IMPROVEMENTS IN SUSTAINABILITY OF GRAVITY FED WATER SYSTEMS IN THE COMARCA NG×BE BUGLÛ, PANAMA SPRING CAPTURES AND CIRCUIT RIDER MODEL Michigan Technological University Michigan Technological Univer[.]
Motivation
As the target year for the United Nations Millennium Development Goal 7C approaches, significant progress has been made in providing sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation Since 1990, 2.1 billion more people have gained in-home access to clean drinking water, surpassing the MDG's objectives In Panama, collaboration between the UN and local government has led to the establishment of nine community water systems in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglò, further enhancing access to essential water resources.
From 2011 to 2013, a United States Peace Corps Volunteer (PCV) in Panama observed significant development in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ, including road improvements and the construction of latrines and water systems The Environmental Health (EH) sector of Peace Corps Panama focuses on achieving Millennium Development Goal 7, which aims to enhance rural access to clean water and provide essential training Living alongside local communities for two years offers PCVs a unique insight into their challenges, making the goal of meeting MDG targets more personal It's not just about statistics; it's about ensuring that neighbors don't suffer from preventable illnesses While typical aid organizations may shift focus after meeting targets, a PCV remains committed to improving conditions in their immediate environment with compassion.
In rural Panama, particularly in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ, various methods have been implemented to enhance access to clean water Government initiatives like the Project for Water and Sanitation in Panama (PASAP) and the Panamanian Institute for Municipal Development (IPADEM) collaborate with international organizations such as the World Bank, the United Nations, and the Government of Spain to improve water infrastructure Additionally, religious groups, university students, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and the Peace Corps contribute through community partnerships, economic support, and cultural exchange The Peace Corps employs a behavioral change model, focusing on facilitating training and promoting healthy habits over time Their approach emphasizes capacity building among community members, leaders, and local government agencies to ensure the sustainability of water projects through formal seminars and informal relationships.
This report aims to advocate for sustainable practices in the construction and maintenance of water systems to enhance access to clean water During work in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ, the author identified two critical issues: the insufficient protection of water sources and the absence of effective maintenance strategies for water systems at both community and regional levels.
Sustainable spring capture methods, combined with enhanced community engagement and technical support for maintenance, can significantly improve access to clean water in the region.
Study Setting: Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ
The Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ, located in western Panama, is inhabited by two distinct yet culturally similar indigenous groups, the Ngọbe and the Buglộ, who speak different languages This region has garnered global attention due to its significant indigenous population and high poverty rates, with ninety-five percent of indigenous people in Panama living in poverty Access to clean water is alarmingly low, with only forty-two percent of the population having access and just ten percent receiving uninterrupted service Established as designated land in 1997, the Comarca was formed from parts of the Bocas Del Toro and Chiriquí provinces.
Figure 1 Regions of the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ (Used with permission from Nacho Ferrer Vidal)
The Ngọbe-Buglé indigenous group settled in Panama's mountainous and infertile region following the arrival of Spanish explorers in the early 16th century, including Rodrigo de Bastidas, Christopher Columbus, and Vasco Balboa, who encountered approximately 500,000 indigenous people from various tribes (Meditz and Hanratty, 1987) Today, they live in extended family groups within traditional grass and bamboo huts or more modern structures made of rough-cut timber and cement blocks with corrugated zinc roofs Their diet primarily consists of locally grown rice, yucca, plantains, and beans.
One sustainable model of infrastructure projects in developing areas involves generating economic activity among the population to be served in order to provide capital
Investing in project materials, construction, and maintenance fosters community ownership and motivation for infrastructure upkeep through personal investment However, when developing in low-income areas, it's crucial to address social, economic, and technical challenges For instance, many rural indigenous Panamanians, primarily subsistence farmers, may find income generation culturally irrelevant and prefer to maintain their traditional lifestyle within the Comarca Therefore, external funding sources are essential to construct systems that adequately meet the community's basic needs.
Limited funding for the design and construction of water systems hinders communities from securing necessary design work and skilled labor to address their water needs Indigenous populations in Panama receive a disproportionately low share of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP), with a gross national income (GNI) of $8,510 as of 2012 Alarmingly, 27.6% of the population lives below the national poverty line, with 19% of these being indigenous Panamanians (The World Bank, 2014) This income disparity leads to a struggling local economy and a workforce lacking essential skills, while the demand for capital projects and basic infrastructure remains high.
Foreign investment is typically essential for initiating water projects, with system designs crafted by government technicians specializing in this field Community members often handle menial labor, while skilled workers are contracted for technical tasks Post-completion, ongoing maintenance and upgrades are crucial, yet many communities lack the expertise for self-sustenance To combat this issue, the Panamanian Ministry of Health (MINSA) assigns technicians to each township within the Comarca The Water and Sanitation Project of Panama (PASAP), a division of MINSA, oversees these technicians and is funded through a combination of national resources and international contributions.
