' performance in English was notably lower than in other subjects, with only 9.5% achieving excellent marks (7-8), 52% receiving good marks (5-6), 14% obtaining average marks (4), and a concerning 23.5% scoring below 5, indicating a significant need for improvement in English proficiency.
A two-week research study was conducted in two 10th-grade classes at DCHS, where English is prioritized as a crucial subject that supports learning in other fields like tourism, finance, and language studies at the university level Despite its importance, the majority of students demonstrate only a beginner level of English proficiency, as evidenced by their low scores on the entrance exam for upper-secondary school.
Subjects of the study are 19 ten th form students from 2 classes of grade
10 Their English is at primary level They are familiar with writing skill and are able to compose narrative, cause and effect, compare and contrast paragraphs Nevertheless, their proficiency in English is not as fluent as advanced learners: hence they tend to make more errors in higher frequency Thus, treatment of students’ errors in writing is a headache and time - consuming job to teachers They are willing and enthusiastic to take part in this study.
Instruments
In research, the choice of instrument significantly impacts the quality of data collected To ensure comprehensive data for the study, the researcher utilized two key data collection methods: document analysis and interviews.
The study aims to utilize document analysis as a method to uncover insights into the research problems, as it is recognized for providing objective, systematic, and qualitative data (Verma & Mallick, 1999) This approach allows the researcher to identify common errors made by 10th-grade students and draw inferences from the collected data, complementing the findings from interviews Participants are instructed to write paragraphs on selected topics to facilitate this analysis.
Write a paragraph about one of the following five topics, your writing should be about 100 -120 words in length
Topic 1: Write a paragraph about living in your house or living or in the hostel, which place is better?
Topic 2: Write a paragraph to describe the most unforgettable day in your life Topic 3: Write a paragraph about a bad habit you have made
Topic 4: Write a paragraph to tell about a favourite film that you’ ve watched recently
Topic 5: Write a paragraph about the ways you learn English that you think it is effective
The topics for writing are designed based on the familiar topics in the book
“The new TIENG ANH 10” edited by Hoàng Văn Vân and Hoàng Thị Xuân Hoa, introduced by Viet Nam Education Publishing House
The paragraphs are written in pieces of paper It is not an exam, so students are allowed to use dictionaries The paragraph has to be at least 100 -
The study involved 19 students as respondents, with the writing papers collected and evaluated by the researcher using a specific marking symbol system The researcher then provided an introduction to the marking process, ensuring clarity in assessment criteria This process was completed within a maximum timeframe of 50 minutes, allowing for efficient data collection and analysis.
The researcher selected 60 errors from participants' writing tasks, focusing on 10 errors from each of the six identified error groups across 10 writing samples To gain deeper insights into the causes of these written errors, the researcher conducted interviews with 10 students responsible for the errors, providing each with a copy of their mistakes During the interviews, the students were asked to explain the reasons behind their errors in paragraph writing, with the researcher offering suggestions if they struggled to articulate their thoughts All responses were recorded and systematically categorized according to established criteria, as detailed in Table 3.4.
Data collection and procedure
The researcher employed a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative techniques to gather information about errors The qualitative aspect focuses on describing and analyzing the linguistic errors present in English paragraphs written by DCHS students, highlighting their unique characteristics In contrast, the quantitative approach is utilized to calculate the percentage of specific linguistic errors.
3.4.1 Student writing tasks collection procedure
First of all, students are asked to write paragraphs of one of five given topics in class within 45 minutes Then, 19 writing tasks are collected by the researcher
Students’ writing papers with teachers’ correction are collected later to analyze The researcher has corrected these written works according to the Correction Symbols as followed:
Table 3.3: Error marking symbols (According to Klassen 1991; Batels, et al., 1993; Igram & King 1996)
Vt Verb tense Sp Spelling
Prep Wrong/ unnecessary or omitted Art Wrong/omitted or
Agr Subject - verb agreement T connective/transition signal
Vf Verb form (wrong gerund, participle, infinitive, modal or passive voice verb)
Frag Fragment sentence RO Run - on sentence
Wf Word form (noun, verb, adj ) WO Word order ˄ Add a word phrase (use the symbol and mark the word type omitted)
X Optional/unnecessary word/phrarse (cross the words and mark if they are article, preposition, or others)
Pro Wrong/ unnecessary or omitted Pronoun
Poss Wrong possessive ending Cs Comma splice
According to Jame (1988), common writing errors among learners include issues with tenses, prepositions, and limited vocabulary While grammar serves as a tool for effective writing, students often place excessive emphasis on it, leading to frequent mistakes in areas such as subject-verb agreement, verb tenses, word forms, prepositions, articles, and pluralization Adapting Chaney’s model can provide insights into addressing these common challenges in writing.
