TRÍCH YẾU LUẬN ÁN TIẾN SĨ Họ và tên NCS: Sỹ Thị Thơm Chuyên ngành: Ngôn ngữ Anh Mã số: 9220201 Người hướng dẫn khoa học: 1. PGS. TS. Nguyễn Văn Long 2. TS. Nguyễn Thị Minh Tâm Tên đề tài luận án: Ẩn dụ về mùa trong ca từ bài hát tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt: Nghiên cứu theo đướng hướng tri nhận Cơ sở đào tạo: Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Đà Nẵng Tóm tắt nội dung luận án Tính cấp thiết Dưới lý thuyết về ẩn dụ ý niệm, mặc dù thời gian, một khái niệm trừu tượng, được khảo sát nhiều khi được xem là miền nguồn trong ánh xạ ẩn dụ thì mùa lại được nghiên cứu khá hạn chế trong cả tiếng Anh cũng như các ngôn ngữ khác. Tương tự, có rất ít nghiên cứu được thực hiện nhằm kiểm tra và so sánh sự ý niệm về mùa khi xem xét nó vừa là miền đích, đồng thời là miền nguồn trong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt. Vì thế nghiên cứu “ẩn dụ về mùa trong ca từ bài hát Anh và Việt: nghiên cứu theo đường hướng tri nhận” được thực hiện nhằm bổ sung một phần về cở sở lý thuyết, đóng góp một phần nhỏ vào công việc dạy, học và dịch tiếng Anh ở Việt Nam, đồng thời nghiên cứu cũng giúp người nước ngoài hiểu thêm về tiếng Việt qua việc nắm rõ về ẩn dụ. Mục đích nghiên cứu Nghiên cứu khảo sát ẩn dụ tri nhận về mùa trong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt nhằm phát hiện điểm giống và khác biệt đối với ẩn dụ tri nhận về mùa trong hai ngôn ngữ. Đối tượng và phạm vi nghiên cứu Nghiên cứu được thực hiện nhằm tìm ra ẩn dụ về mùa trong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt khi mùa được coi là miền đích và miền nguồn. Dữ liệu của nghiên cứu được thu thập từ các ca khúc được viết từ thế kỉ XX trở lại đây. Theo đó, việc phân tích dữ liệu chỉ tập trung vào ca từ, không khảo sát về giai điệu của bài hát vì luận án này chỉ nghiên cứu ẩn dụ về mùa qua ngôn ngữ viết. Phương pháp nghiên cứu Trong nghiên cứu này, chúng tôi sử dụng phương pháp mô tả và phương pháp so sánh. Ngoài ra, còn có sự hỗ trợ của phương pháp định tính và định lượng trong quá trình phân tích. Bố cục của luận án Luận án gồm 6 chương, cụ thể như sau: Chương 1. Mở đầu Chương 2. Tổng quan tình hình nghiên cứu và cơ sở lý luận Chương 3. Phương pháp nghiên cứu Chương 4. Mùa được phóng chiếu từ các miền cụ thể trong ca từ tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt Chương 5. Mùa phóng chiếu lên các miền trừu tượng trong ca từ tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt Chương 6. Kết luận Kết quả nghiên cứu của luận án Dựa trên lý thuyết ẩn dụ ý niệm, với 3543 biểu đạt ẩn dụ về mùa, 4946 tần số được nhận diện và thu thập từ 854 ca từ bài hát tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt. Nghiên cứu đã phát hiện được tất cả là 61 ẩn dụ về mùa trong cả hai ngôn ngữ. Khi xem xét mùa là miền đích, có 43 ẩn dụ. Trong đó, có 28 ẩn dụ tồn tại ở cả hai ngôn ngữ, và 15 ẩn dụ chỉ tồn tại ở một ngôn ngữ (hoặc trong tiếng Anh hoặc chỉ trong tiếng Việt). Khi xem xét mùa là miền nguồn, tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt cùng có 10 ẩn dụ. Tuy nhiên, có 6 ẩn dụ chỉ tìm thấy trong tiếng Việt và có 2 ẩn dụ chỉ tìm thấy trong tiếng Anh. Như vậy, có cả sự giống nhau và khác nhau ẩn dụ về mùa của hai ngôn ngữ. Những yếu tố liên quan tới sự giống và khác nhau này được thảo luận dựa trên môi trường vật chất và môi trường văn hóa xã hội. Đóng góp của luận án Trên phương diện lý thuyết, nghiên cứu góp phần vào sự hiệu quả của lý thuyết ẩn dụ ý niệm bằng việc kết hợp với thuyết trộn (blending theory) vào phân tích và nắm bắt ẩn dụ khi lý thuyết này liên tục được bổ sung. Về phương pháp, nghiên cứu đã chỉ ra một phương pháp khảo sát ẩn dụ. Đó là phương pháp so sánh xuyên ngôn ngữ, cụ thể, giữa tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt. Về thực tiễn, nghiên cứu cũng hi vọng có thể cung cấp một số đề xuất trong hoạt động dạy và học ngôn ngữ, đặc biệt nghiên cứu góp phần cải thiện năng lực Tiếng anh cho người Việt và người nước ngoài học tiếng Việt.
