Information to be provided A Study of Urban Public Transport Conditions in Bangkok DRAFT REPORT A Case Study Forming an Input to the Global Toolkit on Bus Transport Reform Submitted to Ajay Kumar The[.]
Population and Car Ownership
Population Trends
Bangkok has transformed from a small city on the eastern bank of the Chao Praya River into a vast urban area exceeding 2,000 sq km Initially, growth occurred to the north and east, but since the early 1970s, extensive bridge and road construction has spurred rapid urban development to the west This expansion is closely following major road corridors, leading to swift suburbanization in the neighboring provinces of the Bangkok Metropolitan Region.
The Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR), which includes the capital city and five surrounding provinces, had an estimated population of 11.4 million in 2000, accounting for nearly 20% of Thailand's total population Additionally, the per capita Gross Regional Product (GRP) in the BMR is significantly higher, being 240% greater than the national average.
Table 1 shows the population of BMR, its constituent provinces and that of Thailand in 2000, projected to 2021
Source: URMAP estimates quoted by BRPSP 1
Table 1 - Current and Forecast Population in BMA and BMR
Private Vehicle Ownership
Bangkok's successive governments have implemented policies promoting unrestricted private vehicle use, primarily through extensive urban expressway construction Low taxes on car ownership and usage, along with some of the world's lowest fuel prices—particularly for diesel, which is currently subsidized—have further encouraged this trend.
The inadequate quality of public transport services has significantly driven the demand for private vehicle ownership in the BMR, as evidenced by the vehicle registration data presented in Table 2.
1 BMTA Route Planning and Scheduling Project Final Report Planpro Corp Ltd., ALMEC Corp’n and TESCOLtd., for Office of Transport Policy and Planning, Ministry of Transport July 2004.
Table 2 - No of Registered Vehicles in Bangkok Metropolitan Area 1998 - 2003
Source: Land Transport Department Road Transport Statistics 2546
Table 2 shows that the number of registered private vehicles increased by more than 37% in the five years ended 2003 In 2003, 44% of registered vehicles were motorcycles
The negative effects of increasing private vehicle use of bus services have often been depicted as a
‘vicious circle’ as shown in Figure 1.
Since 2002, the introduction of new rail systems, such as BTS and the MRTA Blue Line, has provided services largely unaffected by traffic congestion However, a significant number of rail passengers still rely on bus feeder services to travel between their starting points or final destinations and the rail stations.
The current initiative to establish nine BRT lines, if implemented, will serve to protect further public transport corridors from obstruction by traffic congestion.
Political Context
Institutions in the Transport Sector
In Bangkok, urban public transport is mainly managed by the central government, specifically the Ministry of Transport (MOT) After a consolidation of transport responsibilities in 2002, the MOT oversees planning, establishes standards, regulates services, and operates the BMTA bus services within the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR).
The Government Agencies Reform Act BE2545 (2002) and Ministerial Regulation BE 2545 (2002) dated 9 October 2002 defines the mission and authority of government transport agencies as follows
Bus Services Decline, Fares Rise
Bus Passengers Switch to Cars &
Other functions defined by law.
MOT’s constituent and subsidiary agencies are as follows:
Office of Transport and Traffic Policy and Planning
Expressway and Rapid Transit Authority
Office of Maritime Promotion Commission
Aeronautical Radio of Thailand Ltd
Airports of Thailand Public Co Ltd.,
New Bangkok International Airport Co Ltd
The following agencies of MOT are responsible for key functions with respect to urban bus services:
Office of Transport & Traffic Policy & Planning
The development and implementation of comprehensive transport and traffic plans, alongside safety strategies, are essential for enhancing overall transportation efficiency This involves the seamless coordination of land, water, and air transport initiatives to ensure their alignment with government traffic policies, ultimately promoting safer and more integrated transportation systems.
This article focuses on the study and analysis of traffic and transport plans, emphasizing the need for policy recommendations and effective coordination It evaluates the compatibility of these plans and projects with the Ministry of Transport's fiscal budget, ensuring alignment with the National Social and Economic Development Plan and overarching government policies.
Study, analysis and formulation of traffic and transport master plans, coordination of action plans, including formulation of MOT policy to be proposed to the Cabinet.
Supervising, monitoring and evaluation of the outcomes of action plans, projects and budget allocations.
The article proposes essential recommendations to the Commission for the Management of Land Traffic (CMLT) aimed at enhancing, amending, and enacting laws related to national traffic and transport, as well as other regulations impacting the management of traffic and transport systems.
Study, analysis, research and formulation of reports and trends in national traffic and transport, both economic and safety issues including the formulation of a traffic and transport management information system.
Other duties stipulated by law or assigned by MOT or the Cabinet.
Monitoring and evaluating transport systems is essential for ensuring compliance with laws and regulations Effective land transport planning aims to provide a convenient, fast, accessible, and safe experience for users Additionally, coordinating with other modes of transport enhances overall efficiency and connectivity within the transport network.
The Land Transport Act 1979 vests authority for bus service licensing in the Land Transport Control Board (LTCB) Licensing is administered by the Land Transport Department (LTD) of MOT.
Carrying out duties under the Land Transport Act, Motor Vehicles Act, Rolling Act and other related Acts
Correction and promotion of transport safety
Promotion and development of land transport networks
Co-operation and coordination with related organisations and agencies both domestic and international regarding land transport, including bilateral and international agreements
Other duties stipulated by law to be under LTD’s authority or assigned by MOT or the Cabinet
LTCB is the regulatory authority under the Land Transport Act but it is required to take account of the interests of BMTA in the award of bus service licences.
LTCB has the authority to set conditions for transport businesses, including vehicle types, designated stopping and parking locations, service standards, schedules, trip frequencies, and necessary capital investments Additionally, the Minister of Transport can override the board's decisions if they conflict with government policy.
The Act sets seven years as the maximum term of a bus route licence, though renewal is provided for.
LTD grants licenses to BMTA's private sector joint-service partners for up to 5 years, primarily based on the vehicle's age, while new vehicles may receive a 7-year license, though such instances are rare Licenses can be revoked by the central Registrar with LTCB's approval, and there is an appeal process available to the Minister.
Buses or other passenger vehicles may only be used on specified routes, except with the permission of the Registrar and based on criteria and procedures set by LTCB
Established in 1976 by Royal Decree 2, BMTA is a state enterprise tasked with managing bus services in Bangkok and its neighboring provinces It was formed to consolidate operations from 26 public and private companies, many of which were struggling financially The private bus companies that were not absorbed into BMTA continued to operate as 'joint-service' providers.
