Prolegomena
My lifelong interest in Vietnamese Evangelicals (VNEs) stems from many years of working among them, beginning in Hong Kong, then working and living among them in
From 1994 to 2004, my mission in Hồ Chí Minh City, Vietnam, aimed to support the growth of Evangelical churches by helping Vietnamese Christian communities present a more culturally relevant identity Hwang highlights significant scholarship on ancestral veneration (AV) within social anthropology, yet only two ethnographic studies on Vietnamese Evangelicalism exist, neither employing qualitative research methods Theological studies among Evangelicals often rely solely on Scripture for insights into ancestral worship, which restricts understanding within its cultural context and limits the effectiveness of the findings This Western-centric approach to religion fails to resonate in the Asian context, leading to discussions that inadequately address the complexities of Vietnamese spirituality and religion.
This study integrates academic theological discourse with what Scharen and Vigen describe as 'embodied knowing,' emphasizing the importance of living one’s theology within both church and society By exploring the enculturated dispositions identified by Bourdieu, it aims to facilitate the development of local theology The insights gathered from Vietnamese Evangelical Christians (VNEs) and the broader Vietnamese society serve to diminish cultural barriers related to ancestral practices.
Exploring how Vietnamese New Evangelicals (VNEs) navigate their faith amidst cultural barriers offers vital insights for researchers aiming to bridge these divides For nearly 400 years, debates surrounding ancestral practices remain unresolved, highlighting the need for these voices to be heard (Martin 1890; Phan, PC 1998) Although ancestral veneration rites (AV) have been examined from various angles, they are rarely approached as 'embodied knowing,' which fosters an 'embodied theology' integral to daily life This necessitates ethnographic research within qualitative studies to uncover local theologies informed by primary voices As Wigg-Stevenson notes, theology is inherently culturally situated (2014:3) Developing local theologies in Vietnamese culture requires tools to interpret these embodied practices within their cultural context Ultimately, this research aims not to create formal theology but to uncover informal theologies that are intuitively understood and practiced, with primary voices serving as the key to revealing these theological truths.
Bourdieu defines 'practice' as the 'art of performance,' which encompasses all human activities, including rituals and their associated changes This concept may reveal opportunities for the development of local theologies.
This research examines the rejection of indigenous ancestral veneration rituals in Vietnamese society, which reflect the ethical principle of filiality, and the necessary acculturation to new Evangelical practices It aims to explore whether the Lord’s Supper (Lễ Tiệc Thánh) can be considered a genuinely effective ritual within the Vietnamese context, embodying cultural assumptions about one's place in society The study seeks to understand the collective dispositions, or habitus, that underpin this ritual from both anthropological and theological perspectives, providing insights into the Vietnamese community through an emic lens by a significant outsider Ultimately, it aims to uncover the embedded dispositions within North American Evangelical Holiness practices as they relate to the Vietnamese experience.
Christian beliefs and practices in Vietnam, emerging from Western origins over the past century, are often viewed as 'foreign' by the broader society Embracing Evangelical Christianity necessitates a significant cultural shift, requiring individuals to adopt unfamiliar religious practices that may seem un-Vietnamese to their families This process of acculturation demands an immediate and profound departure from traditional ancestral veneration rites, leading non-Christian family members to perceive this change as a rejection of filial piety, which has historically been a cornerstone of Vietnamese culture.
Bourdieu (1977) describes systems as durable and adaptable dispositions that function as underlying principles, shaping practices and representations These systems operate without the need for conscious intent or explicit mastery of the necessary operations, allowing for objective adaptation to outcomes.
3 Defined as: ‘culture change that is initiated by the conjunction of two or more autonomous cultural system
Vietnamese society, shaped by its historical dynamics and the selective adaptation of value systems, largely rejects the practices of Evangelicalism, including within its current governmental regime.
The Christian and Missionary Alliance founded Evangelicalism in Central Vietnam in 1911 All missionary activities stopped in North Vietnam in 1954, and in
In 1975, South Vietnam viewed the VNEs as adherents of a 'foreign religion' largely because they declined to engage in AV rites, a perception that persists within both the general populace and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam today.
The ongoing cultural conflict between national traditions and Protestant beliefs centers around the practice of ancestor worship This tension arises primarily because Protestant organizations, particularly the Christian and Missionary Alliance (C and MA), have largely avoided addressing this issue It is crucial for these organizations to recognize and engage with the cultural significance of ancestor worship within the communities they serve.
Missionaries must investigate why societal change remains stagnant and explore the potential for Christian traits among the small percentage of Vietnamese Evangelicals to influence broader society If evidence supports this potential, it suggests that the historical message of Jesus Christ has indeed impacted society Enculturation, defined as the learning experience that distinguishes humans from other creatures, can undergo transformation through transmutative enculturation, where Christianity integrates with existing cultural dispositions, leading to shifts in traditional patterns When Christian missions fail to identify cultural correlations with the gospel, they risk appearing as foreign entities, isolating Evangelicals within their own communities However, if authentic cultural connections are established, they can foster unregulated innovations that help societies develop new collective habits and better embrace the Christian message.
Background
Protestant missions began in Vietnam in 1911 with the Christian and Missionary Alliance, leading to the establishment of the Evangelical Church of Vietnam (ECVN), which became an autonomous denomination known as Hội Thánh Tin Lành Despite facing political and economic challenges, various Protestant denominations have emerged, contributing to an estimated 1.7 million Evangelical believers in Vietnam's population of 97 million The Communist Party, which has governed Southern Vietnam since 1975, has criticized Vietnamese Protestantism as a foreign religion aimed at undermining political authority However, in the past decade, the Vietnamese government has permitted the printing of Bibles and some religious literature, allowing limited gatherings of church groups and denominations, and occasionally tolerating large public crusades in major cities.
Indigenous spiritual practices among the majority of the Vietnamese population are rich and varied and are part of the everyday life of the average Vietnamese person
The term "inculturation," defined by Schreiter as a blend of the theological principle of incarnation and the social science concept of acculturation, is predominantly utilized within Roman Catholicism Building on Schreiter's foundational work, I consistently prefer this terminology over alternatives.
The intricate cosmology of Buddhism encompasses Mahayana and Theravada traditions, along with folk Buddhism, spiritualism, and the veneration of various deities, saints, and protective spirits Padgett, drawing on JZ Smith’s concept of locative religion, elucidates the fundamental objectives behind the diverse practices and forms of worship within this rich spiritual landscape.
Locative religion emphasizes the significance of position, borders, and boundaries, focusing on cycles and seasons to achieve security and protection In this cosmology, maintaining order is crucial, and practitioners must be aware of their identity and location, as these aspects are relatively stable The careful preservation of rites helps avert chaos, making it essential for individuals to act appropriately within their defined context.
This explanation is backed up by contributors, for example, Mrs Khanh (C1-1f_Int_2
In 2015, Padgett emphasized the importance of self-awareness and understanding one's place in the world, stating, "you must worship someone, or else you will be afraid." A crucial aspect of AV rituals is the invocation of ancestors, which occurs as the incense is lit This invocation must include the name of the ancestor, the individuals calling upon them, and a specific address Therefore, locative formulas are essential components of AV rituals, ensuring the proper connection to the ancestral spirits.
Virtually all Vietnamese people recognize and believe in Ông Trời, or 'Mr Heaven', who is seen as the supreme figure in their spiritual cosmology While the term may sometimes refer to Trời Đất (Heaven and Earth) without implying a distinct personality, Ông Trời is often associated with personal attributes This term is rooted in Vietnamese linguistics, contrasting with Thượng Đế, which comes from Sino-Vietnamese origins De Rhodes introduced the term Đức Chúa Trời Đất as a substitute for Ông Trời, presenting a compelling argument for this linguistic shift.
