For economic and sustainable production of biofuels from algae high and reliable annual average biomass and lipid pro- ductivity is essential ( Borowitzka and Moheimani 2010 ). An obvious, and important, question is: “What is the maximum achievable productivity?” There has been much debate and speculation about this value. In 1991 Sukenik and colleagues
predicted an annual average productivity of 9.7 g(C) m −2 day −1 for Isochrysis galbana in open ponds in Eilat, Israel (29°33 ¢ N, 34°57 ¢ E) (Sukenik et al. 1991 ) . Using a somewhat different approach based on available solar energy and a realistic microalgae photosynthetic ef fi ciency Ritchie ( 2010 ) calculated that the maximum achievable biomass productiv- ity is no more than 10 g(C) m −2 day −1 . This equates to a theo- retical maximum biomass productivity of 20 g (ash-free dry weight) m −2 day −1 based on an average microalgal biomass C content of 50% (Sánchez Mirón et al. 2003 ) (Fig. 8.7 ).
The maximum quantum yield ( F max ) is generally accepted to be 8 photons or 0.125 mol C (mol quanta) −1 (Wozniak et al. 2002 ) and this equates to a maximum areal productivity of no more than 12 g(C) m −2 day −1 , although in cultures with a short light path and high degrees of mixing (i.e. intermit- tent light/dark frequencies of >10 ms) at photosynthetic ef fi ciencies of 2 and 8% the theoretical productivity may be increased to 50 and 200 g dry weight m −2 day −1 , respectively (Grobbelaar 2009 ) . These calculations are based on loca- tions in regions with high irradiance and therefore produc- tivities would be lower in regions with lower solar irradiance.
Data on actual long term productivities in open ponds are scarce, and there is even less data for closed photobioreac- tors. Table 8.2 summarises published data on long-term ( ³ 3months) productivities in open systems. The maximum sustainable biomass productivities in open ponds is in the range of 20–25 g (dry weight) m −2 day −1 with the highest pro- ductivities in summer ranging from 26.5 to 37 g m −2 day −1 (Table 8.2 ). On exceptional days productivities of up to 50 gm −2 day −1 have been achieved in outdoor ponds (Heussler et al. 1978 ; Borowitzka and Moheimani, unpublished results).
In winter (lower light, shorted days and lower temperatures) productivities can be up to fi ve times or more lower than summer productivities. The lower summer productivities of 10–15 g m −2 day −1 can probably be attributed mainly to oper- ational factors such as CO 2 -limitation, O 2 build-up, poor mixing and/or suboptimal cell densities.
Almost all of the systems summarised in Table 8.2 are small- scale systems and unfortunately there is little information avail- able on commercial-scale algae production (e.g. from companies such as Earthrise, Cyanotech and BASF), but there is no reason to assume that they are achieving annual average productivities in excess of 20 g (ash-free dry weight) m −2 day −1 , and produc- tivities are likely to be less. Earthrise report annual average pro- ductivities of about 8.2 g m −2 day −1 for their cultivation of Arthrospira ( Spirulina) in California, USA (Belay 1997 ) .
Mixotrophic cultivation outdoors with Chlorella is also undertaken in Taiwan using acetate as the organic carbon source (Iwamoto 2004 ) and productivities in summer of 30–35 g m −2 day −1 on sunny days, 20–25 g m −2 day −1 on cloudy days, and 10–15 g m −2 day −1 on rainy days have been reported. These productivities are about 1.5–2.0 times higher than those of photoautotrophic cultivation (Iwamoto 2004 ) .