Learners’ error classification (1999), and basing on the teachers’ marking, the author classifies the errors into categories as following:
Verb tense and form errors can significantly impact the clarity of your writing Common issues include mistakes in tense and aspect, which can confuse the timeline of events Additionally, errors involving gerunds and infinitives, as well as incorrect usage of passive and active voice, can lead to misinterpretation Conditional verb errors also contribute to a lack of coherence To enhance your writing, it’s essential to identify and correct these verb-related mistakes.
Group 3: Article - wrong, omitted or unnecessary articles
- wrong words, wrong word forms
- wrong, omitted or unnecessary prepositions wrong, omitted or unnecessary pronouns (including personal/ possessive/ relative pronouns, and other types of pronouns), spelling errors
Group 5: Sentence structure Errors rors in sentence/ clause boundaries (run-on, fragments, comma splices), umdiomatic sentence construction
- wrong/ omitted or unnecessary conjunctions
- wrong/omitted or unnecessary transitional signals
Each student's writing is assigned a unique code number, ranging from 1 to 19, corresponding to 19 paragraphs Errors identified in these writings are also coded, combining the writing number with the specific line number from which the error is extracted For instance, an error labeled "1-4" indicates that it originates from line 4 of writing number 1 This coding system enables readers to easily locate errors within the writings and understand their underlying causes as revealed in the interview results.
The researcher categorizes writing errors and randomly selects ten errors from each category to investigate their underlying causes The following week, the researcher schedules appointments with the students who made these errors, providing them with a document that includes their unique code and the specific writing mistakes Each participant is asked to explain the reasons behind their errors in response to the question, “Could you tell me the reasons why you made these types of errors when writing a paragraph?” A total of 60 responses are collected and categorized into six groups based on the identified causes of the errors In instances where a single error is attributed to two different causes in one response, the researcher selects the more likely cause based on theoretical insights discussed in Chapter 2 and personal teaching experiences.
After collecting and classifying the errors, the researcher identifies their causes based on the theoretical framework outlined in Chapter 2 If any aspects remain unclear, the researcher seeks clarification by asking why these errors occurred The identified causes are then categorized into specific groups for further analysis.
Table 3.5 Identification of error causes
I thought in Vietnamese and then translated …
I translated word by words from Vietnamese to… Overgeneralization I think it is similar to the structure
I think that its structures enclosed with prepositions are the same of Vietnamese …
I think you can understand what I mean
My old teacher taught me that
I did not remember this word/this phrase exactly
I read these things on the internet
Carelessness I did not pay attention
I was tired or I was not interested in the topics Teacher's judgments I do not know the reason or I had no ideas
The researcher utilized his expertise in English teaching to categorize responses into five groups based on personal judgment Following the completion of data collection, the analysis commenced, uncovering common errors among 10th-grade students Additionally, the interview results highlighted the underlying causes of these errors.
Data analysis
This section illustrates the process of transforming research data into meaningful results It encompasses the analysis of writing errors from 10 students and the examination of 25 students' responses regarding the causes of these errors, as gathered through interviews.
In this stage of the students' writing analysis, errors are quantified, categorized, and compared by percentage with other error groups To determine the frequency of each error, the researcher utilizes a specific formula.
In which, P= percentage of each error , nl= total number of errors , Ʃ N = total errors per group or per type of errors
By analyzing the frequency of errors, the researcher can pinpoint the most common mistakes made by students After calculating and organizing these errors, the researcher compiled the results into a comprehensive table for further analysis.