The Comarca, consisting of seven townships and a population exceeding 154,000 residents, relies on PASAP to provide around one technician per township Each technician oversees about 66 water systems across 44 communities, many of which are located in remote areas without vehicle access This highlights the essential role of community-based maintenance in ensuring reliable water system management.
Project Objectives
This report aims to offer recommendations for enhancing gravity-fed water systems in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ, based on insights gained during the author's two-year Peace Corps service It examines key factors influencing system performance and outlines specific objectives to address these challenges effectively.
An in-depth knowledge of spring sources in the Comarca and examples demonstrating the lack of success of traditional spring boxes for gravity-fed water systems
An improved method of spring capture design specifically developed for the geology of the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ, along with three case studies showing the development of specific designs
A new tool for future PCVs that can facilitate design of spring captures and aid selection of a spring source
A description of current water system monitoring in the Comarca Ngọbe- Buglé, both by Peace Corps and the Panamanian government
Recommendations for a Circuit Rider model of water system maintenance, based on a successful model used in Honduras and the author’s own participant experience working in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ
The upcoming chapters will provide valuable insights through case studies and analysis, starting with Chapter 2, which addresses the challenges of traditional spring captures and presents a developed method to overcome these issues, supported by relevant case studies Chapter 3 will focus on the sustainability of water system maintenance in the Comarca Ngửbe-Buglộ, introducing the Circuit Rider model for technical assistance and community empowerment, drawing on the author's firsthand experience.
Springs of the Comarca
Climate and Hydrology
The region experiences distinct wet and dry seasons, with the dry season lasting from December to April or May, when regular rainstorms begin This pattern significantly influences the flow of the San Felix River, as illustrated in Figures 7 and 8, which reveal a lag in increased flow at the end of the dry season in April, coinciding with a rise in precipitation During this time, the dry earth replenishes its water reserves, leading to a more direct correlation between rainfall and river flow from July to November The pronounced dry season impacts water supply and spring capture planning, as springs typically start to show reduced flows by March For instance, in 2013, the Ceni Pita spring recorded flows of 0.4-0.5 liters per second until May, when it dropped below 0.2 liters per second After the dry season, it may take weeks of rainfall for aquifers to recharge and for springs to regain consistent flow, indicating a strong seasonal relationship between rainfall and spring flows, suggesting a shallow local flow system.
Figure 6 Dense vegetation surrounding spring sources in Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ (photo by author)
Prec ip ita tio n , mm
Figure 9 Precipitation and Flows, Ceni Pita Spring, August 2012-July 2013
Figure 7 Precipitation and Flows, San Felix River 2012
Figure 8 Precipitation and Flows, San Felix River, August 2012-July 2013
Figure 10 illustrates inter-annual precipitation variability, based on rainfall measurement at San Felix This ten year period exhibits a downward trend in total precipitation from
2003 until 2013, and low-rainfall years were especially noted by the author during the 2011-2013 period
In this study, spring flows were accurately measured using the volume-time method with appropriately sized containers Flows from spring captures were assessed through an outflow tube, while any water flowing outside of the capture was directed into a single stream using banana leaves, split bamboo shoots, and soft clay Each flow was measured three times, and the mean flow was calculated for analysis.
Traditional Spring Captures
In "A Handbook of Gravity-Flow Water Systems," Thomas Jordan emphasizes that the source of water is collected at an intake and directed into a pipeline, marking the initial flow point in a water system (Jordan, 2006, p 99) Traditional spring captures utilize deep, watertight walls to prevent seepage around the spring, and since spring flows usually carry minimal sediment, they typically do not require large collection tanks for sedimentation Any sediment present is often filtered by the aggregate in the spring, and it is advisable to clean the spring capture annually to eliminate sediment buildup on the screen The lifespan of a spring capture is influenced by material durability and weather exposure, but with regular maintenance and repairs, they can generally operate effectively for up to twenty years.
YearFigure 10 Total yearly precipitation at San Felix station, 2003-2013
Many spring boxes in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ feature sedimentation tanks but lack deep, watertight walls, leading to significant failures Three notable cases, all over ten years old and built by government contractors, exhibit major construction faults The most severe case suffers from inadequate wall depth, causing water to seep underneath and resulting in substantial water loss during the dry season Addressing this issue would likely require a complete reconstruction of the spring capture.
The spring capture at Quebrada Cacao, depicted in Figure 12, showcases an excessive use of materials without clear purpose, featuring a seven-foot high wall built between soft dirt sidewalls and a collapsing roof due to inadequate reinforcement The front wall is ineffective as a settling box and lacks waterproofing, allowing water to seep underneath Currently, most water flows into the community storage tank, while some escapes from the front wall Despite poor maintenance, including a recent community effort to seal the roof and prevent contamination, the spring continues to provide adequate water flow for the small community it serves.