8 Conclusion
The cultivation of microalgae in open outdoor culture systems such as raceway ponds was fi rst attempted in the early 1950s (Gummert et al. 1953 ; Mituya et al. 1953 ; Krauss 1962 ) and has been a reality since the 1960s and is the method used in most commercial microalgae production plants around the
Fig. 8.7 The effect of oxygen concentration on gross photosynthesis in Isochrysis galbana at different irradiances and temperatures. ( a ) 1,200 m mol photons m −2 s −1 ( b ) 2,500 m mol photons m −2 s −1 . ● = 20°C,
■ = 23°C,▲ = 26°C
147 8 Open Pond Culture Systems
Table 8.2 Reported biomass productivities of algae in outdoor grown in open pond culture for periods of 3months of greater Cultivation system Culture volume (L) Culture period (months)
Productivity range Species Location References Areal (g dry weight . m −2 . day −1 ) Volumetric (g dry weight . L −1 . d −1 ) Raceway a 300 +3 9.4–23.5 ằ 0.031–0.078 Anabaena sp. Spain Moreno et al. ( 2003 ) Raceway (in greenhouse) 260 2 13.2 0.05 Chlorella sp. Japan Hase et al. ( 2000 ) Raceway – −3 9 – Cyclotella sp. CM1-1 (reduced antenna size) USA Huesemann et al. ( 2009 ) Raceway – −3 12 – Cyclotella sp. wild type USA Huesemann et al. ( 2009 ) Raceway 600 12 5–40 0.008–0.060 Tetraselmis sp. Japan Matsumoto et al. ( 1995 ) Raceway a ? +3 1.6–3.5 ? Dunaliella salina Spain Garcia et al. ( 2003 ) Raceway a* 110 12 20–37 0.22–0.34 Dunaliella salina Perth, Australia Moheimani and Borowitzka ( 2006 ) Raceway 200 −3 14.7–18.1 0.183–0.226 Gloeotrichia natans Israel Querijero-Palacpac et al. ( 1990 ) Raceway 100 0.67 12.9 ± 0.16 0.129 Muriellopsis sp. Italy Blanco et al. ( 2007 ) Raceway a* 160–200 12 16–33.5 0.11–0.21 Pleurochrysis carterae Perth. Australia Moheimani and Borowitzka ( 2006 ) Raceway – 12 15 – Scenedesmus obliquus Bangkok, Thailand Payer et al. ( 1978 ) Raceway a 750 +3 15–27 0.06–0.18 Spirulina platensis Israel Richmond et al. ( 1990 ) Raceway* – 12 a 8.2 – Spirulina platensis USA (California) Belay ( 1997 ) Raceway 13,200–19,800 12 14.5 (5.8–24.2) b 0.03–0.12 Spirulina platensis Antofagasta, Chile Ayala et al. ( 1988 ) Raceway a* 282 +3 14.47 ± 0.16 0.183 ± 0.02 Spirulina platensis Italy Pushparaj et al. ( 1997 ) Raceway a 135,000 +3 2–17 0.006–0.07 Spirulina sp. Spain Jimenez et al. ( 2003 ) Raceway a,d ? +3 9–13 ? Spirulina sp. Mexico Olguin et al. ( 2003 ) Raceway e 500 12 11.2 0.024 Tetraselmis sp. Japan Matsumoto et al. ( 1995 ) Raceway 300–600 6 5–26 0.01–0.05 Tetraselmis suecica Italy Pedroni et al. ( 2004 ) Raceway 120 12 5.0–24.0 c 0.04–0.20 Porphyridium cruentum Israel Cohen et al. ( 1988 ) Inclined thin l ayer pond 1,000 +3 10–30 1–3 Chlorella sp. Czech Republic and Spain Doucha and Livansky ( 2006 ) Inclined thin l ayer pond ~2,500 +2 23 – Scenedesmus sp. Rupite, Bulgaria Vendlova ( 1969 ) Inclined thin layer pond ~2,500 7 19 – Scenedesmus obliquus Rupite, Bulgaria Dilov et al. ( 1985 ) Inclined thin layer pond ~2,500 +2 12 – Scenedesmus sp. Tylitz, Poland Vendlova ( 1969 ) Continuous fl ume (raceway) 4,150 +3 2.4–11.3 0.0028–0.13 Phaeodactylum tricornutum Hawaii Laws et al. ( 1983 ) Circular central pivot pond 1,960 +3 1.61–16.47 0.02–0.16 Chlorella sp. Japan Kanazawa et al. ( 1958 ) Circular central pivot pond 1,960 +3 2.43–13.52 0.03–0.13 Scenedesmus sp. Japan Kanazawa et al. ( 1958 ) Circular central pivot pond Up to 11,500 12 21.5 f Chlorella sp. (mixotrophic culture ) Japan Tsukuda et al. ( 1977 ) Open culture system g 2,400–16,200 12 19–22 f Chlorella sp. China Tsukuda et al. ( 1977 ) Note that productivities other than those marked with a * are on a dry weight rather than an ash-free dry weight basis and since the ash content (i.e. non-organic content) of microalgae ranges from about 2–10% of dry weight they are therefore are an overestimate a This fi gure is the annual average productivity at Earthrise farms, but the growth season is only 8months. b Data are the annual mean and the summer and winter mean in brackets. Culture depth was 12 cm in winter and 18 cm in summer c Data shown are the highest productivity achieved in winter and summer d The algae were grown on the ef fl uent after anaerobic digestion of piggery waste water e Recalculated from Fig. 8.4 in paper f Recalculated from annual production fi gures (the range shown is the variation between different production plants) g The exact culture system is not stated
world. Although it is easiest to grow species such as Dunaliella, Arthrospira ( Spirulina) and Chlorella which live in highly selective environments many other species have been grown successfully for extended periods. Under optimum conditions annual average productivities of over 20 g dry weight m −2 day −1 are achieved. However, the large-scale ‘farming’ of microalgae is still less than 60 years old compared to the thousands of years of land-based farming of crops such as wheat and rice and much remains to be learned in microalgae farming and the management of large-scale outdoor cultures of microalgae.
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