In this stage, the researcher classifies data from 60 student responses into six groups of causes outlined in Chapter 2 Utilizing personal experience in English learning and teaching, the researcher identifies primary causes for each error group, evaluating them against theoretical frameworks discussed earlier The analysis focuses on error frequency, presented as percentages, acknowledging that each error may stem from multiple causes Ultimately, the main cause of each error is determined based on student responses and the researcher’s evaluative criteria.
Chapter summary
This chapter examines the teaching and learning conditions of English at DCHS, analyzing student demographics such as English proficiency, age, and duration of study It outlines the researcher's chosen methods for conducting surveys, including interviews and writing analysis Additionally, it discusses techniques for categorizing errors and analyzing data, as well as criteria for identifying common error types and their causes Selecting the appropriate research methods is crucial for the success of the study.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Common errors made by 10th grade students at DCHS
The first research question addressed in Chapter One focuses on identifying the common types of errors made by 10th-grade students in writing English paragraphs at DCHS This inquiry is explored through the analysis of quantitative data, which provides insights into the specific writing challenges faced by these students.
In a study involving 19 students' writing samples, a total of 248 errors were identified and classified into six categories, highlighting 19 distinct types of mistakes made during the learning process of free writing The findings are detailed in the accompanying tables.
Table 4.1 Number and frequency of errors in paragraph writing by types and by groups
Types of errors Number of errors
Group 4: Word Preposition 24 82 33.1 choice errors Wrong word 16
Errors word order 9 comma splice 3
Figure 4.1: Frequency of errors in paragraph writing by group
According to the data presented in Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1, the most prevalent errors among 10th graders are word choice errors, which include preposition, pronoun, wrong word, word form, and spelling errors, accounting for 33.1% of total mistakes Following this, verb-related errors, such as verb tenses, subject-verb agreement, and verb form errors, comprise 26.7% Sentence structure errors rank third at 12.1%, while mechanical errors and article errors are nearly equal at 9.6% and 9.7%, respectively Lastly, noun errors account for 8.8% This analysis clearly indicates that the most significant error groups are related to verb and word choice errors To further clarify the frequency of these errors, the researcher has categorized 19 types of errors from most to least frequent in the accompanying table.
Table 4.2: Frequencies of each error type
NO Types of errors Total of errors Percentage
7 Plural and singular form errors 17 6.9%
Figure 4.2: Frequencies of each error type
The analysis of error types among 10th graders reveals that verb errors are the most prevalent, with 26 verb tense errors (10.5%) leading the group Article and preposition errors follow closely, each with 24 instances (9.7%) Subject-verb agreement errors rank third with 22 errors (8.9%), while verb form errors account for 18 (7.3%) Plural noun form and spelling errors tie for fifth place with 17 errors (6.9%), and wrong word errors are sixth with 16 errors (6.5%) The seventh position is held by wrong word form errors (15 errors, 6%), followed by unidiomatic structures and conjunction errors (13 errors, 5.2%) Pronoun errors (10 errors, 4%) and word order errors (9 errors, 3.6%) rank ninth and tenth, respectively Additionally, punctuation errors total six (2.4%), while possessive ending and capitalization errors each have five (2%) Comma splice and run-on errors are less common, each at 1.2%, and fragment errors are the least frequent at 0.8% This data indicates that students struggle with verb usage, particularly in verb tense, subject-verb agreement, and verb form, as well as noun and preposition usage Students frequently omit necessary articles or place them incorrectly, and they often misuse prepositions, either omitting them after verbs that require them or misplacing them Furthermore, structures like “there + to be-N” present challenges for students, highlighting their difficulties in understanding verb usage in context.
Students often struggle with verb tenses, particularly when using the verb "be" in singular or plural forms This difficulty leads to common writing errors among 10th graders, including issues with word choice, verb usage, article usage, and sentence structure These grammatical mistakes frequently occur when students attempt to describe stories or events, highlighting the need for focused instruction on these areas.
Errors in verb tenses are the most challenging for students, as demonstrated in Table 4.2 This difficulty arises from the confusing nature of English tenses for foreign learners, who often view time as a distinct concept Unlike English, which uses various tenses—such as present, past, future, continuous, and perfect—Vietnamese verbs do not indicate time Instead, Vietnamese relies on additional particles like “sẽ,” “đã,” and “đang” to convey moods and tenses In contrast, English verbs change form based on the aspect of time, while the same Vietnamese verb can represent multiple tenses without alteration.