Ông Trời, worshipped in the Southern regions, is distinct from AV rites and is honored on a separate altar outside homes He embodies personal traits such as benevolence, justice, and control over nature, influencing rainfall and sunlight for crops In times of emergency and disaster, people commonly invoke his aid This deity is revered by nearly all inhabitants of the Mekong Delta, regardless of their wealth, as seen in the numerous altars found outside almost every home.
Illustration 1:1 Altar to Ông Trời Source: Wise 03-15
This altar is always outside the home, made of various local materials
The most prevalent spiritual rituals in Vietnam are those associated with ancestor worship, particularly the anniversary of the death day ritual known as lễ đám giỗ (LDG) As noted by Toán Anh (1968), this practice is central to Vietnamese spirituality An anthropologist cited a local man from Hoi An, who described the essence of Vietnamese religion as the worship of ancestors (Avieli, 2007) Throughout history, Vietnam has experienced the influence of various religious forms through assimilation, with Buddhism being a significant example In Southern Vietnam, many popular Buddhist beliefs (tin ngưỡng) are integrated into daily life, although only a minority of the population identifies as Buddhist.
The Vietnamese people have integrated various practices from ancient to modern times, reflecting a history of both enforced and selective acculturation This rich tapestry of cultural influences has led to the emergence of diverse religious and spiritual forms of worship, which are now integral to daily life in Vietnam.
Over the past century, the profound effects of modernity and the rise of Communist ideology have significantly influenced spiritual practices, often leading to enforced acculturation Additionally, the increasing penetration of global culture into major cities, fueled by the power of the Internet and social media, further complicates this landscape.
Evangelical churches in Vietnam have emerged as a distinct and somewhat isolated group within the broader Vietnamese society, characterized by their unique ethical beliefs and practices They stand out as the only religious community in the country that prohibits the continuation of indigenous AV rites and mandates the abandonment of popular spiritual activities, viewing them as idolatrous violations of the first and second commandments Vietnamese Evangelicals (VNEs) adhere to two primary rituals, baptism and the Lord’s Supper, referred to as 'ordinances,' which they have inherited from their missionary predecessors Despite the absence of these mentors in southern Vietnamese churches, VNEs meticulously preserve their teachings and ecclesial practices.
1975 In the majority of Vietnamese churches, (in particular, the ECVN, hereafter called
The classification of VNEs as a sect remains ambiguous, as they do not perceive themselves as distinct from their society, apart from their spiritual beliefs and their reluctance to engage fully in societal activities.
AV rites represent a distinct social group within their own culture, characterized by a specific set of beliefs, behaviors, and practices that encompass both social and religious dimensions, shaping their worldview (cf Malarney, 2003:251) Within the HTTL-C3 mother denomination, the VNE ritual of the Lord’s Supper (Lễ Tiệc Thánh, or LTT) has been consistently passed down, maintaining the same presentation, interpretation, and practice as taught by previous generations While some VNE churches have begun to introduce slight modifications in the presentation of the LTT, most continue to uphold the doctrines and hermeneutics inherited from HTTL practices, even if they no longer identify with that name.
Research Problem
In Vietnam, ancestral veneration (AV) has long been viewed as a spiritual practice that poses significant challenges to the growth of Evangelical churches The interpretation of this spiritual component varies greatly among individuals and localities, influenced by modernism and Communist ideologies throughout the twentieth century Following conversion, engaging in AV rites is strictly prohibited, as it is seen as a violation of the First and Second Commandments and an act of idolatry Although the 1956 Constitution of the Evangelical Church of Vietnam (ECVN) explicitly forbids practices such as maintaining ancestral altars and participating in familial rituals, these prohibitions are not consistently reflected in later constitutional revisions Activities like placing food on altars, consuming offerings, lighting incense, and actively participating in ancestral memorial ceremonies are all considered worship behaviors and are strictly banned within the church.
The LDG is a widely practiced ritual in Vietnamese society, particularly during significant occasions such as Lunar New Year, weddings, and funerals These rituals, which emphasize filial piety (hiếu thảo), are essential for expressing respect and devotion to one's ancestors (tờ cúng ông bà) Engaging in these practices, including sharing food at the ancestral altar, reinforces the importance of familial bonds Smith notes that filial piety serves as the foundation of virtues, representing the realization of individual morality and the initial step towards extending kindness from the family to society at large (Smith 1987:228).
The VNE disapproval of all spiritual/religious rituals, particularly the lễ đám giỗ
The practice of filial piety among Vietnamese Christians (VNEs) raises important questions about cultural and spiritual values within Vietnamese society As VNEs do not live in isolated communities but within extended non-Christian families, they face conflicts regarding their beliefs While both Christian and non-Christian family members are required to adapt, non-Christians often compromise for the sake of unity, leading to ongoing tensions VNE Christians seek alternative ways to express their filial duty, such as providing financial support, spending quality time, and caring for their parents Upon the passing of believing parents, they are given Christian funerals, with remembrance meals (lễ kỳ niệm or LKN) that lack traditional rituals, typically including only a prayer over the food Occasionally, a pastor may be invited to connect with non-believing relatives, although these practices may be unfamiliar to them Ultimately, VNEs demonstrate filial piety through moral actions and a redefined approach to honoring their living parents.
8 This is also called ‘self-cultivation’ see (Đỗ 2003:132–142)
Chapter Three explores the concept of filiality among Vietnamese individuals and questions whether expressions of filiality can replace traditional rituals It examines whether Christian rituals can effectively convey the unique quality of filiality and serve those outside the Christian community The article also investigates if there are ritual forms that facilitate the realization of an individual's moral self or if social dislocation is present If Christian ecclesial rituals can fulfill this role, they may foster transmutative enculturation within Vietnamese society.
This research employs ethnographic description to investigate the efficacy of the Lord's Table (LTT) within Vietnamese Evangelicals (VNEs), both individually and collectively The study explores whether this significant ritual, viewed by some in Western Christendom as central to Christian identity, can facilitate Christian enculturation in a society that values ancestral veneration (AV) rituals as expressions of filial piety It questions whether the LTT fulfills these expressions and whether its efficacy lies in promoting moral actions associated with filiality The research also examines if the LTT is merely a foreign import lacking efficacy or if it can develop local theologies and practices that resonate with Vietnamese cultural traits Furthermore, it investigates whether VNEs perceive the LTT as both sacred and efficacious, and if it fosters a divine connection By identifying similarities between the LTT and indigenous Vietnamese rituals, the study suggests that such connections could enhance its appeal to the average Vietnamese, despite existing taboos surrounding AV rites Ultimately, the research posits that recognizing and promoting these integrated Vietnamese traits could lead to transformative enculturation within the broader society.
This thesis aims to empower Evangelical churches in Vietnam by prompting them to examine foreign cultural practices in their orthopraxy and encouraging the integration of authentic Vietnamese traits into their ecclesial practices Recognizing the influence of foreign elements, as noted by Vietnamese scholars, can lead to a re-enculturation that reflects a genuine Vietnamese ethos The focus is on developing embodied practices that resonate with the Vietnamese habitus, allowing for an evaluation of whether these practices embody a Christocentric cultural pattern By expressing intrinsic Vietnamese traits in a redemptive manner, churches can foster meaningful connections and facilitate Christian enculturation within Vietnamese society.