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Cognitive linguistics (CL) is a contemporary linguistic framework that emerged in the early 1970s, gaining momentum in the 1980s due to dissatisfaction with traditional formal approaches to language This field examines the intricate relationship between language and thought, and has been shaped by notable linguists such as Evans and Green, Fillmore, Langacker, Talmy, Geeraerts, and Fauconnier.
Lakoff and Johnson's groundbreaking work, "Metaphors We Live By" (1980), revolutionized cognitive linguistics by presenting metaphor as a conceptual phenomenon rather than merely a linguistic one Their extensive research, supported by scholars like Kűvecses (2002, 2010) and Lakoff (1987, 1999), has laid a strong foundation for further studies in the field In Vietnam, this influential theory has inspired numerous scholars to explore conceptual metaphors, leading to significant contributions such as Trần Văn Cơ's "Treatise of Cognitive Metaphor" (2009) and analyses of conceptual metaphor in poetry from a cognitive linguistics perspective.
(Nguyễn Lai, 2009), Ẩn dụ ý niệm (Conceptual metaphor) (Phan Thế Hưng, 2007), Ẩn dụ dưới góc độ tri nhận (Metaphor from the perspective of cognition) (Phan Thế
Hưng, 2009); Ẩn dụ trong thơ (metaphor in poetry) (Nguyễn Thị Quyết, 2012) and so on.
Numerous studies have explored conceptual metaphors related to both concrete and abstract concepts globally, including in Vietnam A particular focus has been on abstract concepts as target domains, as these can be understood through the lens of more concrete domains (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980a) Research has examined various abstract concepts such as life (Lakoff, 1980; Kửvecses, 2010; Nguyễn Thị Quyết, 2012), emotions like love (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980a; Kửvecses, 1986, 1988, 2000; Schroder, 2009; Tissari, 2001, 2005, 2006, 2010; Zitu and Zhang, 2012; Nguyễn Hòa, 2010; Phan Văn Hòa, 2011; Ngũ Thiện Hùng and Trần Thị Thanh Thảo, 2011; Hồ Trịnh Quỳnh Thư, 2018), sadness (Kửvecses, 2008; Csillag, 2017; Luo Luo, 2016; Nguyễn Văn Trào, 2009, 2014; Nguyễn Thị Quyết, 2014), and poverty (Dodge, 2016), among others.
Time, an abstract concept, has been extensively studied by both foreign and Vietnamese authors, including notable works by Lakoff & Johnson (1980), Goatly (1997), and others These studies primarily focus on time as a target domain in metaphorical mappings, similar to other abstract domains However, there is a notable gap in research exploring time as a source domain that can be mapped onto other concepts.
Despite its association with time, the concept of "season" has received limited scholarly attention Research on the conceptual metaphor of seasons is scarce in both English and other languages In Vietnam, the only notable study is Bạch's (2015) thesis, which focuses solely on Spring through the lens of structural metaphor Consequently, there is a significant gap in the literature, as no studies have yet explored and compared the conceptualization of "season" in both English and Vietnamese, particularly considering time as both the target and source domain.