I write a romantic novel Tôi viết một cuốn tiểu thuyết lãng mạn
I wrote a romatic novel Tôi đã viết một cuốn tiểu thuyết lãng mạn
I am writing a romatic novel Tôi đang viết một cuốn tiểu thuyết lãng mạn
Tôi đã viết xong một cuốn tiểu thuyết lãng mạn
I will write a romantic novel Tôi sẽ viết một cuốn tiểu thuyết lãng mạn
In English, the verb "write" varies based on the tense of the action, while in Vietnamese, the verb "viết" remains consistent across all sentences Vietnamese indicates the timing of the action through particles such as "đã."
Students often struggle with understanding tense and aspect usage in English due to the influence of Vietnamese markers like “đang,” “rồi,” and “sẽ.” This leads them to rely on the simple present tense in their writing, as they find it the most convenient option In Vietnamese, time is indicated by specific particles such as “đã” for past tense, “đang” for present tense, and “sẽ” for future tense, which complicates their grasp of English tense usage Consequently, errors in verb tense are common in their writing tasks.
When I arrived at Sa Pa, I was very happy because my relatives warmly welcome me
“Nhung Ngay Khong Quen” is the most interesting film I see
When I want to meet my parents, I went home
In the examples provided, the student demonstrates a common error in verb tense usage In the first instance, the present simple tense is incorrectly used in place of the past simple tense Similarly, in the second example, the simple present tense substitutes the present perfect tense Lastly, the third example shows the past simple tense replacing the present simple tense.
Subject-verb agreement (S-V-A) is significantly impacted by whether the subject is singular or plural, requiring the verb to match the subject in number for a grammatically correct sentence When students overlook this rule, they often produce incorrect verb forms Errors related to S-V-A account for 8.9% of total grammatical mistakes, with students particularly struggling to differentiate between third-person singular and plural verbs Common errors include misapplication of these verb forms.
(1) My grandmother teach us work good matter
(2) Smokers has to spend on amount of money
(3) My mother help me understand about the life
Students often struggle with the correct use of verb forms, particularly when it comes to choosing between infinitives and gerunds that follow other verbs This confusion leads to errors in identifying when to use infinitives and when to use gerunds, resulting in frequent mistakes in their writing and speaking.
Many learners struggle with the correct placement of infinitives and gerunds, leading to frequent errors in their writing Additionally, they often face challenges in using the appropriate verb forms in conditional sentences Common mistakes include failing to modify the -ing or -ed forms in participle clauses and passive voice constructions.
(4) After finish two important exam, my class decided to celebrate
(5) I‟ m a student live far from home
(6) In Ha long, there are a big casino I wish I can enter it
Using verbs correctly poses a significant challenge for students, with common issues arising in verb tenses, subject-verb agreement (SVA), prepositions, and verb forms Both students and teachers must focus on these areas to enhance the effectiveness of English language teaching and learning.
This study identifies noun errors among Vietnamese students, specifically focusing on plural/singular and possessive ending mistakes Although noun errors constitute the smallest portion of the total findings, plural/singular errors rank fifth among 19 error types, accounting for 6.9% of all errors This indicates that the concepts of singular and plural nouns, as well as countable and uncountable nouns, present challenges for Vietnamese learners In Vietnam, cardinal numbers or the term "những" are used to indicate quantity, and nouns remain unchanged The definitions of countable and uncountable nouns are also complex in the Vietnamese language, leading to frequent mistakes where students either neglect to add "s" to plural nouns or incorrectly add "s" to singular or uncountable nouns.
(7) I have many chances to improve my knowledge in every fields
(8) There are four peoples in my family
(9) One of the bad habit I have is sleeping late
(10) The main character name is Anh thu
Students often make the common mistake of omitting the possessive form “'s.” For example, instead of correctly writing, “The main character's name is Anh Thu,” they may incorrectly state, “The main character name is Harry Potter.” It is essential to include the possessive form to convey the intended meaning accurately.