Literature Review
Enculturation
Herskovits' seminal work, "Man and His Works, the Science of Cultural Anthropology" (1949), explores how humans integrate into their societies, rejecting cultural determinism and highlighting the dynamic nature of culture He asserts that while culture shapes our lives, it often operates unconsciously, influencing our perceptions of the world as normative This aligns with Bourdieu's concept of habitus, which illustrates how enculturation occurs through unconscious conditioning, making cultural traits seem natural Importantly, Herskovits emphasizes that individuals are not passive recipients of culture; rather, they possess agency, allowing them to creatively engage with and transform their social environments This interplay between enculturation and personal agency fosters innovative spiritual beliefs and practices that may diverge from traditional lineage, reflecting a process of 'transmutative enculturation'.
1970) Agency is, then is a critical factor in the emergence of transmutative enculturation in all settings.
Christian Enculturation
This research explores the concept of Christian enculturation, specifically focusing on transmutative enculturation, and examines how the historical message of Jesus Christ can lead to cultural change through non-material innovations It posits that when these innovations align with existing cultural patterns, Christian enculturation can take place, particularly within Vietnamese spirituality Knighton’s thesis emphasizes the importance of identifying ethical dispositions and cultural traits that may resonate with the historical message of Christianity These traits, which encompass ethical beliefs, philosophies, and indigenous theologies, manifest in meaningful behaviors and rituals already present in Vietnamese society This anthropological approach contrasts with methods that artificially impose inculturation within Vietnamese Christian communities, advocating for an understanding that emerges organically from existing cultural frameworks.
In his 2015 study, missiological scholar Lim recognizes the concept of 'natural accommodation,' which refers to the gradual assimilation of foreign worship traditions through non-selective acculturation He expresses hope that this process will eventually overshadow the entrenched cultural traits of the existing society, as he explores the slow integration of the Christian message into Chinese culture.
Chinese Christians integrate their socio-religious worldview into their understanding of Christianity, interpreting its moral teachings through the lens of traditional values such as filial piety and family harmony Their relationship with God is characterized by concepts of retribution and reciprocity, reflecting elements of Chinese popular religion This process is not merely a blend of Protestantism and Chinese beliefs, nor a straightforward acceptance of one over the other; rather, it represents a "natural accommodation" that actualizes Protestantism within a Chinese context This dynamic adaptation is not fixed, but rather evolves with the shifting socio-religious landscape, particularly in an era of postmodernism that fosters tolerance and openness to diverse worldviews and religious movements.
Lim believes that the gradual realization of Christianity is not achieved through traditional missiological methods, exegesis, or intentional inculturation, but rather through slow generational processes that reflect collective habits He recognizes that 'natural accommodation' into foreign worship traditions, or acculturation, may be the only effective approach to overcoming the barriers posed by AV rites, as other methods have proven unsuccessful.
Anthropological Approaches as a Corrective to Rejectionist and
Most studies on audiovisual (AV) content in the Evangelical community have primarily focused on theological aspects, especially within missiology, using terms like inculturation and contextualization However, research conducted by Western Evangelicals in missiological fields frequently overlooks anthropological and sociological perspectives, particularly ethnographic methods that originate from within the Christian context.
13 Contextualization methods for AV rites abound: see (Lowe 2001) (Lee 1985), (Crump 2010) and (Ro, ed 1985) These largely follow the ‘rejectionist’ approach, with no attention to primary theology
Hiebert’s concept of critical contextualization stands out as a valuable framework for the church to effectively embody the gospel within diverse cultural settings According to Bagura, Hiebert’s model outlines four essential steps for this process, emphasizing the importance of community engagement, which has gained increased focus in recent discussions.
Western theological systems, influenced by existentialist philosophies, categorize religion and religious practices separately from culture, which limits their ability to provide meaningful exegetical interpretations, even among non-Western scholars trained in these traditions (Whiteman 1997) This framework fails to address real-life conflicts related to AV rites and their associated belief systems within communities where the sacred permeates all aspects of life Unlike Western perspectives, Asians perceive no distinction between the sacred and the secular, viewing all of life as possessing a sacral quality (Durkheim 2001) Consequently, Western theologies are at a significant disadvantage, particularly as VNE leaders receive training exclusively in these frameworks that treat religion as a distinct category (Asad, 1993).
Many Evangelical scholars, including those in Vietnamese Evangelicalism, have adopted a rejectionist stance towards AV rites, viewing them as violations of the first and second Commandments This limited perspective often obscures the true purpose of these rites, a gap that becomes evident when anthropological methods are applied Such a rejectionist approach has faced criticism from both Western and Asian scholars, even among those who do not fully embrace accommodation Enculturated traits within societies receiving Christian missions are frequently overlooked or deemed taboo However, new research approaches that incorporate social science perspectives, as suggested by Lim, are increasingly recognized as essential for understanding AV rites.
Schreiter’s contextual model, rooted in an ethnographic approach, emphasizes the importance of cultural exegesis, scriptural interpretation, and the creation of contextualized practices, as highlighted by Hiebert (2016) Hiebert asserts that local communities are the key decision-makers in this process, marking a significant advancement in contextual theology However, it raises the question of how frequently this approach is implemented, particularly in places like Vietnam, where such practices seem absent He further notes that ideally, the development of local theologies should start with an in-depth study of culture rather than merely adapting broader church traditions to local contexts.
Rare would be the occasion for a community where its theological development could begin de novo
As a Christian community matures, it gains insights into God's nature and His actions throughout history from external influences This theological development signifies the community's growth and indicates that it has been shaped by various local theologies up to that point.
Christian mission communities have experienced acculturation through local theologies, which influences their practices Unlike Schreiter's approach, this research emphasizes the importance of enculturation within Vietnamese society, focusing on identifying cultural bridges that can connect indigenous cultural patterns with the historical Christian message By prioritizing enculturation, we aim to integrate indigenous ethical dispositions with Christianity, fostering ecclesial practices that genuinely reflect a Vietnamese context while remaining Christocentric.
Discovering underlying cultural patterns in Vietnamese communities can facilitate enculturation, enabling the process of 'finding Christ in a culture' through both Christian and pre-Christian Vietnamese theologies This approach aims at evangelization and church development by recognizing the presence of Christ already within the culture, as emphasized by Schreiter (1985:6) Schreiter advocates exploring three key theological concepts to achieve this understanding.
This research aims to explore the enculturated traits and habits related to the concepts of creation, redemption, and community within societal and cultural frameworks, particularly focusing on family and lineage It raises the question of whether Christian enculturation is observable or has the potential to develop within VNE orthopraxy, especially in relation to the ecclesiologies of Eucharistic practice, known as Lễ Tiệc Thánh.
Embodied Knowing: Seeking Primary Theologies from an Emic
Schreiter's ethnographic approach emphasizes the importance of 'cultural listening' as a foundational element of contextual models He advocates for an 'incarnational theology' that transcends mere propositional truths derived from a specific interpretation of Scripture This concept of 'cultural listening' is essential for developing an incarnational hermeneutic that effectively engages with diverse cultural contexts.
To foster genuine engagement with local contexts, evangelization and church development should focus on discovering Christ within the existing situation rather than imposing Christ from the outside This approach, rooted in the theology of incarnation, helps avoid the risk of presenting Christianity as an external entity that disrupts local culture.
To effectively understand a culture while seeking Christ, it is essential for researchers to adopt a humble and reflexive approach Schreiter emphasizes the importance of recognizing implicit theologies in cross-cultural contexts, yet he provides limited insight into how researchers can navigate these complexities He poses a critical question: “How, as a foreigner, does one grow in understanding a culture on its own terms?” (40), highlighting the need for deeper reflection in cross-cultural engagement.
The initial phase of developing this model is rooted in the researcher's perspective, based on Tanner's epistemological framework Tanner (1997) effectively contended that academic theology and its practical application are interconnected and should not be viewed as distinct domains, thereby bridging the gap between them Scharen encapsulates Tanner's journey in this context.