This research explores the unique characteristics of language in song lyrics, emphasizing music's profound impact on human life Music, described as humanity's greatest creation by Rachiotis, resonates deeply with emotions and unexpressed desires The success of a song is heavily influenced by its lyrics, which often feature idiomatic expressions Lakoff and Johnson (1980a) highlight that metaphoric language in poetry and speech stems from metaphoric thought, suggesting that song lyrics are inherently poetic and rich in metaphorical expressions As a passionate song lover, the researcher is drawn to the emotional depth of song lyrics and aims to investigate seasonal metaphors within them This genre has been a focal point for numerous studies, particularly among Vietnamese researchers who have examined metaphors in song lyrics extensively.
This study, titled “Season Metaphor in English and Vietnamese Songs: A Cognitive Study,” addresses the underexplored topic of metaphors in Vietnam, aiming to bridge the literature gap By analyzing seasonal metaphors, the research offers valuable insights for teaching, learning, and translating English in Vietnam, while also enhancing metaphor competence for Vietnamese speakers learning English as a foreign language.
Aims and Objectives of the Study
This thesis explores the metaphors of seasons in English and Vietnamese songs through the lens of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) It conducts a comparative analysis to identify the similarities and differences in how the concept of SEASON is utilized as both a target and source domain in the lyrics of these two languages The study also provides explanations for the observed similarities and differences, aiming to deepen the understanding of seasonal metaphors in song lyrics across cultures.
- To describe how season is mapped through concrete entities in English and Vietnamese song lyrics.
- To describe how season maps onto abstract entities in English and Vietnamese song lyrics.
- To identify the similarities and differences between conceptual metaphors of season in English and those in Vietnamese song lyrics.
- To provide possible explanations to these similarities and differences through physical embodiment from both physical environment and socio- cultural environment.
Research Questions
In order to achieve the aim and objectives of the study, the following overarching research question need to be answered:
What are the similarities and the differences between conceptual metaphors of season expressed in English and Vietnamese song lyrics?
This article explores the conceptual metaphors of SEASON, analyzing it as both the target and source domains To address this overarching research question, two sub-questions are formulated for detailed examination.
1 What are the similarities and the differences between conceptual metaphors of season expressed in English and Vietnamese song lyrics regarding SEASON as a target domain?
2 What are the similarities and the differences between conceptual metaphors of season expressed in English and Vietnamese song lyrics regardingSEASON as a source domain?
Scope of the Study
This thesis explores the metaphors of SEASON in English and Vietnamese songs, utilizing the conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980a) It defines SEASON as a physical concept representing time, which serves as a framework for mapping various other concepts The study is based on a corpus of English and Vietnamese songs composed from the 20th century onward, focusing exclusively on the lyrics rather than the melodies to analyze how metaphors of season are expressed through written language.
Significance of the Study
This thesis explores how individuals in English-speaking countries and Vietnamese people perceive the concept of "season," highlighting its theoretical and practical significance Theoretically, it enhances the understanding of conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) by integrating blending theory and schematic hierarchies, which include image schema, domain, frame, and mental space, as outlined by Kửvecses (2020) This research aims to deepen our comprehension of human language and inspire further exploration of conceptual metaphors within cognitive linguistics Methodologically, it introduces a novel cross-linguistic approach to metaphor analysis between English and Vietnamese Practically, the findings offer valuable insights for language teaching and learning, ultimately aiding Vietnamese learners of English and foreign learners of Vietnamese in improving their language skills.
Organization of the Study
The dissertation consists of six chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 (Introduction) introduces the study including the rationale, aims and objectives, research questions, scope, significance, methodology, and organization of the study.
Chapter 2 (Literature review) extensively reviews the theoretical background and previous studies related to conceptual metaphors in general, and conceptual metaphors in particular In detail, this chapter consists of four main parts: Metaphor theories in pre- cognitive period, metaphor in cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor theory, and the previous studies related to the entity of TIME and SEASON.
Chapter 3 (Methodology) identifies the research methodology of the study It contains research questions; research design including descriptive method, comparative method, research techniques; data collecting procedure via sources of data, conceptual metaphor identification; data analysis with the analytical framework and data analysis procedure, and reliability and validity of the study.