Causes of errors made by 10th grade students DCHS
During the interview process, participants are presented with 10 sentences containing errors from their writing, resulting in a total of 60 errors analyzed Each participant's responses are categorized based on the causes of these errors, noting that a single student's answer may address multiple causes Among the errors identified, 16 can be classified into two distinct groups, but the researcher selects the most likely cause for each error This approach highlights the complexity of error analysis in writing and the varied reasons behind students' mistakes.
Table 4.3: Number of errors per causes
Numbers of errors per cause
Ignorance of rule restrictions 1 0 1 3 1 0 Incomplete application of
G1: Verb errors G2: Noun errors G3: Article errors G4: Word choice errors G5: Sentence structure errors G6: Mechanical errors Table 4.4: The popularity of each kind of causes to students' common written errors
Causes of written errors Number of errors Percentage of occurrence
Figure 4.3 The popularity of each type of causes to students’ common written errors
The analysis of Table 4.4 and Figure 4.3 indicates that mother tongue interference is the primary cause of errors in students' writing, accounting for 41.6% with 25 errors Carelessness follows as the second leading cause, contributing to 25% of errors, equivalent to 15 instances Overgeneralization ranks third, representing 16.7% or 10 errors Incomplete application of rules is noted at 3.3%, slightly lower than ignorance of rule restrictions at 6.7%, with both types also totaling 10 errors Overall, the data suggests that mother tongue interference is the predominant issue affecting students' English writing skills.
To address the research question regarding the major causes of written errors among 10th grade students at DCHS, the researcher will analyze these errors based on theoretical insights from Chapter 2 and qualitative data from learner interviews The study identifies five primary causes of common errors: mother tongue interference, overgeneralization, ignorance of rule restrictions, incomplete application of rules, and carelessness.
The detailed discussion and justification of each cause is provided as follow 4.2.2.1 Mother tongue interference
Mother tongue interference occurs when students apply the grammatical rules of their native language while learning a second language, often resulting in errors A common issue is the tendency for Vietnamese students to use incorrect word order, such as saying "I very like Vietnamese movies," which stems from word-by-word translation This misordering is primarily due to the contrasting structures of Vietnamese and the target language, highlighting the challenges learners face in mastering proper syntax and grammar.
(39) The weather is not warm very much
(40) After working hard a week, they were all tired and needed a day-off
In Vietnamese, adjectives typically follow the head noun, leading to a misplaced adjective in example (40) Additionally, in example (41), the adverb of degree should precede adjectives, contrasting with Vietnamese where the placement of the adverb is optional.
The weather is not very warm.(40)
After a hard-working day, they were all tired and needed a day-off (41)
In Vietnamese, ellipsis tends to occur more frequently within sentences to promote language economy, with speakers relying heavily on contextual cues compared to their English counterparts.
(41) The living condition in your house is more convenient than in the hostel Điều kiện sống ở nhà thì thoải mái hơn (điều kiện sống) ở ký túc xá
(42) English grammar is very strange, which is different from in Vietnamese Ngữ pháp tiếng Anh thì khác lạ, điều này khác với (điều) trong tiếngViệt
In sentence number 42, the English subject is elliptical, which differs from the Vietnamese structure where the subject, including the preposition, is often omitted This discrepancy can lead Vietnamese students to misuse the subject in their English writing.
In English, pronouns are often required, while in Vietnamese, they can be omitted Additionally, Vietnamese students frequently start sentences with conjunctions like "and," "so," and "sometimes," using them as introductory elements for independent clauses This contrasts with English, where these conjunctions should precede subordinate clauses instead In Vietnamese, such connectors can effectively introduce independent sentences.
(43) I feel very tired and I want to return my house So I like living in my house
(44) Sometimes, we can talk about life, study, love
Overgeneralization in grammar focuses on noun numbers and subject-verb agreement Students often assume that any expression indicating "plurality" must be followed by a plural noun Consequently, they mistakenly interpret "every" as a plural indicator, leading to errors such as using plural nouns after it.
Every year, students are taught to add "s" to plural nouns, which often leads them to incorrectly apply this rule to uncountable nouns as well This results in common errors in their writing.
"importances, seafoods and foods," additionally, the structure "there + to be +
Many college students struggle with understanding nouns, mistakenly believing that any element at the beginning of a sentence should be treated as the subject, which leads them to incorrectly match verbs with singular subjects They often assume that "there" indicates a singular subject, requiring a singular noun to follow However, the verb agreement should actually depend on the nearest noun that follows it.