The critique emphasizes the importance of recognizing how congregations are influenced by their surrounding environment to understand their transformative impact Insights from sociological and liturgical studies on ritual, particularly the perspectives of Pierre Bourdieu, provide valuable guidance in articulating this intricate relationship between congregations and the world.
Scharen states, one moves from ‘studying “the Church” to “studying churches” or as theologian Nicholas Healy puts it, from “idealized” to “concrete” ecclesiology’
Christian or Christ-like values encompass beliefs, practices, behaviors, and thought paradigms that reflect the teachings of Jesus Christ and the messages found in the New Testament.
Utilizing a reflexive 'cultural listening' approach mitigates the risks associated with relying on an idealized concept of 'church' and its associated practices, such as the LTT This method considers both the researcher's perspective and the shared cultural background of the churches being studied, leading to a more nuanced understanding of religious rituals and beliefs.
The journey to understanding enculturation starts with the researcher's perspective, as highlighted by Scharen & Vigen (2011) This study aims to uncover primary theologies that serve as seeds for local theologies by amplifying contributors' voices through ethnography Ethnography facilitates access to both human experiences and divine knowledge, helping to bridge the gap between theology and ethnography By exploring how individuals interpret and engage with their Christian practices, we can better grasp the cultural contexts that shape these interpretations Scripture, while authoritative, is understood differently across cultural landscapes, necessitating the inclusion of primary voices to enrich this understanding This approach lays the groundwork for building cultural bridges between the Scripture's context and that of the Vietnamese community, ultimately leading to the emergence of new indigenous theologies.
Translation models for Scripture translation play a crucial role in inculturation, ideally led by indigenous believers who can create culturally relevant Christian practices This approach allows new believers to develop their own interpretations and theologies, rather than imposing foreign ones, which can hinder authentic growth While many mission settings have historically relied on external theologies, there remains an opportunity for local believers to uncover primary theologies that resonate with the core message of salvation through Jesus Christ.
This research aims to gather insights from primary contributors without attempting to establish a new formal theology Instead, it focuses on interpreting the voices from local contexts, offering a practical framework for local Christian communities to formulate their own theologies Utilizing an interdisciplinary approach, it combines ethnography and theology to create an ethnographic-theological construct.
‘seeing’ may lead to uncovering enculturation that may become the means for developing local theologies.
Seeking Enculturation through the Habitus
Bourdieu's ethnographic research in a northern Algerian village laid the groundwork for his influential work, "Outline of a Theory of Practice" (1977) This study is pivotal in illustrating how habitus operates, facilitating the persistence of societal and cultural structures.
Durable systems of transposable dispositions are structured in a way that they function as organizing principles These principles generate practices and representations that can adapt objectively to their outcomes, without requiring conscious intent or explicit mastery of the necessary operations to achieve those results.
Bourdieu expands his definition by with the concept of regulated improvisation:
The habitus serves as a lasting generative principle that fosters regulated improvisation, leading to practices that reflect the inherent regularities of production conditions It also adapts to the objective potentialities present in each situation Consequently, the virtuoso discovers new inspirations and supports in their work, which influence their methods of operation.
Vietnamese society has long been shaped by practices and beliefs surrounding ancestral worship (AV rites), which have been deeply integrated into its cultural fabric since ancient times and influenced by Confucianism The concept of filial piety plays a crucial role in defining an individual's status within both family and community This sense of 'filial-ness' is ingrained in the collective Vietnamese habitus, creating enduring structures that reinforce these values across generations.
16 Chapter 2, p 28-30 within culture and society generation after generation
Fulkerson describes how closely habitus is connected to the formation of enculturation Referring to Bourdieu, she says,
According to Bourdieu, agents function as 'socially informed bodies' and their practices are a form of social enculturation These practices exist along the continuum of human experience, forming a system of lasting and transposable dispositions By integrating past experiences, they create a matrix of perceptions, appreciations, and actions, enabling the execution of a vast array of tasks This results in durable dispositions that continuously re-externalize social cultures in innovative ways.
Fulkerson emphasizes the influential role of agency within the habitus, highlighting its capacity to transform culture through "durable dispositions" that continually reshape social norms Bourdieu's concept of regulated improvisations, driven by collective agency, can lead to unregulated improvisations that profoundly influence various aspects of life, including spiritual beliefs and practices Over time, these changes can impact entire societal structures, fostering genuine innovation and transmutative enculturation.
Bourdieu has faced criticism for allegedly neglecting the role of agency in his concept of habitus However, Lizardo effectively addresses this issue by exploring the connections between Bourdieu's theories and the structural anthropology of Levi-Strauss, as well as the developmental psychology of Piaget, thereby clarifying Bourdieu's work and highlighting the importance of agency.
Lizardo emphasizes that the habitus serves as both a perceptual framework and a generative structure for practical action, facilitating regulated improvisations driven by intellectual curiosity and the need for problem-solving This dynamic allows for experimentation that can evolve into unregulated innovation, highlighting the creative potential of habitus As Fulkerson notes, habitus enables individuals to achieve a diverse range of tasks, reinterpreting social cultures in novel ways Enculturated individuals not only uphold normative cultural practices and beliefs but also actively transform their culture through improvisation and innovation, leading to significant cultural changes.
‘transmutative enculturation’ (Shimahara 1970; Herskovits 1949:641) which allows for widespread cultural changes
Personal agency is essential for enacting change, particularly within the current Evangelical epistemology, where Vietnamese New Evangelicals (VNEs) must consciously shift away from ancestral rites and spiritual practices This transition involves embracing new cultural and spiritual practices that may initially feel foreign and necessitate some level of acculturation In Vietnamese society, decision-making predominantly occurs within family groups, clans, or communities, often leading to resistance against individualistic choices Therefore, it is crucial to explore whether Vietnamese individuals make decisions that oppose group consensus, supported by an analysis of primary data.
Bourdieu's concept of habitus highlights non-material traits within social contexts but overlooks the spiritual kinship connections prevalent in Asian cultures These connections, facilitated by ritual, allow individuals to access non-immediate sources of power, authority, and value Although Bourdieu's analysis focuses on the Kabyle Berbers, a Muslim community, it only briefly touches on sacred dispositions related to the protection of female honor His materialist approach limits his understanding of how these dispositions may carry deeper ontological meanings, often explored through ritual practices.
Habitus of the Researcher: Seeking a Reflexive Theological Ethnography
Researchers often face challenges in achieving objectivity due to their own perspectives and habitus, which can hinder their understanding of contributors in both cross-cultural and mono-cultural contexts Bourdieu emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between the research habitus and field habitus, suggesting that the researcher's voice may overshadow that of the contributors To effectively reconstruct the insights of those being studied, a deep intellectual connection is required between the sociological field and the field of study Reflexivity plays a crucial role in overcoming these barriers, as it allows researchers to triangulate data through participant observation and primary sources, while also being mindful of potential biases in the contributions they receive.
Examining AV Rites within Anthropology
The scholarship of Mauss emphasizes the significance of reciprocation in gift exchange within Vietnamese ancestral veneration (AV) rites, reflecting a sense of filial duty These rites are non-propitiatory and do not imply that ancestors possess the ability to forgive sins or offer personal transformation However, many in Vietnamese society still view these rituals as a means to secure blessings for the lineage's prosperity The concept of gift exchange is more fitting, as the act of giving fosters social bonds and mutual obligations, even extending to those beyond one's immediate circle This exchange is governed by social codes of honor, underscoring its importance in maintaining familial connections.