In 1976, a Royal Decree established the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority, following the advice of the Council of Ministers, as mandated by Article 21 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, enacted in 1997.
3 Nakhon Pathom, Nonthaburi, Samut Prakan and Samut Sakhon. operators' under subsidiary agreements with BMTA Minibuses, Microbuses 4 and Passenger Vans were subsequently added as BMTA 'joint-service' partners.
BMTA is also authorised to engage in activities related to passenger transport In effect, BMTA’s decree granted it a monopoly of bus operating rights in Bangkok.
Certain buses receive their licenses directly from the Land Transport Department, governed by the Land Transport Control Board, which regulates under the Land Transport Act Nevertheless, the Land Transport Control Board must consider the interests of the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) when granting bus service licenses.
BMTA has the authority to engage in joint ventures with third parties, enhancing its operations and benefits This includes taking on the role of a limited liability partner or shareholder in a limited company The collaborating third party can either be an individual or a legal entity as defined by civil law.
The term "commercial entity" encompasses various forms such as ordinary partnerships, limited partnerships, limited companies, and public companies as defined by the Public Companies Act BE 2535 (AD 1992) Additionally, it includes juristic persons under public law, including ministries, departments, government agencies, state enterprises, local administrations, and public organizations Notably, any joint venture involving the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) must obtain approval from the Council of Ministers in accordance with Section 7 of the Royal Decree.
The structure of the transport agencies in national government is shown in Figure 2
The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) has the authority to provide public transport services, including mass transit and the management of bus terminals.
Bangkok Other provincial administrations have the same authority.
The options for BMA to engage in public bus services are as follows:
Carrying out the operation by itself.
Carrying out the operation jointly with a third party by forming a company or holding shares in a company.
Carrying out the operation in the form of a ‘Joint Engagement’ 6 with a juristic person as provided by s 95 of the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Act BE 2528 (AD 1985).
The Bank of Thailand (BMA) has the authority to permit the private sector to participate in specific activities under its jurisdiction, allowing them to charge a fee or service charge This arrangement requires prior approval from both the BMA Council and the Ministry of the Interior.
The Bangkok Mass Transit System (BTS) is sponsored by the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) In 1992, the Bangkok Mass Transit System Public Company Limited, a private entity, obtained a 30-year concession from BMA to construct and manage the BTS system.
BMA has not exercised its power to engage in transport activities with respect to bus services.
Central Government Policy on Private Supply in Public Transport
Since the 1960s, there has been a concerted effort to privatise state enterprises, with successive governments recognizing the need for a reduced state role in the economy The focus has shifted towards the state acting primarily as a policy maker and regulator, withdrawing from activities that the private sector can handle more efficiently The government will retain its operational role only in enterprises deemed strategic, socially necessary, or non-commercial.
The government should endorse a free market economic system while ensuring fair competition, consumer protection, and antitrust measures This involves both direct and indirect regulation, including the removal of unnecessary rules and laws to promote a healthier marketplace.
The economic crisis triggered by the baht's flotation in July 1997 spurred significant economic reform in Thailand By mid-1998, the Thai government introduced initiatives aimed at accelerating the deregulation and privatization of state-owned enterprises, which were essential components of its strategy to recover from the financial downturn and enhance the competitiveness of the Thai economy.
8 BMTA Route Planning and Scheduling Project Final Report Planpro Corp Ltd., ALMEC Corp’n and TESCOLtd., for Office of Transport Policy and Planning, Ministry of Transport July 2004.
In September 1998, the Cabinet approved a Master Plan for the Reform of State-Owned Enterprises, developed with assistance from the World Bank This plan established the State Enterprise Reform Committee (SERC) to oversee the reform process, review privatization proposals, enhance private sector participation in existing state-owned enterprises, and evaluate regulatory initiatives before submission to the Cabinet.
The Master Plan aligns with Thailand's agreement with the IMF, which granted the country a $17.2 billion standby credit In exchange, the Thai government committed to restructuring the economy and enhancing the efficiency of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) by increasing private sector participation.
In its November 1997 Letter of Intent to the IMF, the Thai government announced the completion of preliminary efforts to enhance the private sector's involvement in energy, public utilities, communications, and transport The initial focus for privatization would be on corporatized state-owned enterprises (SOEs), with plans to significantly reduce government ownership in the national airline, from 93% to below 50%, and in Bangchak Petroleum Company, from 80% to less than 50%.
Parliament the necessary legislation to facilitate the privatisation of state enterprises that were not currently corporatised.
During the Master Plan's implementation, Thailand had fifty-nine state-owned enterprises that were crucial to the economy, yet many operated at a loss and necessitated significant government funding to survive.
The fourteen SOE’s in the transport sector are listed in Table 3 below, divided into land, water and air transport Twelve had private sector participation is some form
State Enterprise Activities Private Sector Participation in 1998
- Granted BOT concession in the 2nd stage of Bangkok expressways to private investor
- Granted turnkey design-build contract to private investor in Bangna – Chonburi Project and Bangpain – Pakkret Project
-Mass rapid transit system construction and implementation
- Granted concession to private sector to operate and maintain the Blue Line system
-Passenger and cargo train services operation
- Contracted out railway maintenance and railway business related services such as security, catering and laundry
- Granted tourism train operating concession
- Granted Inland Container Depot (ICD) operation concession
- Granted a concession to Hopewell Co Ltd to construct elevated rail and road system (The project is presently suspended)
-Inter-provincial bus service operation
-Affiliated private bus regulation -Providing bus terminals
- Licensed bus routes to the private sector
Transit Authority - Bus operation in BMR - Concessioned some routes to private operator
9 Source: http://www.cusri.chula.ac.th/network/social/eng2002.pdf
- Sub-contracting private bus operators - Contracted out maintenance service
- Out-sourced non-core operation such as cleaning service to private sector
-Providing freight handling service at Kloeng Toey Port
-Providing land cargo delivery and freight forwarding services
- Sub-contracted out printing business
- Contracted out Express Domestic Cargo service in Bangkok and vicinity
-Owns/operates Bangkok International Airport and owns provincial airports operated by the Department of Aviation
-Airport infrastructure construction and maintenance
-Providing aeronautical and non-aeronautical services
- Contracted out non-aeronautical operations to private sector such as duty-free shop, cleaning service etc.