(45) There is few kinds of movie that all people like
(46) There is few interesting books found in the library
Ignorance of rule restrictions often leads to incorrect word choices and preposition usage among 10th grade students They frequently overlook the specific guidelines governing these language rules, resulting in the use of improper forms or structures For example, instead of using the verb "cover" to describe an area, students may incorrectly opt for verbs like "to be" or "give."
"take", or "useful" is used to refer to things, but they use it to characterize people Such sentences are:
(47) We should give some measures to avoid it
(48) People here are very useful
Students often misuse prepositions due to a lack of understanding of rule restrictions and reliance on analogies For instance, while 10th graders learn phrases like "speak to somebody" and "come to school," they may incorrectly apply these patterns, resulting in phrases such as "tell to somebody" and "come to there."
Incomplete application of language rules significantly affects students' writing abilities, as they struggle to apply learned rules in various contexts Despite repeated instruction on language rules, many students continue to make errors related to verb tense, verb form, and article usage A notable challenge lies in the use of the past simple tense, which is intended to describe actions that occurred and concluded in the past However, students often misuse this tense, applying it incorrectly to describe ongoing facts in their writing.
Last week, I explored Da Lat, a city known for its cool weather throughout the four seasons Many students often struggle with verb forms, particularly the distinctions between bare infinitives and gerunds, leading to misunderstandings in their usage.
Suggesting some implications for writing teachers
Effective writing is crucial in every field, making it essential for teachers to correct students' errors to help them produce error-free compositions Providing feedback on these errors is a fundamental responsibility of educators, yet it can be a challenging process that not all teachers execute effectively due to the complexity of the required strategies Research indicates that many students continue to make the same mistakes, largely due to insufficient feedback and correction from their instructors Therefore, based on insights from research findings and literature review, this section will propose methods for delivering constructive feedback and techniques for effective error correction.
Data analysis indicates that many teachers prefer providing correct forms for underlined errors, a method that proves ineffective as students merely copy these corrections, leading to recurring mistakes in their writing To enhance learning, it is recommended that teachers underline or circle the erroneous parts of words and use error codes to categorize each type of error, such as "GR" for grammar or "٨" for a missing word Research by Klassen (1991), Gower & Walters (1983), and White (1980) supports the use of error codes to provide constructive feedback, making it easier for students to identify and understand their mistakes By placing error codes beside or in the margin of written work, teachers can save time and space while delivering clear and meaningful feedback, rather than lengthy descriptions that may confuse students.
Teachers must ensure that students are familiar with correction codes to avoid confusion with unfamiliar symbols It is advisable for teachers to provide a list of these symbols and their meanings, encouraging students to keep it handy for reference when correcting their mistakes Over time, students will become accustomed to the symbols Initially, the list should include simple symbols for common errors, and teachers can gradually introduce new symbols for errors that arise during the learning process.
Designing correction codes can be approached in various ways, with the most prevalent method involving the use of symbols While there are no strict standards for these symbols, educators can create personalized lists that help students understand their meanings For example, "WF" can signify "Word Form" or "Wrong Form." Below is an example list of symbols for error correction, adapted from the works of Wood (2003) and Choon (1993).
Table 4.5 Symbols of error coding
SV Subject - verb agreement VT Verb tense
VF Verb form (gerund, participle ) wc Word choice
Frag Fragment sentence RO Run - on sentence
WF Word form (noun, verb, adj ) WO Word order ٨ Add a word ( ) Optional
A recommended alternative to complex symbol codes for error correction is the use of numbers, which many Vietnamese teachers may find easier to implement This numerical error code simplifies the identification of errors for students, reducing confusion that often arises from deciphering multiple symbols By adopting a numerical system, teachers can clearly indicate the types of errors, making the correction process more straightforward and accessible for students.
4.3.1.2 How much and when to correct errors
The timing and extent of error correction in student work are contentious issues among educators Research indicates that a majority of teachers tend to correct all errors present in student assignments, while many focus primarily on correcting errors in students' final drafts However, Choon suggests a different approach to error correction that merits consideration.