Figure 11 Deep watertight wall forming the front of a traditional spring capture (spring box)
The Bajo Alto Caủasa community relies on two spring captures, located just 50 feet apart at the base of a slope, to supply water to its sixteen houses Both springs originate from the same watershed, yet the community's decision to clear vegetation within a 100-foot radius around the watershed may have led to increased surface runoff and reduced groundwater flow into the springs Additionally, the spring captures lack a deep front wall, allowing water to bypass the outflow tube intended for community use.
Figure 12 Quebrada Cacao spring capture, const 1992 (photos by author)
Figure 13 Bajo Alto Caủasa old spring box (photo by author)
In Cerro Puerco, two spring captures were established to supply water to over 600 residents, including an elementary and high school The first spring capture, constructed in 1994 by contractors funded by the Panamanian Ministry of Health, is situated in a ravine composed of hard clay and granite rock, topped with soft earth material The water discharge points can be easily adjusted within a twenty-foot radius of the spring, allowing for flexible water flow management; if one section is blocked, the water redirects to another area.
This spring serves as a vital and consistent water source for the community during dry months, yet its capture system is inadequately constructed Similar to the spring capture in Quebrada Cacao, it lacks a deep front wall to effectively contain seeping water Over time, seepage within the collection box has eroded the surrounding channels, resulting in a significant portion of the water flow escaping from beneath the front wall and the right side of the box.
Improved Spring Capture Approach
Spring captures are susceptible to time, environmental stress, and weather exposure, which can adversely affect their functionality Annual basic maintenance is essential, with more extensive repairs required as issues arise Inefficiently constructed spring captures can waste valuable resources and quickly lose their water-capturing capabilities Once poorly built, many structural problems are irreversible, making repairs, such as addressing water seepage from beneath a front wall, particularly challenging.
In response to these problems, a new theory of spring captures in the Comarca Ngọbe- Buglé has developed among technically skilled constructors and among PCVs working in
EH In a technical brief from the collection Running Water (Shaw, 1999), spring boxes are
Figure 14 Cerro Puerco spring capture constructed in 1994 (photo by author)
An alternative design for spring protection is proposed, which eliminates the need for a spring box, sedimentation, or a storage box (Shaw, 1999, p 5) This technical brief outlines crucial elements for safeguarding a spring without a spring box, focusing on site selection, excavation, and headwall construction The method developed in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglé incorporates key spring protection principles tailored to the local environment Over the past five years, this approach has been successfully implemented by a Panamanian technician and is now being replicated by Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs).
The innovative method for spring protection allows for natural water flow while adapting to geological changes over time and maximizing water capture with minimal materials This design is straightforward and can be easily replicated by community members once they grasp the concept, requiring no specialized skills for construction.
Figure 15.Spring Capture (Used with Permission from Christopher Kingsley)
Selecting the right spring source is crucial for effective water capture in spring It requires an understanding of the water demand for the population served and the seasonal flow patterns of the spring While communities may have a general awareness of seasonal flow variations, it is essential to have detailed records of monthly flows throughout the year for accurate planning.
Measuring water flow in a poorly defined channel of mud and rocks can be challenging To simplify this process, it's effective to direct the water into a single stream In the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ jungle, using banana leaves and large bamboo shoots can effectively channel the water Additionally, clay can be utilized to secure the banana leaves in place, ensuring a more accurate measurement.
To prepare the site for excavation, begin by removing material along the flow path from the spring's origin to any natural structural changes As you excavate, it may become clear that the spring is emerging from different locations, so it's crucial to strike a balance between excessive and insufficient material removal to accurately identify the water source Aim to excavate until the soft material is cleared, revealing the spring source Keep in mind that the excavated area will need to be filled and covered with concrete, ensuring that the concrete joint is flush with the surrounding earth.
Water should be diverted away from the construction area, especially the deep front wall
An effective approach to water management involves creating a dam to redirect water at a specific point, utilizing a drainage pipe to channel it away from the site Each location requires careful evaluation to determine the most suitable water diversion technique.
To properly fill the excavated volume, begin with clean, small boulders approximately one foot in diameter, ensuring the floor is covered to facilitate spring water drainage around the larger rocks Next, add clean, medium-sized gravel that fills the gaps between the boulders without falling through, allowing water to flow smoothly between them The gravel should be applied in such a way that only the tops of the small boulders are visible, creating a uniform surface that blends seamlessly with the surrounding earth.
To effectively capture the new spring area, a trench must be excavated in front of it, as illustrated in Figure 15, c This trench should be at least one foot deep to prevent soil erosion beneath the wall and extend one foot wider than the natural water channel to effectively block any downhill spring flow.