- Privatisation plan was recently approved by cabinet, implementation was just beginning
-Development and construction of a new airport -Privatisation plan was recently approved by cabinet, implementation (obtaining financing) was underway
-Providing air navigation services in Thai airspace and at important airports
-Providing air traffic auxiliary services
- Private airlines held 4.8% of total shares
-Provides technician training services including aircraft maintenance, communications maintenance, and avionics -Repair small aircraft -Air traffic controller training
International Plc -Airline business operation
-Providing other related services such as catering, hotel, and limousine services
- 7% of shares owned by private investors
- Formed joint-venture with private sector in hotel business
- Partial divestiture was under way
-Port infrastructure construction and service
- Private sector involved in infrastructure development and port terminal operation in Laem Chabang Port “Basin 1” by renting or granting concession
Ltd (BDC) -Ship assembly and repairing services -Selling ship spare part
- Repaired Royal Thai Navy ships, SOE’s ship, merchant ships Some works contracted out to in-house subcontractors
-Maritime service, wharf and warehouse services No private sector participation
Table 3 - State Owned Enterprises in the Transport Sector
In 1997, the 14 state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in the transport sector employed approximately 94,601 staff, with the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) alone hiring nearly a quarter of this workforce at 22,753 employees State enterprises represented around 60% of total employment in the land transport sector, while government investment in this sub-sector comprised 56% of the overall investment in the industry.
After the Master Plan was approved, the State Enterprises Policy Office (SEPO) of the Ministry of Finance, along with consultants, conducted an in-depth analysis of the transport sector's structure This study aimed to develop a comprehensive plan for reorganizing the policy, regulatory, financial, and operational frameworks within the sector.
to evaluate and recommend streamlined policy and regulatory structures in the sector, to allow more effective development and implementation of an integrated transport system;
to identify and describe proposed regulatory structures and responsibilities (including assessing effects on existing agencies);
to provide a framework under which SOEs could develop their privatisation plans.
Reforms were proposed for the transport sector in 1999 that would reduce the role of the state, enhance private sector participation and clearly separate policy, regulation and operation:
MOT would assume primary responsibility for transportation policy Other ministries with an interest in transportation policies would provide input to MOT
Regulatory functions would be separated from policy responsibilities exercised by line government agencies
Whilst the public sector would continue to have a role in policy making and regulation, the provision of services would be predominantly by the private sector.
As part of the Master Plan, BMTA is set to undergo immediate financial restructuring, with the Cabinet mandating the implementation of three key programs aimed at enhancing private sector involvement.
Grant concessions to the private sector for some new routes
Lease buses instead of purchase: two batches of 110 and 797 ‘Euro 2’ buses were leased
Contract out maintenance and repair of buses
The legalisation, under the BMTA joint service arrangement, of the network of unlicensed passenger van services in BMR was also cited as a privatisation measure
Consultants recommended that BMTA stop operating buses and instead grant concessions for private companies to manage basic, non-air-conditioned bus services that have been unprofitable since 1991 due to stagnant fares They noted that other bus operations could achieve cost recovery and should be run by the private sector through franchising.
A new agency, the Public Transport Regulator, will be responsible for awarding concessions and franchises, while a proposed Public Transport Bureau under the Ministry of Transport will oversee the planning and direction of services As a result, the BMTA will relinquish its sub-licensing powers.
As of March 2005, the proposed reforms for public transport planning and regulation have yet to be implemented Although the 2002 reorganization aimed to consolidate departmental functions within the Ministry of Transport, it did not lead to the establishment of a regulatory agency.
However, consultancy studies 11 are in progress which are undertaking detailed design studies for BRT The assignment includes studies to create a new organisational structure, based on principles
10 BMTA Annual Report 1997 similar to those proposed by the Master Plan The study recommended the establishment of a
The Bangkok and Regional Transit Authority, guided by the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA), is responsible for planning and overseeing all public transport services Bus services will be acquired from the private sector through competitively bid contracts managed by a Bus Control and Management Authority.
New laws for transport regulation will be needed but the strategy could be implemented under MOT, without the transfer of responsibilities to BMA.
The Ministry of Finance currently covers the expenses associated with the BMTA’s Public Service Obligations, ensuring that all financial needs of the BMTA are met beyond the income generated from ticket sales and fees from joint service operators.
The Role of the Private Sector in Other Public Utilities
The 1998 Privatisation Master Plan aimed to reform or privatise all 59 state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in Thailand, with the belief that increased private sector involvement would enhance efficiency by lowering production costs, alleviating the financial burden on the government, and improving service quality and reliability through greater consumer choice and innovative technologies Financially, the plan sought to reduce subsidies and loan guarantees, reinvest proceeds from the sale of enterprises into the economy and social sectors, and bolster investor confidence in Thailand.
The current (Thaksin) government has succeeded in privatizing parts of the Thai Airways
International Plc, the Telephone Organisation of Thailand 13 , the Postal Service, Airports Authority of Thailand and Petroleum Corporation
11 BMTA Route Planning and Scheduling Project Final Report Planpro Corp Ltd., ALMEC Corp’n and TESCO Ltd., for Office of Transport Policy and Planning, Ministry of Transport July 2004.
12 From Key Governance Issues in Cambodia, Laos PDR, Thailand and Vietnam Ch 4 Summary of Thailand Governance Assessment Asian Development Bank 2000)
The Thai government plans to privatize several state-owned enterprises (SOEs), including Thai Thanakhan Bank and Krung Thai Bank Plc, with an intended stock market listing Other SOEs slated for privatization in 2003 are the Port Authority of Thailand, Communications Authority of Thailand, and the Metropolitan Waterworks Authority The 2004 privatization program will further include the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand, Metropolitan Electricity Authority, and Provincial Electricity Authority.
The Waterworks Authority, a state-owned enterprise, is gearing up for privatization while managing 900 buses on long-distance routes Additionally, it oversees the operations of approximately 7,800 private buses, from which it collects fees.
The State Railway of Thailand (SRT) faces a significant annual deficit, prompting proposals for partial privatization Similar to the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA), the government aims to keep third-class fares below operational costs to maintain affordability for low-income groups To improve efficiency, a plan suggests dividing the railway into three distinct units: infrastructure management and development, passenger services, and freight services, each to be awarded to the private sector through separate concession contracts.
Local Government Policy Stance and Willingness to Reform
As noted above, it is the agencies of central government, not local government, that are responsible for the organization of public transport in BMR
The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) is committed to supporting the reform process by establishing a new regulatory body and facilitating bus services operated entirely by the private sector.