Chapter 4, the entity SEASON mapped through the concrete domains in
English and Vietnamese song lyrics, describes and compares the metaphors of season regard with SEASON as a target domain which is projected via concrete entities.
Chapter 5 explores the metaphorical representation of SEASON in English and Vietnamese song lyrics, highlighting how this concept maps onto abstract domains It provides a comparative analysis of the seasonal metaphors, illustrating their significance in conveying deeper meanings within the lyrics of both languages.
Chapter 6 (Conclusions and discussion) summarizes the significant findings,gives discussion, and proposes implications of the study In addition, limitations of the study as well as suggestions for further research are put forward afterwards.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical Background
Metaphor has been extensively analyzed by linguists, with Aristotle being a foundational figure whose insights significantly shaped later theories Scholars like Ortony and Gordon emphasize Aristotle's essential contributions, noting that serious metaphor studies often begin with his works, such as Poetics and Rhetoric Aristotle defines metaphor as the transference of names across categories, highlighting its unique deviation from literal language This perspective has profoundly influenced traditional metaphor approaches, underscoring the importance of Aristotle's theories in contemporary linguistic discussions.
Two significant theories of metaphor that emerged after Aristotle are substitution theory and comparison (similarity) theory, both of which align with the objectivist paradigms of metaphor The substitution theory posits that metaphor is fundamentally a linguistic phenomenon characterized by internal contradictions For instance, the phrase "war is a contagion" illustrates this contradiction, as war pertains to politics while contagion relates to diseases, suggesting an illogical connection between these domains This metaphor can be clarified through simile or paraphrase, such as "war is like a contagion" or "wars can spread and dangerously affect people." Leech (1969), a prominent linguist in this area, introduces the concepts of Tenor and Vehicle, which serve as foundational elements for understanding metaphorical expressions.
Solving the riddle of semantic contradiction requires a procedure of
The process of 'literalizing' a metaphor can be analyzed through Leech's three-stage procedure, particularly in the example of the metaphor "war is a contagion." The initial stage requires distinguishing between the literal and figurative meanings, as demonstrated by Al-Harrasi (2001).
In the second stage, it is essential to construct the tenor and vehicle by identifying semantic elements that address the gaps present in both literal and figurative language Leech (1969) suggests that these gaps can be filled with a "rough indication of what elements of meaning might reasonably fill the gaps," thereby clarifying the literal sense.
Tenor a war [is uncontrollable and is dangerous]
Vehicle a disease [is transmitted and affects human bodies]
The third stage of metaphor analysis involves identifying the basis of comparison between the tenor and vehicle established in the previous stage For instance, in the metaphor "war is a contagion," the comparison highlights how wars spread and inflict devastating consequences on communities, akin to the way diseases propagate and harm individuals Leech suggests a method for recognizing metaphors that exemplify an extreme substitution approach, advocating for a return to a literal interpretation of the metaphor after adequately addressing its underlying implications.
Comparison theory, which views metaphor as a decorative element that obscures literal reality, is derived from substitution theory (Black, 1962) Soskice (1985) describes it as a more sophisticated version of substitution theory, positing that metaphors function as elliptical similes For instance, the metaphor "political opponents are poisonous plants" (Miller, 1993) suggests that opponents are harmful, akin to dangerous plants, by highlighting shared attributes between the two domains Miller asserts that when an author states "x is y," despite x not being y, readers must envision a scenario where x embodies y, relying on their similarities as the basis for this metaphorical connection (p.367) Littlemore and Low (2006) further note that metaphor comprehension parallels the understanding of similes Additionally, Hoffman et al characterize metaphor as "saying one thing while meaning another" and as making implicit comparisons between disparate entities (1990, p.176).