18 The term, ‘propitiation’, is sometimes used to mean ‘appeasement’ of a god, or a dead ancestor, but virtually inescapable, and is evidence of a collective habitus within the given society
Vietnamese AV rites can be understood through the lens of gift exchange, as explored in Soucy's research among northern Vietnamese communities The concept of ơn, which signifies obligation and reciprocity, plays a crucial role in both societal interactions and Buddhist spirituality Soucy highlights that ơn functions as a form of social currency, essential for maintaining relationships through the expectation of repayment In this symbolic economy, possessing ơn equates to holding valuable symbolic capital, underscoring its significance in Vietnamese culture.
Field data will illuminate the role of Vietnamese New Year (VNEs) in the Lunar Tet Tradition (LTT), exploring whether participation serves as a means of receiving divine grace or as an act that fosters a cycle of mutual obligation, necessitating expressions of gratitude (biết ơn) Tovey highlights Chauvet's view of this interaction as a 'symbolic exchange,' where participants gain the gift of 'living in grace' while also entering a realm of obligation (Tovey 1988:109) Given that Vietnamese cultural practices are deeply rooted in concepts of obligation and gift exchange, analyzing the data through Chauvet's framework is crucial It is essential to determine whether the performance of ancestral veneration (AV) rites is influenced by these obligations or if they function as propitiatory offerings, as discussed by Hubert & Mauss (1964) This investigation will reveal whether such dispositions are evident in the performance of the LTT.
Understanding Douglas‘ ’Group and Grid ’Theory in terms of AV
Douglas's group and grid theory is relevant to understanding Vietnamese society, which operates within a high group context, particularly regarding extended family and clan ties Tovey (1988) emphasizes that group identity is defined by social bonding rather than rigid boundaries, reflecting shared values that underpin Vietnamese kinship Central to these values are the concepts of filiality (hiếu) and obligation (ơn), which strengthen family connections and establish lineage and descent (Avieli 2007; Tran DH 1991) The grid represents the classification system that shapes social order and cosmology, reinforcing kinship ties that connect individuals to both earthly and spiritual realms (Tovey 2004; Douglas 1973) This framework is deeply rooted in Confucian principles, where the power of the group, particularly the clan, perpetuates the filial habitus and its expression through ancestral rites (AV rites) Such societal norms create a strong sense of obligation, making it challenging for individuals to assert personal agency or abandon these traditional practices, especially during times of crisis.
Defining AV Rites within an Orderly Yang Hierarchy
Đỗ discusses a Chinese epistemology undergirding the pantheon of spirit beings:
Chinese thought is fundamentally characterized by a dualistic framework that contrasts 'order' with 'disorder' (chaos) This perspective posits that the order/disorder dichotomy is hierarchical, favoring order much like the preference for yang over yin (Sangren, 2003:10).
Linh, a term derived from Hán Việt, signifies sacred or spiritual power and is associated with the yin side, representing disorder It embodies the mediating power essential for protection against danger, acting at the boundaries of existence Traditionally, ancestors have been viewed as sources of protection and blessings for families; however, their effectiveness appears limited, as the concept of linh is predominantly realized through alternative mediating forces.
The eldest son in a family often faces significant challenges when converting to Evangelicalism due to both group and grid factors that conflict with established spiritual beliefs, such as the reverence for Quan Âm and other spirit beings This resistance may render Evangelical practices as marginal in spiritual efficacy, leading some to view them merely as ethics or traditions rather than effective means of connecting with ancestors While Western anthropologists suggest a widespread belief in the constant presence of deceased ancestors during ancestral worship rites, evidence indicates a lack of uniformity in these beliefs, likely influenced by modernity The increasing fluidity of relationships in contemporary society has weakened traditional ritual practices, revealing a selective and autonomous approach among Vietnamese individuals regarding their beliefs about ancestral presence during rituals.
AV practices play a crucial role in this research, particularly for Christian missions aiming to effectively convey the message of Jesus Christ Unlike other spiritual practices such as mediumship and spirit calling, which belong to a different category of spirituality, AV rites remain distinct and unaffected by these rituals This differentiation is supported by scholarly research (Fjelstad 2003; Endres 2008).
Historical and Cultural Background Material in Relation to AV Rites
A comprehensive history of AV rites, as possibly originating from spirit cults (Steadman,
Filial piety, a concept that predates Confucianism, has been practiced in both China and Vietnam since ancient times (Swanson, 1960; Taylor, 2007a:15–16) While the origins of the virtues associated with filiality have been explored (Jamieson, 1995), this study does not require an in-depth examination of their historical development.
In the twentieth century, significant historical changes in the Far East have led to transformations in the practices and presentations of ancestral veneration (AV) rites, reflecting shifts in Confucian family traditions and social practices The implementation of Communist ideologies has forced notable alterations in these rites, with recent discussions highlighting a rapid reversal in the post-revolutionary era Prior to the 1975 Communist revolution, ethnographic studies in the Mekong Delta were scarce, but Hickey's 1964 monograph reveals the profound changes in village spiritual practices following the disruption of traditional structures due to war and imposed Socialist ideologies The 1990s saw increased mass migration and urbanization, further amplifying these changes Key scholarship, such as Hickey’s work, provides essential correlations with primary data relevant to this research on the LDG.
KV Nguyên discusses dramatic societal changes as Vietnam moved into twentieth century, but believes that AV rites will persist:
We propose that the connection between new economic structures and belief systems is significant, as these beliefs transition across different socio-economic frameworks In contemporary Vietnamese society, the practices of ancestor worship and honoring the deceased remain prevalent and are expected to continue playing a vital role in the socio-cultural landscape in the years to come.
Recent scholarship highlights the enduring nature of AV practice, as noted by Taylor (2007), Jellema (2007), and Lee (2003) Jamieson's historical and social analysis of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries effectively illustrates the ingrained values of filial piety that have unified Vietnamese society since ancient times.
In traditional Vietnamese culture, the parent-child relationship is central, instilling in children a profound sense of moral obligation to their parents that feels unrepayable Children learn to value dependence and nurturance, emphasizing the significance of hierarchy over equality within the family structure.
Despite the influences of modernity and socialist ideologies, the concept of moral debt (ơn) remains a vital virtue in Vietnamese culture, particularly evident in ancestral veneration (AV) rites Filial piety (hiếu thảo), which embodies a profound sense of mutual obligation and reverence for both the living and the deceased (ơn and biết ơn), is essential for ethnographic studies among Vietnamese communities Scholars emphasize that filiality is the paramount virtue within the Confucianist ethos, especially in the Sinicized Southern region of the Mekong Delta, as noted by Liu.
A thorough examination of the classical texts, the Analects (Lun Yu) and the Mencius (Ming Zi), reveals that both Confucius and Mencius regard filial piety, and more broadly, familial affection, as the essential foundation and the highest principle guiding human existence.
Vietnamese scholars emphasize a multi-faceted perspective on traditional spiritual cultural forms, highlighting filiality as a key principle within a waning Confucian ethos This ethical disposition serves as a foundational framework in Confucian culture, guiding and shaping Vietnamese practices that focus on familial relationships, encompassing both the living and the deceased.
KB Phan (1990) emphasized that AV rites serve as a moral expression of Vietnamese tradition, while Jamieson argued that these rites are essential within the broader Confucian system, which is fundamentally based on the family model He suggested that religion acts as the binding force of societal order, with the cult of spirits, linked to Confucianism, promoting proper relationships among family members and between rulers and their subjects (1995, cited by Taylor 2007b:11).
Grid theory, as proposed by Douglas (1973), highlights the interconnectedness of deceased ancestors and living family members within the Vietnamese cosmology, emphasizing their role in forming a cohesive social system aligned with clan and community values The principles underlying ancestor veneration rites, deeply rooted in Confucian thought and cultural practices, reflect this intricate relationship.