Ventilation tubes must be installed in the spring capture area to ensure proper air circulation around flowing water These tubes should extend into the rock fill to facilitate airflow and should be covered with screening material or bent over to prevent any debris from entering the spring capture.
To ensure structural integrity, the deep front wall must be reinforced with rebar or constructed from stone masonry, with rebar installed at half-foot intervals Stones should be carefully layered and fitted around the concrete mix until reaching the desired height, ensuring the top is flush with the spring capture above Additionally, the wall should incorporate cleanout, outflow, and overflow pipe sections, with outflow pipes treated similarly to other spring captures The cleanout should be equipped with a threaded cap or valve for easy maintenance, while the outflow pipe connects to the community system.
15 storage tank should be fitted with a shutoff valve Metal valves are preferred over plastic valves The overflow pipe should be left un-capped in case of overflow
To ensure proper protection of the capture area, it should be covered with a mortar mixture of sand and cement, avoiding large aggregates Incorporating a waterproofing admixture like SIKA®, commonly available in Panama, is essential The mortar layer must be thick enough to fully cover the gravel, and breather tubes should be securely sealed Additionally, the edges of the spring capture should be rounded towards the earth joint to minimize erosion and promote effective rain runoff over the capture structure.
It is essential to maintain an open space free of boulders and fill materials between the wall and the capture area near the outflow tubes to facilitate settling, collection, and cleaning Additionally, a sealed lid should be constructed over this space to prevent the entry of foreign materials.
The alternative method of spring capture offers several advantages over traditional spring box construction, including reduced material usage, minimized disturbance to the spring, and enhanced structural integrity, ensuring a consistent supply of clean, sediment-free water Furthermore, this improved spring capture method is more cost-effective and eliminates the need for specialized technical skills in construction, making it accessible for broader implementation For a detailed comparison of materials and costs, refer to Table 2.
Table 2 Traditional vs Improved Spring Capture Materials and Costs
Material Traditional Spring Box Improved Spring
*Based on median size of spring capture: 4’x3’x3’ box for traditional and 60ft 2 area for improved
This article explores the impact of a new spring capture method on water flow conditions in local communities through three case studies Two of the cases involve existing spring captures that were poorly constructed, highlighting the enhancements in water quality achieved through the new method The third case presents a newly designed capture for an undeveloped spring Each case study details the initial state of the spring, the design approach taken, and the resulting improvements in the spring's capacity as a reliable water source.
Circuit Rider Model in Panama
Community Empowerment
The Peace Corps in Panama fosters community empowerment and management through project facilitation, primarily utilizing the Participatory Analysis for Community Action (PACA) method PACA comprises various tools that Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) employ to enhance social infrastructure, emphasizing community-based decision-making and needs assessment Acting as trusted partners, PCVs facilitate discussions with community members to analyze their needs and collaboratively establish development goals.
The PACA method equips Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) with essential participatory skills, including observing, interviewing, and facilitating, to effectively engage with communities By utilizing PACA tools, PCVs assist communities in formalizing their organizational structures, identifying needs, and prioritizing them into realistic goals Over a two-year period, PCVs focus on enhancing the community's organizational capabilities, often culminating in the successful implementation of projects that address these identified goals.
Peace Corps Panama evaluates its success using Participatory Analysis for Community Action (PACA) methods implemented within local communities The author, who has experience as both a Peace Corps Volunteer (PCV) and a Circuit Rider, effectively utilized these PACA methods Furthermore, the author adapted and expanded these techniques into a more informal framework to enhance community engagement and development.
30 empowerment program through a water system project and noted results as a participant observer and close friend of community members
Empowerment fosters a community management model that reduces reliance on external technical assistance, allowing communities to build confidence in their ability to handle regular maintenance and resolve non-technical issues independently The Circuit Rider model complements this approach by providing essential support while reinforcing the community's self-sufficiency.
Rural Water System Maintenance in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ
In the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ water system project, stakeholders include the local community, the Panamanian government, international NGOs, and educational institutions, each with diverse goals such as education, research, and personal development Documentation practices post-project completion differ among organizations, exemplified by Peace Corps Panama's reporting to the US Federal Government on water and sanitation systems The presence of multiple stakeholders with varying timelines and objectives results in inconsistent documentation, hindering accountability and effective evaluation of these initiatives over time.
Benevolent groups in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ play a crucial role in developing water systems, although their contributions are often unevenly distributed due to accessibility issues Unfortunately, these organizations frequently lack coordination and a focus on sustainability, overlooking the long-term efforts of Panamanian agencies in the region Despite varying levels of effectiveness, these agencies remain the only consistent source of long-term support and funding in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ.