In Vietnam, scholars have defined metaphor within the framework of comparison and similarity, emphasizing its role in language Đỗ Hữu Châu describes metaphor as naming one object in terms of another based on their similarities Similarly, Đinh Trọng Lạc highlights metaphor as a second name that conveys meaning through the likeness between two entities Nguyễn Thiện Giáp further explains it as the transference of names based on comparative similarities, while Nguyễn Hòa characterizes metaphor as a hidden comparison that reveals common features between objects or phenomena Collectively, these definitions position metaphor as a complex assertion of similarity and difference, distinguishing it from similes, which only highlight limited correspondences This comparison theory, however, shows limitations in fully explaining the foundational aspects of metaphorical expressions.
Metaphors, when examined through the lens of pragmatic theory, represent a unique deviation from standard language use within specific contexts Glucksberg and Keysar (1993) highlight that the interpretation of meaning between the speaker and listener occurs in two distinct steps.
Deriving literal meaning is always the first step in determining intended speaker meanings, including metaphorical meanings The second step is to access whether sentence meaning is plausible in context (1993, p.403).
In conversation, the hearer interprets the speaker's intended meaning, which may differ from the literal interpretation of the words used When the intended message seems implausible, the hearer must discern the most appropriate meaning Grice (1975) posits that individuals adhere to cooperative principles in communication, suggesting that metaphors often violate these maxims, particularly the maxim of quality Conversely, Glucksberg and Keysar (1993) argue that some sentences, although not literally flawed, do not qualify as metaphors Despite criticisms, metaphors can be deeply understood in various linguistic contexts when viewed through a pragmatic lens.
Metaphor is also analyzed through the interaction theory, first proposed by Richards in 1963 and later expanded by Black in 1993, who sought deeper insights into the nature of metaphor This theoretical framework has been further explored by scholars such as Reinhart.
(1976), Kittay (1987) etc., who have made important contribution to metaphor theory in terms of interaction one.
Traditional theories of metaphor, including Aristotle's view of metaphor as a mere rhetorical device highlighting similarities, face significant criticism The romantic perspective asserts that metaphor transcends decorative language, emphasizing that it embodies a deeper interaction of thoughts rather than a hidden literal meaning Richard's Interaction Theory, articulated in his 1936 work "Philosophy of Rhetoric," posits that metaphors arise from the simultaneous activation of two distinct concepts through a single word or phrase, leading to a resultant meaning born from their interaction He critiques traditional theories for their narrow focus on a limited range of metaphorical expressions, arguing that they reduce metaphor to mere verbal play rather than recognizing it as a profound exchange of thoughts across contexts Ultimately, he asserts that thought itself is inherently metaphoric, with language metaphors stemming from this cognitive process.
Richards (1963) challenges the objectivist paradigm by emphasizing the integral role of thought and cognition in understanding metaphor He argues that human cognition is not merely a reflection of external reality but a dynamic space where ideas and thoughts interact This perspective positions human thought at the core of our experiences, contrasting with the objectivist view that sees language as a mere system of symbols Ultimately, Richards asserts that metaphor is deeply intertwined with cognitive processes, making it an essential aspect of human experience.
As a consequence, unlike the previous traditional approaches, Richards
In 1965, it was proposed that metaphor involves "thoughts of different things," emphasizing that cognition is a dynamic process driven by the interaction between concepts and thoughts This perspective suggests that meaning is not merely a representation of external realities, but an interactive phenomenon shaped by human understanding Consequently, reality is influenced significantly by our perceptions, and metaphor serves to create similarities rather than simply reflect pre-existing ones.
Black refines Richard's interaction theory of metaphors by categorizing them into three types: substitution, comparison, and interaction metaphors He considers substitution and comparison metaphors to be trivial, emphasizing that interaction metaphors are distinct due to their pragmatic impact on the reader This type of metaphor elicits a reaction from the reader, leading to a new understanding that transcends mere comparison Black notes that a powerful metaphor can evoke a "flash of insight," highlighting the transformative effect of the interaction between the two concepts involved.
To understand the metaphor effectively, it is essential for both the creator and the audience to possess a shared understanding of the associated commonplaces, which encompass knowledge regarding the secondary subject of exploitation and oppression in relation to the primary subject.