Research by Hendrickson (1984) and others indicates that correcting every error in student writing can be counterproductive When students receive papers marked with excessive corrections, they often feel discouraged and demotivated, leading to a reluctance to write and a fear of making mistakes Additionally, this approach is time-consuming for teachers, who must sift through numerous errors Therefore, it is crucial for educators to prioritize which errors to address and which to overlook.
Using different colored ink to highlight errors can effectively indicate their significance, with red marking more critical mistakes and blue or black denoting less important ones This method helps students recognize the seriousness of their errors, enhancing their learning experience.
4.3.1.3 Integrate positive and negative, direct and indirect feedback i) Integrate positive and negative feedback
Research indicates that teachers often focus on negative feedback, highlighting students' weaknesses while neglecting to acknowledge their strengths, which can undermine self-esteem and motivation Choon (1993) recommends that teachers provide summative comments at the end of writing assignments, as these are typically the first insights students receive regarding their overall performance Summative comments should prioritize students' strengths, such as "Has used past tense form correctly" and "Effective word choice," followed by constructive advice like "Do more exercises in the use of articles." By blending positive and negative feedback, teachers foster a more interactive learning environment that encourages student growth and motivation.
Hendrickson (1984) advocates for the integration of direct and indirect feedback in writing instruction, emphasizing that this combination allows teachers to be more flexible in addressing each learner's writing needs Data analysis reveals that most educators favor direct feedback, which focuses on providing correct forms for errors Therefore, incorporating both types of feedback is a valuable recommendation for teachers seeking to enhance their students' writing skills.
Indirect feedback involves teachers highlighting errors by underlining or circling them, while direct feedback uses error codes to categorize mistakes and provide hints for correction This approach not only identifies the errors students have made but also guides them on how to improve Furthermore, it allows students to learn from their mistakes, fostering a deeper understanding rather than simply replicating the teacher's corrections.
The study indicates that teachers infrequently employ effective techniques to assist students in correcting their errors, often resorting to simply providing the correct answers This one-way interaction leads to student passivity, resulting in the repeated occurrence of the same errors despite teacher corrections To enhance student engagement and error correction, it is essential for teachers to implement strategies such as self-correction, peer correction, student-teacher collaboration, and remedial exercises.
Teachers can enhance student learning by incorporating self-correction and peer-correction strategies, which not only alleviate their workload but also foster language improvement, analytical skills, and collaborative habits among students By organizing the class into four groups of four to five members, teachers can assign one group each week to oversee the correction of all class writings, allowing students to critique their own work alongside their peers' This method ensures that students engage with a variety of writings, broadening their understanding of common errors Additionally, teachers can facilitate class-wide participation by highlighting frequent and significant mistakes on the board, encouraging students to contribute to the correction process This peer involvement not only promotes critical thinking but also cultivates a cooperative classroom environment, shifting the focus from the teacher as the primary corrector to a more collaborative approach where students learn from one another, exemplifying the adage, "two heads are always better than one."
The self-correction technique offers significant advantages for students by empowering them to identify and rectify their own errors, fostering independence from teacher-led corrections (Wood, 1993) This approach encourages learners to engage with their mistakes constructively, allowing them to connect their existing knowledge to the correction process Instead of dismissing errors, students are given the opportunity to learn from them, enhancing their understanding and promoting a growth mindset.
The study indicates that carelessness is a significant factor contributing to errors made by students and teachers Self-correction serves as an effective tool for students to identify and rectify their own mistakes After completing their writing, teachers should encourage students to review their work to spot and correct as many errors as they can This self-correction technique not only empowers students but also alleviates the burden of careless mistakes for teachers.
Chapter summary
This chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of data from students' writing papers and interviews, highlighting key findings It identifies prevalent errors in students' writing at DCHS, including word choice, verb tense, articles, and prepositions The study also reveals common causes of these errors, such as mother tongue interference, carelessness, and overgeneralization To address these challenges, the researcher suggests effective techniques to help students improve their writing skills Ultimately, the findings are beneficial not only for enhancing students' paragraph writing abilities but also for guiding teachers in refining their writing instruction methods The recommendations presented can be effectively implemented in educational practices.
11 th, 12 th grade students in order to better their writing competence.