In 2010, Ryu Suzuki, a PCV and Peace Corps Masters International student from Michigan Technological University, explored the implementation of a Customer Relationship Management (CRM) system for maintaining rural water systems in Panama This CRM model, inspired by one from the United States Department of Agriculture, focuses on providing technical support for rural water systems It utilizes revolving technical support agents who service approximately 50 community water systems, visiting each four times a year Depending on the model, these technicians may offer training to community maintenance workers, provide general water and environmental conservation education, or give technical recommendations for necessary repairs.
Since its inception in 2010, Peace Corps Panama has implemented a CRM program in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ, with four volunteers serving as Circuit Riders, and one currently active The author's experience as a Circuit Rider concluded in October 2013 These Circuit Riders are Peace Corps Response Volunteers, typically individuals who have previously worked with the Ngọbe-Buglộ community during their two years of regular service, and they take on specialized roles following their initial service (Peace Corps, 2014a).
As the Panama Circuit Rider, their work is closely tied to Waterlines, the American NGO that partners with Peace Corps Panama for water projects all over Panama
The Peace Corps Circuit Rider has limited engagement with Panamanian agencies in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ, despite aiming to strengthen their relationship This lack of interaction is attributed to the Circuit Rider's focus on Waterlines, which does not align with the agencies' independent agendas and budgets Additionally, Panamanian technicians face challenges due to scarce resources and insufficient training.
Since the development of the Circuit Rider program in Panama, an internationally adopted community training manual for the maintenance of rural aqueducts has been developed,
The manual "El Manejo de Acueductos Rurales" (MAR) offers valuable guidance for community members and water committees in operating and maintaining water systems However, Suzuki (2010) highlights the challenges of a community-based maintenance approach, noting that many rural and often impoverished Panamanians may lack the technical expertise needed to address water system problems independently Despite community training efforts, certain issues necessitate advanced knowledge, such as a solid understanding of closed system hydraulics.
The Environmental Health sector of Peace Corps Panama offers technical training seminars that utilize PACA tools, including the MAR manual These seminars equip community members with essential skills in community mapping, water use comprehension, water flow measurement, and basic hydraulic principles Participants also receive training in project management and leadership, learning how to conduct effective meetings and understand the roles of the water committee within their community The seminars incorporate facilitation techniques and needs assessment strategies from the PACA method.
3.2.2 Panamanian Agencies Working in the Comarca Ngabe-Buglé
The Ministry of Health in Panama (MINSA) is the federal agency tasked with safeguarding the health of Panamanian citizens, including those in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ With its main office in San Felix, Chiriquí Province, MINSA oversees healthcare initiatives in this region Additionally, Peace Corps Volunteers frequently collaborate with MINSA on health promotion and various projects to enhance community well-being.
The Water and Sanitation Project in Panama (PASAP), operating under the MINSA agency, is a collaborative initiative funded by the Panamanian government and the United Nations PASAP's mission focuses on improving water and sanitation services throughout the country.
PASAP is dedicated to enhancing water and sanitation access for communities, as highlighted by the U.S Peace Corps in 2005 Its primary role involves facilitating water and sanitation projects while offering technical assistance Among the resources available to communities are chlorinators and chlorine tablets, which are provided at no cost to those who can reach the main office.
PASAP technicians operate throughout the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ, specializing in the design, construction management, and technical advising of gravity-fed water systems The author's experience as a Circuit Rider revealed limited interaction with PASAP, primarily involving formal introductions and report submissions, with occasional contact with technicians It was observed that these technicians often lacked resources and typically spent only a short time in communities, focusing on data collection and making recommendations, but frequently failing to fulfill their promises.
3.2.3 Connections and Overlap in Water System Maintenance Entities
To comprehend the role of CRM in water system maintenance within the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ, an analysis of the key entities involved is essential Table 3 outlines the four primary agents responsible for water system development, detailing their levels, functions, and interconnections This analysis highlights areas of overlap in their missions, identifying the strongest opportunities for advancing water system maintenance efforts.
Figure 38 highlights the relationships among various entities, emphasizing their significance in optimizing resource utilization For instance, while Waterlines may possess financial resources, the Panamanian government offers superior local expertise in materials and construction methods, and Peace Corps Volunteers provide essential local connections to the water committee.
Table 3 Players and roles in water system maintenance
Level Community Regional/National Community/Some regional
Funding for new projects/ recommendations/ project management
Technical assistance/training/ project management
Connections PC, G WC, PC WC, W, G PC
Recognizing that longevity and presence are essential for sustainability, it is evident that Panamanian agencies, particularly PASAP, hold significant potential for impact In contrast, NGOs and independent groups face challenges in achieving long-term viability due to their lack of connection with more established entities.