There have been periodic recommendations that responsibility for BMTA should be transferred from national government to BMA 14
In 1997, the Ministry of Transport (MOT) commissioned a study by Thammasat University to evaluate the feasibility of transferring the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) to the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) The study proposed restructuring BMTA into a 'syndicate,' with BMA as the major shareholder holding 70% of the shares, while other government agencies would hold the remaining shares It also recommended maintaining employee benefits but suggested retrenching approximately 3,000 out of 22,000 staff members through early retirement within two years, at an estimated cost of 1.4 billion baht.
BMA will finance essential social services that are not commercially viable, such as keeping fares for non-air-conditioned buses below cost recovery levels This approach allows the syndicate to operate commercially while ensuring that costs are recovered from various sources.
The proposed strategy aimed to shift responsibility for bus services to the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA), yet it conflicted with the goal of enhancing private sector involvement in bus service provision.
A further study was commissioned by BMA in 2003 17 , also by Thammasat University The study developed three optional strategies in addition to the previously proposed ‘syndicate’ structure:
Option 1 only the basic, non air-conditioned buses would be transferred to BMA Initially, BMTA’s sub-contracts to private sector bus operators would be taken over by BMA In the fourth year the
13 TOT was previously the telecommunications regulator and operator A new regulatory body - the National Telecom Committee - has been established Operations are now concessioned.
14 For example: The Transport Planning and Policy Project Dorsch Consult et al, for the Office of the
Commission for the Management of Land Traffic September 1998 Appendix A
15 “The Appropriate Criteria and Measures for Transferring BMTA to BMA” Thammasat University for Ministry of Transport 1997
A syndicate to deliver public services within the authority of the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) can be established by Royal Decree, as outlined in Section 95 of the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Act BE 2528 (1985) This model of syndicates is commonly utilized for public service provision internationally, particularly in France.
In 2003, Thammasat University and TransConsult BMA outlined a guideline for the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) regarding the transfer of bus services This plan included the transfer of 17 buses operated by the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) and aimed to increase the proportion of buses subcontracted to the private sector to 85%.
Option 2 Both air-conditioned and non air-conditioned buses would be transferred to BMA The more profitable air-conditioned routes would be transferred in the first three years, followed by the non air-conditioned buses in Year 4.
Option 3 All non-air-conditioned bus routes would be transferred to BMA and contracted out.
Cabinet has approved the transfer of responsibility for bus services to BMA in principle, but many practical obstacles to implementation remain:
The accumulated debt of BMTA, now approaching USD 1 billion;
Lack of a capable agency in BMA to manage the public transport system;
The transfer would not fully resolve the institutional divisions;
Both BMTA management and labour unions prefer the status quo;
The transfer would require new legislation.
In 2004, a study evaluated the potential transfer of bus services to the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA), recommending that BMA take over the management and procurement of bus services in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR) To facilitate this, BMA would create the Bangkok and Regional Transit Authority (BRTA), responsible for regulating all public transport modes The BRTA would be overseen by a board chaired by the Governor of Bangkok, including representatives from the five constituent provinces of BMA and national transport agencies.
A Bus Transit Agency will be created under the Bangladesh Road Transport Authority (BRTA) to oversee the bus system This agency will manage fare policies, plan for integration with rail and ferry services, and handle the planning and management of infrastructure and information systems Additionally, it will procure services through competitively bid performance-based contracts.
The Thai government supports the establishment of an authority to oversee the planning and procurement of bus services, positioning the BMTA among various commercial bus operators However, the shift of bus operation responsibilities in Bangkok to the BMA is viewed as a distinct matter.
The Governor of BMA has shown a lack of commitment to transferring public transport responsibilities to BMA, imposing conditions that must be met before any such transfer can occur.
raising fares to eliminate operating deficits,
resolution of BMTA’s accumulated debt which is now approaching USD 1 billion,
operation to be under a performance-based contract.
Unprofitable operations to be funded by government through a budget for public service obligations.
Economic Conditions
General Economic Indicators
The general economic indicators for Thailand are as follows 19 :
GDP: purchasing power parity - $477.5 billion (2004 est.)
GDP - real growth rate: 6.3% in 2003 6.7% (2004 est.) 5.8% (2005 est.)
18 BMTA Route Planning and Scheduling Project Planpro Corp Ltd., ALMEC Corp’n and TESCO Ltd., for Office of Transport Policy and Planning, Ministry of Transport July 2004.
19 Source: Thailand Economic Monitor The World Bank November 2004, and other sources
GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $7,400 (2004 est.)
GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 9.8% industry: 44% services: 46.3% (2004 est.)
Population below poverty line: 10.4% (2002 est.)
Household income or consumption by % share: lowest 10%: 2.8% highest 10%: 32.4% (1998) Distribution of family income - Gini index: 41.4 (1998)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.8% (2003) 3% (2004 est.)
Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 49%, industry 14%, services 37% (2000 est.)
Budget: revenues: $24.41 billion expenditures: $24.01 billion, including capital expenditures of $5 billion (2004 est.)
The key industries driving economic growth include tourism, textiles and garments, agricultural processing, beverages, tobacco, and cement Additionally, the light manufacturing sector encompasses jewelry, electric appliances and components, computers and parts, integrated circuits, furniture, and plastics Notably, the region is recognized as the world's second-largest producer of tungsten and the third-largest producer of tin.
Industrial production growth rate: 12.3% (2004 est.)
Exchange rates: baht per US dollar - 41.4846 (2003), 42.9601 (2002), 44.4319 (2001), 40.1118
GDP per Capita
Thailand’s GDP per capita 20 was estimated to be USD 7,400 in 2003, which ranked it 97 th of 231 countries and close to the world average of USD8,200 21
Growth in GDP per capita in recent years is shown in Table 4 below.
Source: UN Common Database / World Bank 2002
Table 4 - Growth in GDP per Capita Thailand 1975 - 2003
In 2000, the population of BMR was estimated to be 11.4M Table 5 shows that the activity rate in BMR is (in 2005) over 55% and is predicted to rise steadily.
Source: URMAP Estimate quoted by BRPSP 22
Table 5 - Projections of the Economic Activity Rate in BMR
Gross regional product per capita in BMR is estimated to be as in Table 6:
(billion baht) Per capita GDP
20 Gross domestic product divided by mid-year population.
21 Source: www.worldfactsandfigures.com/gdp_country_desc.php
22 BMTA Route Planning and Scheduling Project Final Report Planpro Corp Ltd., ALMEC Corp’n and TESCO Ltd., for Office of Transport Policy and Planning, Ministry of Transport July 2004.