Review of Related Studies
Cognitive Metaphor Theory (CMT) has gained significant attention across various fields, particularly in psychology, cognitive science, and education This highlights the growing recognition of the importance of metaphor in understanding human cognition In applied linguistics, CMT has been integrated into models for teaching and learning foreign languages, as evidenced by the works of Danesi (1994, 1995, 2007), Kővecses and Szabo (1996), Kecskes (2000), Velasco Sacristan (2005), and Khoshniyata and Dowlatabadi.
2014) Furthermore, researchers have explored the pedagogical application of metaphor to facilitate foreign language acquisition itself, and more specifically to help learners acquire L2 figurative expressions (Deignan, et al, 1997; Lazar, 1996).
It is noteworthy that metaphor is exploited in language translation (e.g., Ghazala,
Conceptual metaphors have been extensively studied across various fields, including counseling (Wickman et al., 1999), socio-economics (Boers, 1999; Langer, 2015), archaeology (Ortman, 2000), and politics (Charteris-Black, 2004; Kửvecses, 2010; Markman, 2016).
Abstract concepts, such as love, sadness, and time, are extensively studied in both English and Vietnamese within the framework of conceptual metaphors This article focuses on the concept of time, particularly its relationship to the concept of season, as it serves as a target domain in this research Time is often explored in conjunction with space across various languages, highlighting a universal tendency to conceptualize time spatially Notable scholars, including Clark, Grady, and Boroditsky, have contributed to this discourse, revealing a pattern where time is frequently represented as a moving object Lakoff and Johnson, the pioneers of this idea, assert that the metaphor TIME IS MOVING OBJECT encapsulates this phenomenon Kữvecses expands on this by introducing the metaphor TIME IS MOTION, noting its specific manifestations in English.
AN OBJECT and TIME PASSING IS AN OBSERVER’S MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE.” (2010, p.37)
Noticeably, in developing the conceptual metaphor of time proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980a), Evans (2004) presents the conceptual metaphor approach to time Particularly, he clarifies the metaphor TIME IS MOVING
The concept of time is metaphorically structured through two key mappings: the MOVING TIME mapping and the MOVING EGO (or OBSERVER) mapping These mappings categorize the relationship between space and time based on the perspective of the moving object.
Table 2.2 Conceptual metaphor TIME IS MOVING OBJECT by Evans (2005)
Christmas is coming up on us
The summer has just zoomed by
Time flies when you’re having fun
Time drags when you’re bored
We’re coming up on Christmas We’re getting close to Christmas
We’ve reached June already
In the Moving Time pattern, time is viewed as an object in motion, while the Moving Ego pattern conceptualizes moments of time as landmarks that the Ego approaches This indicates that time is understood through the movement of the Ego along a path or across a landscape.
Lakoff and Johnson (1980) introduced various conceptual metaphors for time, including TIME IS MONEY and TIME IS A LIMITED RESOURCE Kửvecses further explored these ideas, identifying additional metaphors such as TIME IS A THIEF and TIME IS A DEVOURER, which illustrate time's personification in literature While these metaphors were groundbreaking at their inception, they have become less specific in terms of schematicity hierarchy (Kửvecses, 2020) Most time-space metaphors operate at the image-schema level, linking abstract concepts of time to physical experiences, while others are categorized at the domain level Ultimately, the identified metaphors are relatively schematic.
Here is a rewritten paragraph that captures the essence of the original text while complying with SEO rules:"A notable study by Li (2014) titled 'A Corpus-Based Analysis of Metaphorical Uses of the High Frequency Noun Time: Challenges to Conceptual Metaphor Theory' sheds light on the linguistic expressions of time Utilizing the Bank of English (BoE), the study analyzed frequently-occurring expressions of time, providing valuable insights into the conceptual metaphor theory."
The article explores the conceptual metaphors of time, specifically TIME IS MONEY and TIME IS MOTION, highlighting their significance in Cognitive Metaphor Theory (CMT) It notes that time is often used to illustrate the presence of conceptual metaphors Interestingly, the study's findings reveal a divergence between the frequently-occurring linguistic metaphors identified and the examples provided by Lakoff and Johnson in their seminal works from 1980 Lakoff and Johnson introduced the metaphor TIME IS MONEY through various associated metaphorical expressions, which serve as a foundation for understanding these conceptual frameworks.