The Development of a Circuit Rider Model with PASAP
The increasing number of organizations focused on improving water systems in the Ngọbe-Buglộ region highlights the necessity for a single entity dedicated to the long-term, structured maintenance of these systems This entity should prioritize community empowerment, enabling locals to manage their water resources effectively Based on the author's experience, the most successful model involves empowering communities while providing access to skilled technicians, such as a Circuit Rider, who can offer essential technical support Resources for this initiative could include empowerment strategies akin to the PACA approach and support from the Panamanian agency PASAP The successful development of a similar model in Honduras showcases the potential for a cohesive water management system in the Ngọbe-Buglộ region.
Figure 38 Venn diagram illustrating connections between water system entities in the Comarca Ngửbe-Buglộ
3.3.1 Circuit Rider Model in Honduras
Non-profit organizations like Waterlines and research institutions such as the Desert Research Institute (DRI) are driving the proliferation of CRM in Central America, particularly in countries like El Salvador, Honduras, and Panama Erik Toledo, a researcher at DRI's Center on International Water and Sustainability, has been actively involved in implementing CRM strategies in Honduras.
In Honduras, post-construction support for water systems is enhanced through the training of operators and managers by qualified technicians known as Circuit Riders These technicians visit 20-40 systems multiple times a year, offering not only technical assistance—such as addressing air blocks in transmission lines, sediment cleanouts, and proper chlorination techniques—but also managerial and financial support, along with community outreach services The focus is primarily on the “Técnico de Operaciones y Mantenimiento” (Maintenance and Operations Technician) within the community Managerial training includes effective meeting management for both the community and the water system management team Additionally, community involvement is encouraged through activities like organizing fundraisers, repairs, and informational sessions on water conservation, particularly before the dry season.
Table 4.Circuit Rider Model agents
Legal matters present themselves in community water systems from time to time as well
In regions with unclear land ownership, disputes may arise over land near water sources, necessitating local authorities to clarify the legal context for involved parties The Circuit Rider serves as an informed intermediary, ensuring that legal matters are handled equitably and in compliance with local regulations Additionally, the Circuit Rider can mediate environmental concerns related to land use in nearby spring watersheds They also facilitate networking among communities and stakeholders to promote best management practices and access local resources For more examples of issues that Circuit Riders can address, refer to Table 5.
Board of Directors Managerial team (water committee)
Director/Coordinator Skilled operator (TOM)
Table 5 Typical problems for CRs and communities
Insufficient funds for mobilization and initial technical assistance
Convincing users to increase service fees Lack of qualified staff for operations and maintenance Resistance to disinfection of water Weak committee governance
Donor bias toward construction projects Lack of community support
Perception that technicians just collect data
Mr Toledo outlines key conditions for the success of the program in Honduras: each Circuit Rider can effectively manage around 30 water systems located within a similar regional area to facilitate community visits, especially in rural settings Additionally, initial cost subsidies for Circuit Rider expenses are essential, along with ongoing training in construction techniques and relevant scientific principles Lastly, adherence to local and national regulations and standards is crucial for ensuring the program's sustainability and continuity.
Circuit Riders play a crucial role in supporting community water systems by providing essential training and resources for their success They implement structured systems for collecting water service fees to cover operational expenses and establish effective accounting and registration processes to monitor beneficiary and water system accounts Through comprehensive technical assistance, Circuit Riders ensure that these water systems deliver safe and reliable services, develop future plans, secure sustainable water sources, and achieve legal recognition from local authorities.
Mr Toledo has discovered that the program achieves optimal results when rural communities are grouped together Furthermore, the Circuit Rider should focus on rural or peri-urban regions that feature piped communal water systems, preferably serving fewer than 1,000 connections within the distribution network.
Honduras faces significant challenges in its CRM, primarily due to a longstanding tradition of prioritizing physical infrastructure over social infrastructure Investors aiming to improve clean water access often overlook the necessity of fostering an organized and motivated community that feels a sense of ownership over the systems Developing this community capacity requires substantial time and effort, sometimes spanning years, to ensure residents recognize their needs, cultivate local leadership, and establish trust in the technical guidance provided by the Circuit Rider.
The author's insights gained from their Peace Corps experience are detailed in the following section, focusing on the development of social infrastructure through empowerment This case study highlights the importance of creating a unified and sustainable Community Resource Management (CRM) system for the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ.
Case Study of Circuit Rider Influence: Cerro Iglesias One
This case study highlights the application of standard Peace Corps methods for community development and empowerment, aimed at sustaining proper maintenance in the absence of Circuit Rider presence Key activities involved providing technical support, fostering leadership development, and reinforcing community responsibilities.
Throughout the project, the author developed friendships with community members, frequently sharing meals after workdays and engaging in soccer games These social interactions, including conversations and informal inquiries, served as the foundation for assessing the impact of the author's contributions to the community.