Source: URMAP estimates quoted by BRPSP 23
Per capita Gross Regional Product (GRP) in the BMR is 240% greater than that for the whole country.
3.3 Percentage of Income Spent on Public Transport
3.3.1 Proportion of Household Expenditure on Transport
Currently, there is no available data on the percentage of household income allocated to public transport, indicating a need for updated household interview surveys The last comprehensive survey conducted by the UTDM project 24 took place in 1995, making the existing information outdated.
Recent data on household expenditure in the BMR reveals the proportion allocated to Transport and Communications, as illustrated in Table 7 This category encompasses expenses related to telephone services and the operation of private vehicles.
Table 7 - Household Expenditure by Category 1998 - 2000
Source: National Statistical Office, Prime Ministers Office http://www.nso.go.th/eng/stat/subject/toc11.xls
In 2000, the average household expenditure on Transport and Communications in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR) was 2,849 baht, representing approximately 15% of total household expenses This figure highlights a significant disparity, as the average household expenditure in BMR was 19,178 baht, compared to the national average of 9,910 baht for Thailand, including BMR.
24 The Urban Transport Database and Modelling Study MVA et al for OCMLT 1997
Table 7 also shows that while average national household expenditure fell by 4.5% between 1998 and
2000 due to the impact of the Asian financial crisis, expenditure on Transport and Communications rose by 5.5%
In BMR, while average household income fell by 3.6% to 19,178 baht between 1998 and 2000, expenditure on Transport and Communications rose by 6.4%.
In 2001, the national average monthly household expenditure in Thailand was estimated at 10,025 baht, with 1,573.9 baht allocated to Transport and Communications, representing 15.7% of total spending This category was the third largest expense after food and beverages at 32.5% and housing at 22.4% The proportion of income dedicated to Transport and Communications remained relatively stable between Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR) and the national average, although the actual expenditure amount was roughly double in BMR.
Thailand exhibits significant regional disparities in household income, as highlighted by Table 8 In 2000, the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR) recorded an average monthly household income of 24,690 baht and a per person income of 7,716 baht, both of which are more than double the national averages In stark contrast, the Northeast region, which has the lowest income levels, shows figures that are over three times lower than those of the BMR.
(baht) per household per person
Table 8 - Average Monthly Income by Region: 2000
Source: National Statistics Office, Office of the Prime Minister http://www.nso.go.th/eng/stat/subject/toc11.xls
In rural Thailand, where income levels are among the lowest, formal public transport services are notably scarce Residents primarily rely on walking, motorcycles, or shared vehicles for transportation In urban areas, public transport is mainly offered through adapted 2- or 3-wheel motorcycles; however, these services are relatively costly compared to the subsidized bus fares available in Bangkok.
3.3.3 Public Transport Fares in BMR as a Proportion of Household Income
Table 9 shows that relatively small increases in bus fares were implemented in five years to Feb
2004, so the affordability of bus fares with rising incomes would have improved significantly
Bus Type Single Fare (baht)
* 12 baht flat fare until 1 Feb 1999
** reduced from 30 baht in late 1998
Table 9 - Fares for BMTA Joint Service Buses at 1 Feb 1999
25Source: http://www.nso.go.th/eng/stat/socio/soctab5.htm)
Percentage of Income Spent on Public Transport
The number of basic non-air-conditioned red buses has consistently declined, while air-conditioned buses have seen a significant rise in their fleet As of July 2004, the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) operated 3,590 buses, with 1,920 (53%) being air-conditioned However, private BMTA joint service operators had less than 10% of their fleet as air-conditioned, totaling only about 339 buses Additionally, between 1997 and 2003, the average fare for BMTA-owned buses increased by nearly 50%, rising from 4.68 baht to 6.95 baht, indicating a substantial increase in transportation costs.
The total number of buses operated by BMTA has fallen, while the number of buses operated by the BMTA private joint-service fleet has increased.
The number of higher-fare public transport modes has also increased with the opening of the BTS
‘Skytrain’ in 2002 and the MRTA subway Blue Line in 2004 and a greatly expanded taxi fleet.
No data is available on the percentage of household income spent on public transport, however an estimate may be made from the data above
The following input data is used:
Average members per household 3.2 (of which 25.6% under 15, over 65 6% 27 )
Average fare paid on BMTA bus (2003) 6.95 baht
If 2 family members make two average bus trips per day (2 x 2 x 6.95 baht x 7 = 194.60 baht, one member makes two trips each weekday by the BTS Skytrain (2 x 20 baht x 5 = 200) and the family collectively takes 2 taxi trips per week @ 80 baht (= 160) Total fares would amount to 554.60 baht per week and 2,376.86 baht per month which is 12.4% of average household expenditure Public transport fares are thus affordable for the average family in BMR.
The government's low bus fare strategy is designed to address the significant income disparity within the BMR, where many households are near the poverty line.
The wide range of household income distribution is reflected in a Gini coefficient 28 for the Bangkok Metropolitan Region for 2001 of 0.335 29
The Structure and Organization of Urban Public Passenger Transport
Legal Basis for Organization and Jurisdiction
The Land Transport Act 1979 defines the structure of supervisory institutions for public transport
The Land Transport Policy Committee (LTPC) is charged with responsibility:
to draft policies, measures and plans for the land transport sector for proposal to the Cabinet;
to make polices on the development and operation of transport terminals;
to take action on measures concerning safety;
27 Source: Human Development Report 2003 UNDP
The Gini coefficient is a key metric for assessing inequality, primarily focusing on income distribution, though it can apply to any uneven distribution Ranging from 0 to 1, a Gini coefficient of 0 signifies perfect equality, where everyone earns the same income, while a coefficient of 1 indicates complete inequality, where one individual possesses all the income and others have none.
29 Source: National Statistical Office, Royal Thai Government http://www.nso.go.th/eng/stat/socio/soctab7.htm
to coordinate works related to land transport and coordinate with water and air transport.
Members of the Land Transport Committee are the Minister of Transport (Chairman), the Deputy Minister (Dep Chairman), the Under Secretaries for Transport, Interior, Agriculture and
The governing body comprises the Secretaries General of Cooperatives, Commerce, Industry, and Finance, alongside the Juridicial Council, the National Economic and Social Development Board, and Directors from the Budget Bureau, Interior Policy and Planning Office, and Highways Department, supplemented by up to five expert members appointed by the Minister.
