Introduction
Aim of Thesis
Since the 1980s, archaeologists have increasingly recognized the complexity of hunter-gatherer societies, challenging the simplistic view traditionally held Denmark is particularly notable due to its archaeological record, which indicates a later adoption of agriculture around 3,000 BC compared to other European regions Interestingly, some hunter-gatherer groups in Denmark remained in close proximity to agricultural communities yet chose to maintain their traditional lifestyle, highlighting the nuanced relationship between these societies and their environment.
Farming is often viewed as a progressive step in social evolution, yet this perspective overlooks the complex heritage values that shape community identities This thesis challenges the notion of linear social change by applying taskscape theory to the under-explored area of watercraft technology, which played a crucial role in the Mesolithic economy and socio-ideological framework of southern Scandinavia By integrating taskscape theory with a biographical approach, the research reconstructs the lifecycle of watercraft artifacts—examining their manufacture, use, repair, deposition, and current status This methodology allows for an in-depth exploration of the shifting meanings of these artifacts within the social context of Mesolithic Denmark (11,500-3,950 BC) and seeks to answer how watercraft technology was valued in the aquatic food-dependent culture of this era.
Interpretation and the discourse
Creating interpretations and objects involves intentional acts that require information, choices, and decision-making The transition from hunter-gatherer societies to agricultural practices signifies a societal shift; however, this change may not reflect a direct intention towards the earth but rather a new way of expressing choices regarding the environment and social structures Neolithic monuments serve as evidence of human intention, yet recent studies suggest that intentions can be represented in various ways Importantly, differences among communities do not imply superiority or inferiority; they simply highlight diversity Additionally, much of Mesolithic archaeology is characterized by its ephemeral nature, with interpretations evolving through the excavation of submerged or waterlogged sites that were previously overlooked due to excavation costs.
Research indicates that sites from 1995 reveal a wealth of organic artifacts, highlighting the choices and decision-making processes of ancient societies This evidence suggests that organic technology reflects a more sophisticated and advanced social structure than previously thought Contrary to the belief that hunter-gatherers merely existed like animals, these findings imply that they engaged in complex behaviors and adaptations within their environments.
The decision to live in harmony with the earth involves consciously choosing to utilize natural resources in a sustainable manner In some regions, such as Denmark, the late adoption of farming practices can be seen as a deliberate choice to maintain a lifestyle that respects the environment This approach prioritizes environmental preservation over the adoption of new skills that could potentially harm the ecosystem and alter personal and social identities.
Humanistic archaeology, as defined by Schiffer (2000), seeks to connect with the experiences of past humans The Oxford English Dictionary defines archaeology as the study of human history and prehistory through excavation and analysis of artefacts and physical remains This dissertation emphasizes the human aspect of archaeology, highlighting the importance of understanding our ancestors' lives and experiences.
The study of material objects encompasses the knowledge, understanding, and activities required to create, use, and deposit these items While I refrain from labeling this approach as humanistic archaeology, it remains essential to focus on the human aspects often overshadowed by artefact analysis I advocate for a revival of human-centered studies that can enhance our interpretations of Mesolithic society, culture, and people Notably, watercraft played a crucial role in the subsistence practices of Danish Mesolithic communities, highlighting the importance of these vessels in understanding their way of life.
This thesis shifts focus from the functional aspects of watercraft to the essential information required for their creation and use By examining this perspective, it aims to enhance our understanding of cultural communication networks.
Thomas (1993) argues that the discourse surrounding the Neolithic era has been restrictive, limiting the interpretation of data and creating a rigid framework that hinders new insights into the past This stagnation contrasts with evolving interpretations of the Mesolithic, which have moved beyond outdated theories like the notion of an uninhabited Europe (Burkitt 1979) or technological regression (Clark 1954) However, certain entrenched views, such as the portrayal of Mesolithic societies as simple, nomadic hunter-gatherers with a lithic-centered culture, persist in discussions (Jordan 2003; Zvelebil 2003; Milner & Woodman 2005; Spikins 2008) This oversimplification diminishes the complexity of these societies, suggesting a disconnect between them and modern civilization (Criado 1995).
Mesolithic society and culture (Moore 2003, 143) However, with discoveries such as the well-preserved sites of Tybrind Vig (Andersen 1986; 1987; 1994; 2011; Malm 1995; Kubiak-Martens 1999; Uldum 2011), Star Carr (Clark 1954; Milner et al
2011) and many other Mesolithic sites around Europe (Price 1987; Bailey & Spikens
Since 2008, there has been a significant shift in religious thought theoretical paradigms, including the development of artefact biographies These advancements have enabled researchers to analyze detailed organic datasets, leading to high-resolution interpretations of religious phenomena.