Cerro Iglesias One is a community situated in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ within the Nedrini district of Nole Duima, easily accessible by public transportation, which enhances its connectivity to larger towns and various opportunities in employment, education, and the economy Despite its development, the community lacked a functional water distribution system as of 2012 Over the years, several Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) have served in the area, yet their efforts to improve the inadequately designed water system have not been successful.
Figure 39 Map indicating Cerro Iglesias One in the Comarca Ngửbe-
In the absence of a proper water system, community members in Cerro Iglesias One must travel long distances to collect water from various springs, especially during the dry season The local primary school, which serves around 100 students and provides meals twice daily, relies on water transported uphill in containers from these springs This method of water delivery poses a higher risk of waterborne pathogens compared to water sourced from a closed water system.
The community of Cerro Iglesias One has a historical water system that originated as an extension from Cerro Iglesias Two, with varying accounts of how water flowed from the original source Some residents believe the water once flowed downhill before ascending a large hill to fill a tank above the community, while others claim it never flowed at all The water system's elevation was never properly surveyed, leading to concerns about the water sources not reaching the necessary height In 2013, a basic elevation survey identified a rugged path with steep ravines for a new transmission line, enabling the establishment of an independent water system for Cerro Iglesias One from a different water source.
Cerro Iglesias is a resource-rich community, home to a retired doctor who previously practiced in the United States The local elementary school, linked to the Seventh Day Adventist Church, receives annual support from visiting groups in the U.S Additionally, the Peace Corps has been active in the area for over a decade Despite the presence of financially stable and educated residents, along with regular visits from MINSA technicians, there remains a troubling lack of concern regarding the community's water issues In April 2013, conversations with residents revealed a pervasive sense of hopelessness, as the existing water system was non-functional and efforts to resolve the situation seemed futile.
Figure 40 Schematic of Cerro Iglesias water system, un-functioning and water not arriving to community
In May 2013, the author discovered a feasible new design for gravity flow water systems after surveying the community Despite initial feelings of hopelessness among residents due to project implementation challenges, the successful completion of the water system ultimately silenced critics and brought much-needed water to the community.
3.4.2 Role of the Volunteer Circuit Rider and Community Participants
The author served as a motivator and facilitator, emphasizing that the project belonged to the community, which was responsible for its organization and participation By deliberately delaying responses to problems, the author encouraged community leaders to troubleshoot independently Emotional at times, the author expressed frustration when issues arose that she believed the community could resolve, aiming to instill a sense of responsibility among members Understanding the importance of sustainability, the author recognized that without a sense of ownership, the community might revert to feelings of hopelessness and dependency after her departure from Panama.
Two community leaders emerged in the Cerro Iglesias water system rehabilitation project, both of whom were active members of the newly established water committee They were determined to address the existing water infrastructure issues The author dedicated additional time to fostering trust with these key participants, enhancing collaboration for the project's success.
Figure 41 Schematic of Cerro Iglesias water system, improved
The author played a crucial role in uplifting community morale by primarily supporting two leaders, who in turn suggested effective construction and maintenance strategies This collaborative approach fostered a sense of encouragement and empowerment within the community.
3.4.3 Case Study Outcomes and Conclusion
The Cerro Iglesias case study demonstrates how the Circuit Rider effectively motivates and empowers a community to take ownership of their water system by providing technical support and identifying leadership roles By challenging these leaders, the Circuit Rider fosters a deeper understanding of community responsibilities The positive outcomes of these empowerment strategies were observed through personal interactions, indicating that more rigorous assessment methods could enhance future studies.
The community demonstrated a heightened sense of responsibility for maintaining their water system, transitioning from initial disheartenment over minor issues to a newfound confidence in troubleshooting and resolving problems Notably, two leaders emerged from the project, expressing increased comfort in future leadership roles The author found fulfillment in witnessing the community's ownership of the project during the completion celebration, where gratitude was expressed without seeking recognition for her contributions, highlighting their perception of the initiative as a collective effort rather than an external gift.
The observed rise in community empowerment supports the Peace Corps' community development strategy and the application of PACA tools This case study highlights the effective implementation of PACA methods for community empowerment within the CRM as a key recommendation The subsequent section outlines suggestions for a cohesive Circuit Rider program that leverages these empowerment techniques alongside the resources provided by Peace Corps and PASAP.
Recommendations for Panama Circuit Rider Program
The Peace Corps Circuit Rider program in the Comarca aims to address the monitoring and evaluation needs of Waterlines and Peace Corps projects, ensuring the sustainability of water systems in the Ngọbe-Buglộ region By leveraging the existing PASAP technicians and training them as Circuit Riders, the program seeks to create a self-sufficient model that minimizes reliance on Waterlines or Peace Corps presence in the future.
The Honduran model faces significant challenges due to inadequate social infrastructure and funding In the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ, various organizations with financial resources are actively working to improve water system coverage The Peace Corps secures funding through grants and partnerships with NGOs, notably maintaining strong connections with Waterlines for additional financial support.