The responsibilities and membership of LTPC overlap with those of the CMLT, and it is understood that that LTPC is not currently active.
The Land Transport Control Boards
The Act provides for the establishment of a Central Land Transport Control Board (LTCB), and a provincial Land Transport Control Board in each province
The central LTCB is the regulatory authority body for the regulation of road public transport in Bangkok and has the following statutory duties:
to define fixed and non-fixed route transport;
to fix the routes, number of operators and number of vehicles for fixed-route transport in Bangkok metropolis between provinces and between countries;
to fix the number of operators and number of vehicles for non fixed-route transport in Bangkok metropolis, between provinces and between countries;
to fix the routes, number of operators and number of vehicles for transport by small vehicles;
to fix the rates for transport charges, service charges for transport and terminal charges;
to locate, establish, and regulate transport terminals;
to specify types or conditions of vehicles not acceptable for registration;
to prescribe stopping places for picking up and setting down passengers;
to lay down conditions for permitting and revoking conduct of a transport business.
The members of the LTCB include the Under-Secretaries for Transport (Chairman) and Interior, the Secretaries General of the Juridical Council and the Accelerated Rural Development Office, as well as the Directors General of Police and BMA Additionally, the board may include up to three members with expertise in transport, and ex-officio members have the option to delegate representatives.
The Minister may overrule any decision of LTCB which contravenes a Cabinet Resolution
The Land Transport Department (LTD) oversees the licensing and regulatory framework within the Ministry of Transport, while the Land Transport Commission Board (LTCB) typically adheres to the LTD's recommendations.
A Cabinet Resolution dated 11 January 1983 established the privileged status of BMTA:
“(1) BMTA shall receive bus franchises, both for Category 1 (urban) and Category 4 (intra-provincial), in Bangkok including routes connecting Bangkok with Nonthaburi, Pathumthani and Samutprakarn.
(2) BMTA shall organise the operation of small buses operating both on main streets and lanes to be within the law as soon as possible.”
The Cabinet Resolution was interpreted so that BMTA is the sole holder of bus operating rights in Bangkok.
The Land Transport Act 1979 specifies that any person engaged in a land transport business must obtain a transport business licence from the Registrar.
Four categories of transport business licence are defined:
(i) fixed routes, valid for 7 years;
(ii) non-fixed routes valid for 5 years;
(iii) small-sized vehicles; and
Using vehicles licensed under specific categories for other purposes is strictly forbidden unless written permission is obtained from the Registrar, following the procedures and criteria set by the LTCB Additionally, licenses for operating fixed routes must receive approval from the LTCB.
Public transport vehicles must be inspected for roadworthiness annually at authorised inspection centres in order to obtain a vehicle registration certificate The vehicle registration certificate is valid for 1 year.
Licences for Persons Attached to Vehicles
Persons working on public transport vehicles require a licence, valid for 3 years, as follows:
Driver’s licence (four sub-categories)
Service personnel’s (or ‘bus boy’s) licence.
The Act stipulates, among other requirements, that each person attached to a vehicle must wear a clean uniform as prescribed by ministerial regulations, and must be a Thai national.
A person licensed to operate transport must either deposit a security or hold an insurance policy or contract for death or bodily injury of third parties 30
Four categories of bus route are defined by the Act:
Cat 2 - Between BMR and another province
Cat 3 - Long distance, not to or from BMR
Section 31 of the Land Transport Act provides a comprehensive list of service parameters that must be defined in a licence for a service on a fixed route This forms the basis of an inflexible regulatory system which requires substantial resources to check compliance S 31 specifies that in issuing a licence the Registrar must, with approval of the LTCB, prescribe and record in the licence the following conditions Italic text in [brackets] in the following section show the conditions endorsed on a sample licence for Route No.10.
Number of vehicles to be used along the routes [the sample licence shows a minimum and maximum range of 49 – 59 buses]
Rights of the person licensed to the vehicles used for the transport business [a list shows the following types of bus; 25-31 ‘Euro I’ buses and 24-28 regular buses]
Vehicles used for transport must display specific characteristics, types, capacities, and colors, along with the license marks of the operator For 'Euro I' compliant vehicles, the designated colors are white and blue, while regular services have their own specified color requirements.
(red) Different colours are also specified according to whether a bus is operated by the BMTA (green stripe) or is sub-licensed to a private operator (yellow stripe)]
Number of seats, weight limit of load and methods of loading [reference is made to the standards set by the Committee/LTD]
Number of persons attached to a vehicle [one driver, one fare collector, no reference to service or inspector personnel]
In the transport business, operators often utilize a combination of routes, with many choosing to consolidate several routes under a single license or subcontract However, it is common for each individual route to require its own separate license, ensuring compliance with regulatory standards.
The transport business outlines its service charges through a detailed fare structure, including regular rates of B3.5 for standard services (red) and B5 for 'Euro I' services (white/blue) Additionally, the fare system features various concessionary categories, offering several options for free and half-price fares, as well as student concessionary fares, which are available in the form of monthly pass costs.
Required stops of vehicles en route [destinations along the route are listed, and a map of the route is provided]
Standard of services for the operation of the transport business [a space in the licence is provided, but has been left blank]
The bus timetable outlines the frequency of trips throughout the day, with services running from 5 am to 11 pm on a 14 km route Buses operate every 10 minutes from 5 am to 6 am, every 6 minutes from 6 am to 9 am, every 12 minutes from 9 am to 3 pm, every 6 minutes from 3 pm to 6 pm, every 10 minutes from 6 pm to 8 pm, and every 15 minutes from 8 pm to 11 pm A minimum of 242 daily trips is required, and the schedule applies equally to regular and 'Euro I' buses, with the first bus departing at 5 am and the last bus at 11 pm.
Daily work time in the transport business operation [Head office and local office must be open from 8.30am to 4.30pm on business days]
Place for the keeping, repair and maintenance of vehicles [an address for the depot and workshop is provided]
Other business being undertaken besides the business of transport by fixed routes [there does not appear to be a space for this in the licence]
Other conditions that are prescribed in Ministerial Regulations [none entered]
The Land Transport Act 1979 prohibits the operation of licensed vehicles outside designated routes unless authorized in writing by the Registrar, following the procedures established by the LTCB Additionally, Section 41 restricts entities engaged in non-fixed routes from directly competing with those operating on fixed routes.