You are wasting my time.
I don’t have the time to give you
You need to budget your time
He’s living on borrowed time (1980a, pp.7-8)
Li (2014) extensively analyzed the metaphor "TIME IS MONEY," examining various parts of speech—nouns, verbs, adjectives, and more—within metaphorical expressions His study highlighted the frequencies of these expressions in a large corpus, as illustrated in the table below.
Table 2.3 Frequently-occurring linguistic expressions which are associated with TIME IS MONEY, TIME IS ARESOURCE and TIME IS A COMMODITY in the BoE (Li, 2014,p.84)
Similarly, the second metaphor which is re-examined by Li
In 2014, the concept of "Time is Motion" was explored, highlighting how metaphorical expressions like "The time will come," "The time for action has arrived," and "Time flies" illustrate our perception of time (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980b, p 468) Additionally, Li provided compelling evidence supported by detailed statistics, as presented in the accompanying table.
Table 2.4 Frequently-occurring linguistic expressions which are associated with TIME IS MOTION in the BoE (Li,
Li (2014) identified frequently-occurring expressions related to conceptual metaphors that were overlooked by Lakoff and Johnson, such as "take time" for TIME IS A RESOURCE and "time passed" for TIME IS MOTION Additionally, Li criticized some of Lakoff and Johnson's examples as unnatural, highlighting that their invented phrase "I don’t have the time to give you" was absent from the Bank of English (BoE), while "budget your time" appeared only once in a 450-million-token corpus.
The analysis of frequency data reveals that the metaphor TIME IS MOTION is significantly less prevalent than TIME IS MONEY, suggesting that time is more often viewed as a resource or financial asset rather than a moving entity This finding highlights a conceptual trend that has not been previously identified or validated in earlier research.
It is noteworthy that the cross-language research was conducted by Golfam et al (2019) to examine the conceptual metaphors of time in Persian and English.
This study adopts a cognitive approach to metaphor, utilizing Lakoff and Johnson's conceptual metaphor theory to identify eight subheadings related to time metaphors: TIME IS MONEY, TIME IS A RESOURCE, TIME IS A MOVING ENTITY, TIME IS A LANDSCAPE WE MOVE THROUGH, TIME IS A CONTAINER, TIME IS A CHANGER, TIME IS A PURSUER, and TIME IS A LIVING ENTITY A comparative analysis of these metaphors highlights both the similarities and differences in the conceptualization of time-related expressions in Persian and English, with findings indicating that the similarities are particularly prominent.
Recent studies have thoroughly analyzed conceptual metaphors of time, yielding intriguing findings, yet they exhibit certain limitations The examples presented by Lakoff and Johnson (1980a, b) and Kửvecses (2010) relied on self-constructed or individual instances from corpora, which are inherently decontextualized As noted by Wilson & Carston (2006) and Romeo & Soria (2005), the accuracy of metaphor expressions is context-dependent Li (2014) addressed this limitation by employing a large corpus from the Bank of English However, a common drawback across these studies is the absence of reliable criteria for metaphor identification within Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), as they often fail to provide explicit guidelines for recognizing metaphors.
Conceptual metaphors of time were investigated in Nguyễn Thị Quyết’s research, entitled Metaphor in modern English Poems with reference to modern
The study conducted by Vietnamese researchers in 2015 explored the conceptual metaphors of time, focusing on various manifestations such as day, night, month, season, and the general concept of time Building on the foundational work of Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Kűvecses (2010), Goatly (1997), and Evans (2004), the research identified several key conceptual metaphors of time, which are summarized in Table 2.4.
Table 2.5 Conceptual metaphors of time in English and Vietnamese
TIME IS THE AGENT OF ACTION + +
Summary
This chapter provides a comprehensive theoretical background, focusing on key concepts relevant to the study and reviewing previous research It emphasizes the evolution of metaphor theory within linguistics, with a particular focus on conceptual metaphor theory Additionally, it examines various studies pertinent to the topic, highlighting their intriguing findings and the limitations that leave unresolved issues Ultimately, this review identifies a gap that the current study aims to address.