Corps focuses on developing social infrastructure but lacks permanent staff to function as Circuit Riders In contrast, the PASAP technicians provide the necessary personnel infrastructure to support these efforts.
3.5.1 Training Circuit Riders for the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ
The Circuit Rider Response Volunteer, partnered with PASAP, is tasked with fostering a relationship with the ministry's director while focusing on the maintenance and operations of existing water systems Waterlines plays a crucial role by funding the Peace Corps Response Circuit Rider position in Panama, ensuring the long-term success of previously supported projects The Circuit Rider's responsibilities include visiting communities, providing technical support, making recommendations, and facilitating necessary infrastructure rehabilitation projects With PASAP in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ positioned as a potential effective monitor of water system performance, several key points should be considered for the expansion of the Circuit Rider program in this region.
The Peace Corps Response Circuit Rider plays a vital role in sustaining Peace Corps projects by prioritizing the functionality of water systems and training community members It is essential to clarify that their involvement in the community does not imply immediate economic assistance Instead, the focus of the Circuit Rider for Waterlines is on the training and empowerment of local water committees to ensure long-term sustainability and effectiveness.
Under the expanded program, the Peace Corps Response Volunteer will coordinate with the PASAP office and its technicians to evaluate their technical skills and implement a system akin to that utilized in Honduras.
The PASAP office will oversee the establishment of managerial positions in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ, designating one manager for each of its seven regions, in alignment with the Honduras model.
The Circuit Rider should inventory the tools and instruments available to PASAP technicians and make recommendations for the essentials needed for monitoring and design of water systems
A formal record keeping system should be established, with standard community visit forms and criteria for system evaluation
PASAP technicians must receive comprehensive training on the MAR manual and its lesson plans This training should encompass the organization of water committee seminars, the invitation of water committees, and effective collaboration with host communities.
New MAR manual lessons should emphasize the creation of permanent water system operators in each community, tasked with addressing immediate, non-technical water system challenges, overseeing regular maintenance, and collaborating with PASAP technicians to tackle larger issues Additionally, PASAP will partner with MINSA to set national standards for rural water systems.
The Peace Corps Response Volunteer Circuit Rider plays a crucial role in enhancing the skills of PASAP technicians by promoting best practices in community integration, trust building, and facilitation This process requires a deep understanding of the existing skills that each technician brings to the table.
Sustaining rural water systems is a dynamic process that involves adapting to the changing technical, social, and economic factors within communities focused on water and sanitation development This report highlights key strategies for enhancing the sustainability of gravity-fed water systems, derived from two years of Peace Corps service in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ.
The sustainability of water systems in the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ hinges on effective planning, operation, and maintenance Implementing the improved spring capture approach has shown significant benefits, as evidenced by spring flow measurements taken before and after construction, which confirm complete capture of spring flow for community use Renovating traditional spring capture systems has also resulted in notable increases in water capture While long-term flow data is lacking, immediate results align with historical flow and precipitation patterns in the region Continued monitoring of spring capture flows is essential for a more comprehensive understanding of the improved approach's effectiveness over time.
The successful implementation of the improved spring capture method highlights the importance of reproducibility for those involved in water systems within the Comarca Ngọbe-Bugló The Peace Corps Panama Environmental Health program maintains a strong and ongoing presence in the region To facilitate this, a spreadsheet was created to aid in designing improved spring captures, empowering all Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) to comprehend and apply this approach effectively This tool is set to enhance the skills of volunteers and motivate them to engage in water system projects, even with minimal prior knowledge in design and construction.
The Circuit Rider model (CRM) enhances sustainability by training and empowering community members to better manage their water systems, while also providing access to an experienced technician for complex issues Peace Corps Panama currently employs a single Circuit Rider, and the Panamanian ministry PASAP has the potential to expand this model with its existing personnel infrastructure This report recommends leveraging the Peace Corps Circuit Rider to collaborate with PASAP, facilitating the transition of their maintenance program to the CRM framework This collaboration aims to train technicians, ultimately improving the quality of water system maintenance within the Comarca Ngọbe-Buglộ communities.
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Appendix A – Precipitation and Flow Data
Aủo Ene Feb Mar Abr May Jun Jul Ago Sep Oct Nov Dic Prom
Valor en color azul, incompleto, con datos faltantes
Celda en color amarillo, sin datos
Valor en color rojo, son caudales estimados o correlacionados
Valor en color morado, incompleto, Promedio anual con datos faltantes
Elevación : 95 msnm Area de Drenaje: 198 Km ²
Información desde : Julio 1983 Tipo de Estación : Cv
GERENCIA DE HIDROMETEOROLOGÍA CAUDALES PROMEDIOS MENSUALES (m ³ /s)