Similar conditions are applied to vehicles on non-fixed routes and small vehicles.
The Land Transport Act outlines specific fines and sanctions for violations of licensing conditions, including penalties for ceasing vehicle operation on designated routes In cases of license infringements, the Registrar has the authority to mandate corrections within a specified timeframe Failure to comply may result in the revocation of the license, subject to approval from the Land Transport Control Board (LTCB).
The Registrar has the authority to revoke the main license with the approval of the LTCB, while the BMTA is empowered to impose sanctions and revoke sub-licenses.
The BMTA has shown a lack of enforcement when it comes to sanctioning bus operators for not adhering to schedules and other obligations, with no licenses revoked in the past five years Despite frequent violations of service timetables and license conditions, the BMTA has neither revoked any licenses nor faced revocation themselves.
4.1.4 Insurance Deposit and Compensation Funds
Under the Land Transport Act 1979, public transport license holders are required to deposit a specified amount in cash or bond with the registrar as security for third-party bodily injury claims The liability and deposit amount are determined by Ministerial regulations and included in the sub-license agreement between the BMTA and private operators An initial deposit of 40,500 baht must be made into a Thai Farmers Bank account and maintained at that level, with the bank covering damages up to 115,632 baht or 5% of the first three years of revenue.
Organizational Structure of the Bus Sector
The number of routes and vehicles comprising each of the fixed-route public transport modes is shown in Table 12.
BMTA Buses 102 3,606 State-owned enterprise
Joint Service Buses 104 3,293 One large company + multiple small companies
Main Road Minibuses 48 1,175 Individual owners*
Table 12 - The Composition of the Fixed-Route Sector in 2003
* Vehicle rented to drivers on a daily basis
# Vehicle driven by owner or rented to driver
The Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) and joint service buses, along with minibuses, share the same routes, which means that Table 12 does not accurately reflect the total number of bus routes in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR) The estimated number of bus routes in BMR stands at 218, excluding vans.
Microbus routes BMTA states that it serves 122 routes while other BMTA affiliates serves 145 routes.
A description of each of the modes is given in the following sections.
BMTA has been incurring deficits since its establishment in 1976 Pressures to reform BMTA have increased with the size of the accumulated deficit which is now approaching USD 1 billion
Private operators have established a benchmark for the cost-effectiveness of the BMTA by running identical buses on the same routes and charging the same fares, yet they manage to achieve profitability.
To mitigate the rising deficits of BMTA, the primary strategy has involved enhancing the private sector's involvement This approach includes decreasing BMTA's fleet of buses while simultaneously increasing the number of buses owned and operated by private entities, along with those leased by BMTA.
In 1991, the Cabinet mandated that the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) reduce its fleet to 4,000 buses—comprising 2,000 air-conditioned and 2,000 non-air-conditioned vehicles—over a five-year period, with the remaining buses to be operated by the private sector Additionally, the Ministry of Finance set a goal to decrease BMTA's share of the joint-service fleet to 20% within the same timeframe.
As of April 1999, the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) had a fleet of 4,197 buses, which decreased by 13% to 3,649 by 2004 During this time, the percentage of air-conditioned buses in the fleet rose from 47.2% to 54%, highlighting a shift in the composition of BMTA's bus services.
Bus Type No in Fleet
Table 13 - Composition of the BMTA-Operated Fleet in April 1999 and
In 2002 BMTA was ordered to further increase the involvement of the private sector in bus operations This was to be achieved by:
- leasing buses from manufacturers with maintenance contracts
- reducing the number of buses operated by BMTA and increasing the number sub-licensed under the joint service arrangement.
Section 6.1.2 highlights that the process of awarding bus leases and maintenance contracts led to significantly inflated costs, making it far more expensive than if BMTA had purchased the buses and managed maintenance internally.
The latest directive to BMTA was in Feb 2003 when the Prime Minister ordered BMTA to take measures to be ‘self-supportive’ within 6 months.
BMTA’s response, to increase revenue reduce costs, and be profitable by 2007 was set out in its 2003 Annual Report The following is a summary of the strategy:
- Each of the 8 BMTA operating zones to be a profit centre;
- Purchases and hiring to be by competitive process, including e-auction;
- Govt to reimburse cost of PSO - keeping non air-conditioned bus fares low ‘for the poor’;
- The 1,297 Euro 2 buses now leased from the manufacturers to be purchased;
- Staff to be reduced to 4 per bus 31 by early retirement etc;
- A modern information system to be introduced to promote more efficient management;
- One-person-operation using fare boxes to be introduced, saving about 500 baht per bus/day;
- Electronic ticketing to be introduced;
- Advance purchase, time-based tickets had been introduced: valid for unlimited travel for a week, a month, or a year;
- ISO 9001 certification to be adopted progressively, by batches of routes.
In 1999, BMTA joint-service sub-contractors operated 3,428 buses
BMTA is downsizing its fleet, yet there is no indication that the number of joint service buses is rising to compensate for this reduction; in fact, they may be declining This trend is largely due to the unfavorable business conditions for bus operations within the joint service framework, where BMTA acts as both a competitor and regulator, coupled with politically driven and inconsistent fare regulations.
Data for 2003 provided by the BMTA Private Bus Association and Club stated that 2,530 private buses were subcontracted to BMTA in 2003, of which only 339 were air-conditioned.
BMTA’s 2003 Annual Report stated that there were 3,293 private joint-service buses in operation in Sept 2003, of which 870 were air-conditioned, as shown in Table 14
BMTA Buses Regular 1,670 Aircon 1,936 Euro 2 1,297
Joint Service Buses Regular 2,423 Aircon 870
Table 14 - Composition of the BMTA Joint Fleet in 2003
Source: BMTA Annual Report 2003 The most recent available data relating to July 2004 is shown in Table 15.
Table 15 - Number of Buses by Category July 2004
(Source ‘Services’ July 2004 BMTA Fleet: 1,670 non a/c, 1,920 a/c = 3,590.
Private JV fleet: 3,319 a/c + non a/c, 1,174 minibuses and 2,085 soi buses.)
31 BMTA’s staff ratio was 5.36 per bus in 2003, compared with an international norm of about 3.5.
Table 16 shows BMTA key operating data for 2003
Item Year Per day Per bus/day
The BMTA's shrinking fleet size has led to a consistent decrease in daily ridership and revenue, as evidenced by data in Tables 17 and 18 Additionally, productivity, measured by the number of passengers transported per bus, has also experienced a decline.