The concept of filiality is regarded as the ‘supreme principle of human life,’ serving as a foundational element for society and encompassing a spiritual dimension Ongoing primary data analysis will reveal whether values related to filiality remain central to the lives of Vietnamese individuals.
The debate over whether Confucianism should be classified as an ethical, humanistic system, a religion, or both is significant, particularly in Vietnam, where ancestral veneration (AV) rites reflect a diminished yet essential Confucian ethos These rites connect the living and the dead to the spiritual realm within Vietnamese cosmology, illustrating how certain segments of society perceive lineage as integral to their beliefs Despite being rooted in Confucian values within a patriarchal system, these practices do not necessarily equate to formalized religion Fingarette (1972) explores this ambiguity, with Adler summarizing that Confucianism is a non-theistic, diffused religious tradition that sanctifies human relationships and everyday life, challenging the sacred-profane dichotomy This perspective emphasizes that sacredness is found in ordinary human interactions rather than in a transcendental realm.
The concept of 'spiritual kinship units' is integral to Vietnamese cosmology, as highlighted by Ching, who examines Confucianism and popular religions in China, which often overlap in Vietnam She argues that Confucianism embodies a 'sense of the sacred' within its humanistic framework, a view supported by Chih's research Both scholars establish connections between Confucian principles and Christian ontology, particularly relating to the teachings of Jesus While AV rites have been deeply rooted in Confucianism for centuries, influences from Buddhism and Taoism have also played a significant role in shaping these practices Further evidence of this spiritual dimension is explored through primary data and discussed extensively by Kung and Ching, along with various Vietnamese scholars.
Ritual
Rituals are a fundamental aspect of cultural anthropology, recognized as a universal human practice despite their broad and contested nature The discourse surrounding rituals has evolved over the past century, with significant contributions from scholars like Bell (1992) This research will focus specifically on how rituals help individuals and groups understand their roles within family, community, and society, drawing on Bell's work as a foundational framework.
Ritual is perceived today as a multifaceted medium shaped by tradition, necessity, and self-expression, serving various roles and conveying a rich array of messages It is primarily utilized to establish ordered relationships between individuals and distant sources of power, authority, and value Unlike theological speculation, ritual's vocabulary of gesture and word highlights its effectiveness in helping individuals embody their assumptions about their place within a larger context.
This study will examine the efficacy of rituals in shaping individuals' perceptions of their roles within society, specifically focusing on the LDG ritual in indigenous Vietnamese practices and the LTT ritual as performed by Vietnamese expatriates (VNEs).
O’Loughlin emphasizes the significance of ritual in the context of the Eucharist, highlighting its role in shaping our lives and fostering interactions across personal, group, and societal levels He argues that rituals connect individuals to deeper sources of power, authority, and value, which are sought by both leaders and participants in Eucharistic practices Furthermore, he notes that rituals empower individuals to embody their roles within the larger order of existence.
AV Rituals and Filial Piety
Smith's scholarship exemplifies Schreiter’s contextual model through an ethnographic study comparing the practices of Hong Kong Chinese Christians and non-Christians This quantitative research highlights how individual Chinese Christians navigate modern worldviews and the typical Evangelical rejection of cultural practices by advocating for full accommodation of AV rites, a perspective seldom embraced by Evangelical scholars Smith identifies three contextual keys: full accommodation, reinterpretation, and innovation Although his work primarily focuses on mission theology rather than anthropology, he promotes a new approach to reconcile Christian and traditional practices, emphasizing the importance of allowing new interpretations within the faith.
Innovative expressions in response to AV rites necessitate individual agency among Christians For these creative approaches to be implemented, current church leaders must recognize their validity, resulting in a top-down rather than a bottom-up approach to innovation.
Research on Vietnamese Evangelicals (VNEs) and their engagement with ancestor worship (AV) rites is scarce in ethnographic studies QHL Nguyen's work, based on 32 structured interviews with VNEs from two churches in Hồ Chí Minh City, reveals that while none of the participants practice AV rites, they each interpret filial piety through a personal lens Nguyen illustrates how VNEs reinterpret traditional beliefs about filiality in light of Scripture, suggesting that their understanding of filial piety aligns with a piety toward God, akin to the values of ancestor worship Despite the limitations of her study, which lacks field observation and relies solely on a small sample of interviews, Nguyen highlights the significance of VNEs’ focus on God in their expressions of filial piety Her findings indicate that VNEs perceive inculcated filiality as a Christian virtue that should persist even after conversion, reflecting a continued enculturation of ethical dispositions within the community.
Does the LTT Have Potential to Express Vietnamese Traits of Enculturation?
Do Vietnamese Evangelicals (VNEs) express their cultural identity through ritual practices that facilitate their integration into broader society? The significance of these rituals in shaping a collective Vietnamese identity, as evidenced by various studies, highlights the importance of understanding how social inclusion unfolds for Vietnamese individuals who embrace Evangelicalism.
The question of whether VNEs (Vibrant New Expressions) possess self-awareness in their identity is raised by Padgett (2007) and further explored by Ford, who examines the role of the Eucharist in shaping individual identity through worship (1999:138-40) However, Ford's assumption that Eucharistic practice is central to all of Christendom overlooks the Evangelical tradition's skepticism towards ritual, which often minimizes its importance (Taves 2007) While Ford interprets the Eucharist through an individualistic Western lens, his inquiry is relevant for Asian societies that emphasize collective rituals Notably, the Eucharistic practices among VNEs are characterized by an individualized expression (O’Loughlin 2014:191-193), prompting an examination of whether this individualized approach, aligned with Evangelical and Holiness theologies, can facilitate a broader cultural understanding among VNEs.
Evaluating potential Eucharistic hermeneutics requires more than just Western systematic theologies; it is essential to understand the unique dispositions (habitus) of Vietnamese congregants, which differ significantly from their Western counterparts The current presentation of the LTT often mirrors Western styles, leading to an imposed acculturation of theology To address this, participant observation is crucial in uncovering the distinct Vietnamese dispositions that shape their understanding of faith and practice.
Christian praxis possesses its own integrity and dynamic, which is essential for understanding the significance of the Eucharist throughout history Many Christians may find this perspective unusual or even questionable, as they often view the Eucharist as a 'mystery' to be observed However, this viewpoint overlooks the fact that the Eucharist's evolution—both in practice and explanation—has been deeply rooted in communal actions and traditions Therefore, the legacy of these practices is crucial to any comprehensive study of the Eucharist.
The Eucharist has been presented to Vietnamese Christians in a reified manner, yet a comprehensive study of its practice within Vietnamese churches is essential to identify any enculturated traits that may influence this foreign ritual Previous research has often overlooked the intricate, practical aspects of the Eucharist, highlighting a need for deeper exploration To address these gaps, this study employs interviews and participant observation to uncover the embodied knowledge surrounding the ritual.
Examining Historical and Theological Evidence of Eucharistic
Jeremias's seminal work from 1966 asserts that the Last Supper was a Passover meal, a view supported by Cullmann's Biblical theology derived from the Eucharistic narratives in the New Testament These scholarly contributions offer a foundational context for analyzing the LTT, raising the question of whether VNE communities are crafting their own hermeneutics and ritual expressions reflective of their understanding of the LTT, or if they are merely replicating Western orthopraxy.