Aims and chapter outline
Artefact biographies serve as a valuable method of inquiry to address critiques in archaeology by tracing the life of an object from its discovery By analyzing material culture, archaeologists reconstruct the past life of artefacts, allowing for interpretations of human behavior in historical contexts (Torrence 2001, 73) This dissertation will utilize a biographical approach to examine two specific artefacts—a dugout canoe and an oar—found at the submerged site of Tybrind Vig in Denmark The research aims to gather current data and pose essential questions regarding the knowledge required to transform raw materials into functional objects, ultimately creating broader and more holistic interpretations that connect contemporary individuals to their historical counterparts through material culture.
This dissertation aims to answer the question: how was watercraft technology valued socio-economically and ideologically in the aquatic food dependent culture of Mesolithic southern Scandinavia?
In order to meet this aim, the objectives of this dissertation are to explore:
1 What knowledge is needed to create key watercraft technologies from raw materials?
2 What knowledge is needed to use the objects created?
3 How knowledge and decision-making with regard to watercraft technology were valued in Mesolithic social life, and may have contributed to a heritage of aquatic craft-retention in the face of wider changes to subsistence economy?
Archaeology must establish systematic procedures for assessing reconstructions of meanings from past cultures (Layton, 2006) The biographical method serves as a structured approach to explore cultural knowledge and reassess existing interpretations This method emphasizes the control archaeologists wield over the information produced and its representation within the discipline and to the public (Buchli).
In an effort to foster a more reflexive archaeological discussion of the Mesolithic, researchers are focusing on organic materials, an area that has historically lacked in-depth study, as many analyses have prioritized the functional aspects of artifacts (Coles 1987) Ethnographic studies suggest that organic materials used in watercraft serve as a vital link between land and water, reflecting how past communities interacted with their environment (Munn 1977) Beyond lithics, watercraft technology plays a crucial role in subsistence practices, shaping both the taskscape and identity of ancient peoples Ultimately, the goal of this interpretive approach is to forge connections with the individuals of the past rather than merely examining the artifacts themselves.
Chapter two delves into the evolving theories surrounding the Mesolithic period in archaeology, emphasizing the significance of organic watercraft technology and Denmark's role in this discourse It assesses the archaeological site of Tybrind Vig and its interpretations, contributing to the broader debate on Mesolithic practices Additionally, the chapter includes a brief examination of the history and application of ethnographic analogy, highlighting the challenges that have emerged and its relevance in contemporary research.
Chapter three will analyze the biographical approach to objects, highlighting its strengths and weaknesses while addressing challenges in interpreting prehistoric artifacts that lack social context The focus will be on exploring how this approach, when combined with taskscape theory, can bridge connections between past and present societies By examining the activities involved in the creation and use of these objects, the chapter aims to enhance our understanding of human interactions with material culture throughout history.
Chapters four and five explore the biographies of a dugout canoe and a decorated oar discovered at Tybrind Vig, illustrating how these artifacts were woven into the site's social fabric through their various uses The objective is to demonstrate that by examining an artifact closely and posing questions about its human interactions, we can gain deeper insights into its historical significance.
Participation in the creation of material culture provides valuable insights into human understanding and daily life, revealing how individuals engage with their environment This article reviews current interpretations of these artefacts and discusses their significance, future implications, and resting places Chapter six focuses on the values of watercraft technology during the Mesolithic period in Denmark, highlighting potential avenues for future research in this area.
The Mesolithic, Danish Archaeology, and Tybrind Vig
The Mesolithic and Archaeology
In the early 19th century, the concepts of Palaeolithic and Neolithic were established, but ongoing research and geological dating revealed a transitional period, known as the Mesolithic, between these two eras Initially, Mesolithic stone tools were perceived as a cultural decline following the advancements of the Palaeolithic, leading to theories that Europe was uninhabited until Neolithic farmers arrived However, increasing archaeological evidence, particularly from coastal regions such as Scotland, Portugal, Spain, and Poland, has challenged this notion, suggesting a more complex picture of human habitation and cultural development during the Mesolithic period.
2006) and wetland sites (e.g Star Carr, UK – Clark 1954; 1972; Åmose, Denmark Noe-Nygaard 1983)
The initial focus of Mesolithic research was on establishing a clear definition, which led to increased debate regarding the dating of artifacts and the comprehension of cultural evolution (Rowley-Conwy 1996; Milner & Woodman 2005; Cummings).
Scandinavia has played a pivotal role in advancing the understanding of Mesolithic archaeology, despite a historical bias towards Palaeolithic and Neolithic studies within the discipline With a rich history of research on Stone Age artefacts, Scandinavia stands out as one of the most extensively studied regions for Mesolithic archaeology, establishing early connections to this period in both archaeological findings and terminology.