Table 17 - BMTA’s Declining Daily Ridership 2000 - 2003
Table 18 - Decline in BMTA Revenue 2000 - 2003
The Private Joint Service Bus Sector
Joint-service private operators run alongside BMTA buses on the majority of routes, with some routes dedicated solely to private operators and others exclusively to BMTA Recently, the government has awarded new routes exclusively to private operators to enhance private sector involvement in the bus industry.
The private 'big bus' sector consists of approximately 35 companies, primarily small family-owned businesses operating fleets of 30 to 50 buses Among them, only five companies manage more than 100 buses, while just 2 or 3 offer air-conditioned services, predominantly utilizing older, first-generation air-conditioned M-Benz buses that are now over 12 years old.
One company (Thanyakhan) dominates the sector with a fleet of over 1,000 buses It is the only operator who has invested in new Euro 2 buses
Private bus operators typically purchase buses from the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) or inter-city operators after approximately 12 years of service These buses are then re-bodied and frequently equipped with used engines imported from Japan, allowing them to operate for an additional 8 to 15 years.
The bus transportation sector primarily operates on a cash basis, with private operators reporting daily earnings of approximately 2,500 to 3,000 baht for non-air-conditioned buses, accommodating around 500 to 600 passengers daily In contrast, air-conditioned buses generate higher revenues, averaging between 5,500 and 6,000 baht per day.
Private bus operators do not receive any subsidies and must cover their expenses solely through bus revenue on the same routes and at the same fares as the BMTA, which only manages to recover approximately 70% of its operating costs.
Cost recovery is achieved by using old buses, informal maintenance and repair arrangements, few overheads and paying much lower wages than BMTA
New bus routes or variations are rarely introduced in comparison to cities with demand-responsive systems According to LTD, the process for awarding new routes involves publishing the details and inviting applications from operators A new route is defined as one that serves a new road without any existing operators However, in reality, there are often incumbent operators in the area who assert their rights to operate the route Consequently, LTCB typically approves the award to these incumbents, resulting in limited opportunities for new operators to enter the industry.
Licences are automatically renewed unless an operator has a very poor record eg on accidents.
BMTA Private Bus Association and Club is the association of private joint-service bus operators Its
20 member companies operate about 2,000 of the 3,300 private joint service buses Their primary role is to represent the interests of the joint service bus operators to government
Green minibuses and passenger vans are not members of the Association.
In the transportation landscape, there are two primary types of minibuses: the green ‘main road’ minibuses, which operate on 58 major routes, either exclusively or in collaboration with the BMTA, and the 'Songtael', which are light trucks modified for passenger transport, serving 111 local feeder routes along smaller lanes (soi).
Staffing and Skills Analysis
BMTA’s workforce by category is shown in Table 20:
No engineering staff are shown as almost all BMTA’s maintenance is contracted out to manufacturers
Executive and Office Staff 2,673 Dispatchers and Inspectors 1,563
Table 20 - BMTA Workforce at July 2004
BMTA is a long-established and substantial corporation which is able to recruit qualified staff and has maintained staff training programmes
BMTA claims to have trained 62% of drivers and conductors and about 80% of other staff in
Thailand faces a significant shortage of experienced transport planners despite having readily available general management and engineering skills for public transport services This gap is largely due to the limited number of universities offering courses in public transport policy and planning While the Land Transport Department (LTD) and the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA) are tasked with providing a diverse range of public transport options to meet the city's demands, they lack professional staff focused on network analysis and planning Consequently, the Office of Transport and Traffic Policy and Planning (OTP) has relied on consultants for recent bus network studies, resulting in minimal local participation and insufficient skill transfer during these projects.
Many private transport operators lack the resources to hire qualified staff, resulting in limited capacity for effective route planning and market analysis Their operations are further constrained as routes, schedules, and fares are predetermined by the LTD or BMTA and shared among all operators, leaving minimal room for flexibility or innovation.
The Urban Transport Database and Modelling Study, conducted in 1995, was the last significant research focusing on demand and supply in urban transport One of its key objectives was to equip OCMLT (now OTP) with the computer model and the necessary skills for evaluation and prediction Although subsequent studies have utilized the models developed by UTDM for specific evaluations, none of the planning agencies, including OTP, LTD, BMTA, or BMA, have adopted these models as a standard planning tool.
A Thai transport academic expressed the problem in the following terms:
“With regard to transport planning methodology, a step forward was taken in 1995 when the government developed a transport model and database for the Bangkok Metropolitan Region
In 1998, MVA Asia developed a resource for transport agencies that has improved project planning consistency However, the need for ongoing adjustments and coordination among the agencies utilizing the database and model has led to significant challenges in maintaining these resources.
Maintaining a travel demand database may not be difficult for an experienced specialist, but the current resources and skills of BMTA staff are insufficient for this task Although BMTA has valuable anecdotal insights into local travel conditions, their existing data recording systems are inadequate for consistently measuring demand in a professional way, resulting in a lack of meaningful user information.
The lack of skilled planners and analysts will hinder the effectiveness of the newly proposed regulatory and planning agency, which is tasked with designing an efficient bus network.
The Bangkok transport system development, as analyzed by Professor Wiroj Rujopakarn from Kasetsart University, highlights critical inefficiencies in maximizing passenger trips and achieving commercial viability The need for a fully integrated network with the urban rail lines currently being planned by the government is emphasized to enhance overall productivity and effectiveness of the transportation infrastructure.
Provincial Buses
Provincial suburban bus services operate in the outer suburbs of the Bangkok Metropolitan Area (BMA), primarily in Nonthaburi province, which borders the northern suburbs of Bangkok These buses are licensed, and their fares are regulated by the provincial office of the Land Transport Department (LTD) under the guidance of the provincial Land Transport Control Board (LTCB).
Role of the Informal Sector
In the BMR, there is no informal fixed-route public transport system that operates outside the established regulatory framework or violates its licensing conditions.
The songtael soi buses may seem unregulated due to their covered truck design and lack of maintenance However, as mentioned previously, most of these buses operate under the BMTA joint service scheme, despite many being unlicensed.
Unlicensed informal fixed-route modes are as follows:
Unlicensed passenger vans, estimated to number 3,100 in BMR
Motorcycle taxis, numbering around 100,000, cater to the demand for transportation in narrow urban streets and major bus routes Despite operating without official licenses, these services are regulated by illicit organizations as well as by government agencies engaging in unlawful practices.