This article explores the historical scholarship on the Eucharistic event, focusing on its evolution and comparison with contemporary Western Protestant theologies It examines the diverse practices of the Eucharist in early Christianity and their development over time, particularly before the ritual became reified (O’Loughlin 2014:191) The research highlights scholars who have analyzed ancient documents related to the Eucharist in various Mediterranean and Asia Minor cultural contexts (Bradshaw 2009; Alikin 2010; McGowan 1999; Bouley 1981; Stevenson 1984; Buchanan 1984), seeking evidence of cultural improvisation and innovation It investigates whether these early Christian communities exhibited enculturated traits in their Eucharistic practices and how they responded to or rejected ancestral worship Furthermore, it questions the presence of Christian enculturation concerning ancestral cults after the rise of Christianity in these regions MacMullen provides substantial archaeological evidence of Christian ancestral veneration, including family and martyr cults, which continued into at least the fifth century (2010, 2014).
The Background of the LTT and its Formation among Vietnamese
Vietnamese Evangelicalism has closely aligned with the theologies of its founding mission denomination, the Christian and Missionary Alliance (C&MA), which lacked explicit written doctrines on the Lord’s Supper A.B Simpson, the C&MA founder, envisioned it as a coalition of Holiness denominations rather than an autonomous entity, resulting in the absence of a cohesive systematic theology during his leadership Early missionary Olsen authored a systematic theology and a commentary on 1 Corinthians that remain influential in Vietnam, drawing heavily from Strong's theology and reflecting the conservative Baptist perspectives of theologians like R.A Torrey and A.H Strong As noted by KS Nguyen, the similarities in outline and content of these works have significantly shaped the hermeneutics of ECVN churches and other emerging denominations, profoundly impacting Vietnamese church life.
The Evangelical Church of Vietnam (Hội Thánh Tin Lành) recognizes the LTT as one of its ordinances, closely mirroring the wording found in the C and MA Manual from which it was derived (HTTL 2013:4).
The local church is a community of believers united in worshiping God, growing in faith through Scripture, engaging in prayer and fellowship, sharing the gospel, and observing key ordinances such as Baptism and the Lord’s Supper.
The absence of sacramental theologies, indicated by the term 'ordinance,' suggests a limited understanding of their role AB Simpson, rooted in Presbyterianism, reinterpreted his theological views through his experiences in Holiness circles, which significantly influenced Vietnamese orthopraxy This influence is evident in the strong emphasis on evangelism, framed as the 'duty to proclaim Christ’s death,' particularly during the LTT ceremony The integration of Baptist and Holiness theologies has shaped Vietnamese Evangelicals (VNEs), with notable contributions from figures such as Simpson, AJ Strong, and RA Torrey.
Holiness missionaries who joined the C and MA originated from diverse backgrounds, including Calvinist and Zwinglian traditions, as well as more contemporary influences such as Baptist, Pentecostal, and Methodist interpretations It is essential to compare various hermeneutics, both implicit and explicit, within different contexts alongside the BEM order paper from the World Council of Churches.
1.4.16 Contextual Theologies dealing with Ancestral Veneration
CS Song, a notable Asian theologian, presents a unique interpretation of Western theologies through his narrative theology, which significantly redefines ancestral veneration (AV) rites and values He emphasizes the importance of fulfilling social and familial responsibilities to the deceased, positioning all ancestors as integral members of God's Kingdom Song advocates for a more redemptive understanding of AV practices and suggests that the Christian ritual of the Lord’s Supper could serve as a crucial bridge for conveying the Christian message across cultural boundaries.
With Jesus Christ at the center of our sacramental experience, we form a communion as a family, rooted in the cross and resurrection The Lord’s Supper not only signifies this unity but also assures us of the presence of our loved ones who have passed away through Christ It serves as a celebration of life in God, alleviating any anxiety about the fate of the deceased and eliminating the need to provide for their needs.
Song's exploration of the Lord’s Supper as a means to bridge cultural divides offers a hopeful vision for developing new Christian expressions that intertwine Vietnamese values of familial love and community with the sacrament However, he fails to provide practical tools for implementing these concepts, leaving new Christians, who are accustomed to rituals of veneration and concerned about the fate of the deceased, without guidance on how to reconcile their beliefs with a theology of inclusivism This oversight risks overshadowing the core message of salvation through Jesus Christ and neglects the significance of filial piety in this context While his theology paints an idealistic view of the Asian church, it lacks a clear strategy for navigating the complexities surrounding AV practices.
KS Nguyen (2017) advocates for a deeper contextualization within Vietnamese evangelical narratives (VENs), urging them to embrace self-theologizing and to view the Christian God as the Đạo (the Way), a notion acknowledged by many missionaries, especially in China His work highlights the Vietnamese tendency to syncretize and adapt foreign religious beliefs, reinforcing the concept of 'agency' in my research However, while Nguyen calls for this significant paradigm shift, he does not provide a clear roadmap or practical strategies to implement this theoretical framework.
Exegetical Theologies pertaining to AV Practice: Pro and Con
Exegetical works on passages 1 Corinthians 8-10 are numerous These passages are normally interpreted as being prohibitive in regard to AV rites Fee’s commentary, (1980,
1987) and other Evangelical scholars (Conzelmann 1975; Bruce 1971; Witherington
Fotopoulos’ research (1995) provides essential historical context for temple practices in Corinth, offering a thorough overview of exegetical scholarship and various interpretations While these interpretations do not directly impact the current research, they highlight a misconception among Vietnamese New Evangelicals (VNEs) who associate ancestor veneration with demonic worship, which poses significant risks The exegetical and archaeological discussions in these texts focus on temple feasts and specific deity worship, contrasting sharply with the ancestral rites practiced by VNEs Although the exegeses are not directly applicable, they serve as a comparative framework to highlight the cultural and historical differences between Greco-Roman practices and the Vietnamese memorial culture, which emphasizes honoring one’s ancestors as a way of "looking to the source."
No Vietnamese scholarship from Vietnamese Evangelicals (VNEs) addresses the topic of AV rites in the context of 1 Corinthians 8-10 DXV Nguyen's work emphasizes that these rites are misinterpreted in this biblical passage, advocating for full accommodation and suggesting the need for qualitative research to analyze primary theology Similar conclusions have been reached by other scholars, including Smith (1989) and Hwang (1977) In contrast, some exegetical scholars adopt a rejectionist stance, relying solely on raw exegesis and systematic theology, as seen in Lowe's (2001) interpretation, which strictly forbids participation in AV rites Historically, VNE leaders have maintained a rejectionist position, as documented by Lê (1971) and supported by Phan (1996) and Reimer (1975), a view echoed by most Asian Evangelicals The performance of AV rites remains prohibited within these communities.
1956 HTTL Constitution Later documents (Hội Thánh Tin Lành Miên Bắc 2013) did not include these prohibitions, probably due to the desire to be culturally sensitive
While numerous pastors have tackled this issue in their sermons and teachings, there is a notable lack of academic studies on the topic, largely due to the cultural and political sensitivities surrounding AV practices, as well as the limited capacity for theological research in Vietnam.
Responses to Ancestral Veneration from Christian Mission
Catholic scholars exhibit a greater tolerance for AV rites, as affirmed by Vatican II in both 1939 and 1972, recognizing certain elements of these rites as benign and suitable expressions of filial piety in familial and civil contexts (Phan 2003:68–71) Filial piety has garnered praise from early missionary scholars, particularly Jesuit missionaries, and even those who opposed it on theological grounds, such as Alexander De Rhodes, the 'apostle to Vietnam,' acknowledged its significance for fostering familial harmony and identity (Phan 1998:95).