In the 19th century, wars and intensified agricultural practices in Denmark led to the damage of significant monuments but also uncovered numerous prehistoric artefacts (Rowley-Conwy 2007, 32) These artefacts were often viewed through the lens of contemporary Christian beliefs as remnants of a heathen past, reflecting a short prehistory that preceded the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome (Jensen 2003, 1) Despite Denmark's lack of direct influence from these classical societies, there was a growing interest in prehistory, positioning Danish academics at the forefront of Mesolithic studies, particularly in collaboration with Swedish archaeologists, including notable figures like Christian Jürgensen Thomsen.
1865), a Danish antiquarian, promoted the three age system to classify prehistoric artefacts This system is still in use today (Trigger 1989, 73-80, 161; Rowley-Conwy
In 2007, Danish antiquarian Sven Nilsson pioneered the connection between explorers' findings on indigenous communities and stone tool artefacts linked to hunter-gatherers Scandinavian archaeologists often publish in English, enhancing the accessibility of their research within the broader archaeological community Their exploration of experimental techniques for studying the creation and use of artefacts has facilitated more comprehensive regional studies, enabling a better understanding of community dynamics and the shifts and changes that occurred over time.
13 communities, supposedly of the same culture However, the study of prehistory was extremely lithic based, something the Mesolithic still suffers from today (Conkey
2001, 276; Cobb 2014, 1213; Jordan & Cummings 2014, 18; cf Finlay 2003; Warren 2006)
It was not until the middle 20th century with the championing of Grahame Clark
In 1954, the term "Mesolithic" gained prominence in archaeology, largely due to the excavation of Star Carr, led by notable archaeologists Gordon Childe and his student, Grahame Clark Clark's work at Star Carr marked a significant starting point for further research into the Mesolithic period Additionally, his methodologies were notably influenced by Scandinavian, especially Danish, archaeological practices.
Since 1954, key research questions in archaeology have focused on economics, seasonality, and functional tool use in relation to environmental change (Spikins 2008) Starr Carr emerged as a crucial type-site for the Mesolithic period in the UK and Europe, aligning with prevailing theories of small, nomadic hunter-gatherer bands that seasonally exploited available resources These interpretations have remained influential in Mesolithic studies (Trigger 1989; Jordan 2003, 128; Spikins 2008; Schofield et al 2011) Notably, Starr Carr underscores the significance of organic technology in understanding the lives of past peoples (Clark 1954; Milner et al 2011; Conneller et al 2012).
The 1960s marked a significant period of industrial transformation in Denmark, reflecting broader changes across Europe in excavation, study, and theory This decade was characterized by the emergence of new ideas rooted in positivist, Marxist, and structuralist theories Legislative advancements led to the protection of archaeological sites and monuments, emphasizing their significance Additionally, research began to explore the impact of the environment and landscape on past societies, examining how these factors influenced their economy, resources, and social organization (Jensen 2003, xvii, 3, 5).
In the 1970s, Mesolithic studies experienced a significant shift towards environmental research, focusing on climatic changes and their archaeological implications Influenced by Binford's anthropological approach in American archaeology, the New Archaeology movement, or Processualism, gained traction in the UK and Europe This era marked a transition in archaeological research, emphasizing scientific analysis of technology's adaptation to climate shifts, subsistence strategies, and site seasonality Scholars began to understand food in terms of functional and economic aspects, analyzing calorific intake against resource acquisition Consequently, hunter-gatherers were often perceived merely as efficient foragers, prioritizing resource acquisition over their emotional and physical complexities (Spikins 2008; Cummings).
The research and existence of the Mesolithic period have been supported by prominent archaeologists, yet the perception of Mesolithic people remains limited Notably, Clark (1972) emphasized that the technological capabilities of these individuals, primarily assessed through lithics, were often viewed as simplistic Additionally, Mellars and Andrews (1987) suggested that the isolated living conditions on islands like Oronsay potentially restricted their reproductive viability These perspectives highlight a historical bias in understanding Mesolithic societies, framing their behavior and technological advancements within a narrow context.
The research conducted in 1987 emphasized that early human populations were not merely focused on sustaining themselves but were also deeply connected to their environment, akin to living on an island reliant on breeding for survival This period yielded a significant amount of data regarding the dietary practices of past societies, highlighting the crucial role of marine resources Studies by Mellars & Andrews (1987), Noe-Nygaard (1983), and Enghoff (1989, 1995) underscored the significance of aquatic food sources in Mesolithic subsistence practices and prompted further inquiry into the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition, raising questions about the continued importance of marine resources in human diets These discussions have enriched our understanding of early human life and adaptation.
15 concerning the adoption of farming, did this happen through people communicating or through colonisation (Blankholm 2008)
In the 1980s and 1990s, research in Neolithic archaeology began to transition towards Mesolithic studies, influenced by phenomenological approaches (Moore 2003; Thomas 2000; 2006) The works of Binford (1978) with Inuit populations and Shostak (1981) with the !Kung gained prominence, as they employed ethnographic parallels to interpret archaeological findings This method of ethnographic analogy facilitated broader interpretations, particularly with the discovery of significant cemetery sites in Northern Europe, such as Skateholm in Sweden (Fahlander 2008) and Oleneostrovski Mogilnik in Northern Russia (O’Shea & Zvelebil 1984), leading to evolving interpretations of the archaeological record.