Western Evangelical scholars continue to debate AV rites from the perspective of whether it is, or is not, a religion within the Western categories of religion, (Reimer, 1975;
H Phan 1996) which, as discussed, are not applicable within Asian thought The average Vietnamese does not see AV rites as a religion per se (Nguyen 1994:13, Nguyen 2013)
AV practice is deeply rooted in Vietnamese spiritual cosmology, serving as a vital connection to family members in the non-material world, and is recognized for its sacred significance (Toán Anh 2000; Phan KB 1990) The nature of AV rites, whether as mere memorials or as actual interactions with ancestors present on the altar, remains a fluid concept With the rise of modern thought among Vietnamese intellectuals, some scholars have reinterpreted AV practice as a social function and a means of fostering nationalistic bonds that reinforce Vietnamese identity (Phan KB, nd; Đạng NV 2001).
Significant Christian scholarship emphasizes the importance of AV rites and practices in fostering familial placement and unity, as supported by researchers such as Hwang (1977), Reimer (1975), Martin (1890), and Phan (1998) Their compelling arguments highlight the necessity of these traditions in strengthening family bonds within the Christian community.
The work of 25 De Rhodes followed that of Ricci and emerged during the ongoing rites controversy His contributions, along with those of other scholars, highlight the challenges of social dislocation and the insufficient Christian enculturation among Asian Evangelicals (Crump 2010; Phan 1996; Smith 1989; Lim 2015) Many theological and missiological experts assert that filial piety plays a significant role in Asian societies, promoting familial unity, love, and a sense of collective identity (Park & Müller 2014; Nguyen 2016; Vo 1999; Smith 1987; Chow 1985; Yeo 1994; Phan 2003; Nguyên A 2000; Ngo 2006).
In the late nineteenth century, Martin emerged as a pioneering scholar who challenged the prevailing Protestant rejection of ancestor veneration in China Rather than seeking to impose solutions, he advocated for allowing Chinese converts to maintain their ancestral practices He emphasized the importance of letting divine truth influence the reformation of these traditions, urging missionaries to refrain from interfering with the native customs of honoring ancestors.
Had Chinese leaders and their contemporaries recognized the importance of an emic approach, allowing the local community to exercise agency, they might have addressed their challenges within a generation or two In Vietnam, where evangelical Christianity is still relatively young at just four generations, there remains potential for the development of local theologies By adopting a bottom-up approach that prioritizes primary voices through ethnography, new sensitizing concepts and models can emerge, enabling people to perceive events from fresh perspectives.
Sacramentality in ‘Remembering the Source’
In Vietnamese society, honoring ancestors and acknowledging Ông Trời, or 'God,' is viewed as a vital practice of 'looking to the source.' This sacramental value is deeply rooted in filial piety, connecting individuals to their lineage and extending this reverence to the nation as a whole.
The belief in Ông Trời is a fundamental aspect of Vietnamese indigenous religion, centered on the worship of "heaven," spirits, and ancestors Ông Trời, or "Mr Heaven," is regarded as the highest deity, embodying a personal, benevolent, and just God who is the creator of the universe and the ultimate judge While the general populace does not engage in a direct cult of heaven, the emperor historically performed a significant annual sacrifice known as Tế Nam Giao, representing the nation, with this practice occurring every three years since the nineteenth century.
Phan as a Catholic scholar readily associates the common term Ông Trời with many traits common to the term ‘God’ of Christianity, and particularly as the ‘source of life’
De Rhodes, coming in 1624 as the ‘apostle to Vietnam’ articulated a brilliant inculturation key linking Ông Trời to the God of Christianity in his Catechism
The distinction between Ông Trời as a mere material heaven and as a supreme being is highlighted by the nomenclature used for the Christian God, which includes terms like Đức Chúa Trời (noble Lord of Heaven), Đức Chúa Trời Đất (noble Lord of Heaven and Earth), and Thiên Chúa (Lord of Heaven) derived from Chinese The term Đức Chúa Trời was adopted by the C & MA mission during Scripture translation, becoming prevalent in the early Vietnamese Evangelical movement Data from Vietnamese Evangelicals indicates their use of Ông Trời interchangeably with Đức Chúa Trời in everyday language, evangelistic activities, and occasionally in academic contexts This intuitive application of Ông Trời aligns closely with the concepts associated with Đức Chúa Trời, as supported by Cadiere's extensive anthropological and historical research.
The Vietnamese nation possesses a profound sense of spirituality and pure beliefs, which reflect a deep-rooted connection to the divine When they seek guidance from Heaven or offer sacrifices, they are reaching out to the same omnipotent Being that I revere as God This demonstrates their enduring awareness of the innate spark of natural religion instilled by the Creator in every rational soul.
The critique of the Vietnamese spiritual belief system through a Western lens reveals a profound connection to the deeply rooted spirituality characterized by filial beliefs This perspective emphasizes the moral duty of individuals to 'look to the source,' extending beyond ancestral veneration to the divine figure of Ông Trời Both the author and Phan highlight the significance of 'sacrifices to Heaven,' which are central to the sacred ritual of Tế Nam Giao Ultimately, these ritual sacrifices embody the essence of 'looking to the Source.'
Chinese Confucian scholar Dai Zhen emphasizes that humans embody the essence of Heaven and Earth, suggesting a divine connection within each individual This notion highlights a fundamental desire to engage with the unknown source of life Ancestral veneration (AV rites) serves as a means of connecting not with malevolent entities, but rather with a divine Source that remains largely misunderstood Zhuo, from a Chinese scholarly perspective, draws parallels between traditional Confucian beliefs, which emphasize filial piety and its expression through AV rites, and the views of missionaries who recognized similarities to Christianity.
The missionary critique emphasized the concept of human nature, asserting that Confucianism and Christianity converge on the morality of humanity The Bible states, "Let us make man in our image, after our likeness," which affirms the existence of God and His sovereignty.
Vietnamese beliefs emphasize the sacredness of remembrance, reflecting a deep reverence for human life, each of which bears a divine mark Despite centuries of evolving practices and the occasional blending with Taoist, Buddhist, and superstitious elements, AV rites have endured These rituals, meticulously crafted, serve as a vital expression of cultural identity.
Rituals that emphasize "remembering the source" honor those who gave us life, fostering a deep connection to the divine These practices encourage practitioners to engage in sacred remembrance, highlighting the importance of reverence for life and its enduring significance As CS Song eloquently states, "the power of memory is the power of life," underscoring that memory serves not only as a testament to existence but is integral to life itself.
The understanding of fulfilling obligations to those who give us life reflects a deeper recognition of the sacredness of remembrance Scholars aim to connect indigenous ontologies with Christian theologies through various methodologies, as seen in Yeo's contextual theology that seeks commonality and communality Similarly, Marshall emphasizes a contextual approach, presenting the message of Jesus Christ as the culmination of existing cultural ontologies He identifies prior cultural traits and beliefs as potential signposts leading to Christ, describing this method as a way to narrate Jesus' role in challenging and integrating Jewish traditions in alignment with God's plan for salvation By engaging with Vietnamese voices, both Christian and non-Christian, these signposts may be uncovered.
Justification and Placement of this Study
This review emphasizes the importance of incorporating ethnographic-theological research to explore enculturated traits related to Christian enculturation It argues that relying solely on theological disciplines is inadequate for developing orthopraxy in Asian churches, particularly for families influenced by filial piety The shortcomings within theological frameworks highlight the necessity of seeking insights from social sciences, especially ethnography Currently, there is a lack of comprehensive ethnographic studies that offer alternative perspectives beyond traditional theological approaches.
Rituals are best studied through ethnography rather than theological analysis, as they require firsthand accounts to uncover potential 'raw material' for developing local theologies This research aims to fill a gap for Vietnamese Evangelical communities striving to create ecclesiologies that embody a Vietnamese-Christocentric ontology By focusing on the unique revelation of Jesus Christ, this study connects these ecclesiologies to existing cultural traits, facilitating a deeper engagement with broader Vietnamese society and culture.