‘burials and monuments are so often the only measures of social complexity’ (Moore
2003, 143) This assumption allowed technology to be categorised as functional and only for economic use, negating the need to study its wider impact on social interaction
Environmental studies continued, however, evolving from purely climatic and resource focused research, into more phenomenological understanding of the environment (Grứn & Kuznetsov 2003; Jordan 2003; Zvelebil 2003; Spikens 2008)
The exploration of social and spatial organization of past societies has gained popularity, highlighting their everyday practices and ideologies (Grứn 1998) However, phenomenological theory faces criticism for its emphasis on contemporary interpretations and archaeological narratives, which can reduce the study of archaeology to a theatrical representation While this approach may spark renewed interest in historical sites and artifacts, it often fails to deepen our understanding of past peoples, as it confines them to modern perspectives Consequently, this raises questions about the validity of current discourses and interpretations (Fleming 2006, 268) This study aims to balance established scientific insights with the complexities of past human experiences.
16 a phenomenologically based theory allows us to review the past and connect to past humans with an exploration of knowledge.
The Mesolithic: Current Understanding
The Holocene epoch, which began 11,500 years ago, marked significant geological changes due to global warming and the melting of ice caps, leading to rising sea levels and widespread flooding, particularly in northern Europe where Doggerland submerged into the North Sea These environmental shifts profoundly impacted hunter-gatherer societies, altering their landscapes and habitats; while some areas were lost to rising waters, others became accessible as glaciers receded This period also saw the extinction of Palaeolithic megafauna, such as mammoths, and the expansion of deer populations Evidence suggests that the Mesolithic era was not merely a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic but a time of substantial environmental transformation that showcased human adaptability in social structures and technology, alongside ongoing practices of domestication initiated in the Palaeolithic.
Denmark was not continuously inhabited until the end of the last ice age, when the retreat of ice sheets revealed the western land mass This glacial pressure and subsequent withdrawal continue to impact the land today, with the northwest region experiencing isostatic lift, causing the coastline to move inland, while the southeast is undergoing isostatic drop, resulting in land sinking.
1995, 42) The retraction of the ice and the warming climate allowed virgin forest to take hold at the beginning of the Mesolithic, with the environment and landscape
During the early Mesolithic period, the forest landscape transitioned from pioneer species like pine and pine-birch to a diverse mix of elm, hazel, oak, lime, and ash as the climate evolved (Jensen 2003, 11; Kubiak-Martens 1999, 117) The rising sea levels and isostatic drop kept the coastline close, resulting in dense forests that prompted human populations to inhabit both coastal regions and inland wet areas.
Inland archaeological sites have primarily been located around large lakes and wetland areas, such as bogs and fenlands The Åmose bog in Denmark features approximately 100 sites near a former lake, with a small river flowing through it Although fewer than twenty of these sites have been excavated, evidence indicates that the inhabitants relied heavily on aquatic resources, including fish, oysters, mussels, and cockles Notably, two dog burials were discovered at Prổstelyngen, Åmose, with one dating to around 3300 BC, suggesting a diet influenced by terrestrial food sources Additionally, fragmented red deer bones, indicating at least nine individuals, further confirm the hunting and consumption of terrestrial resources by these inland communities.
The coastal site of Norsminde, located by Norsminde Fjord, reveals evidence of Mesolithic and Neolithic habitation dating from around 3500 BC to 2800 BC This archaeological site was strategically positioned near a small spring, which served as the primary fresh water source in the region Excavations have unearthed over 8,900 fish bones from approximately 22 different species, highlighting the diverse fishing practices of the inhabitants and their significant reliance on oysters (Ostrea edulis) Notably, no bones from freshwater fish were found, suggesting they were either not consumed or absent from the site.
The absence of marine resources at the Norsminde site indicates that they were likely not consumed there, suggesting that the local inhabitants either had sufficient alternative resources or that these marine options were not accessible in the area (Enghoff 1989, 49).
West of Norsminde is the site of Ringkloster, an inland lake site dated to c 4110-
Around 4460 BC, excavations at Ringkloster revealed predominantly freshwater fish bones, alongside evidence of marine species such as the Bottle-nosed Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) The discovery of numerous hazel sticks at the lake's bottom suggests the use of fish weirs for catching fish This indicates potential contact between inland groups and coastal communities, highlighting a possible exchange of knowledge and resources While the exact nature of these interactions is challenging to determine, it is clear that aquatic resources formed a significant part of the Mesolithic diet in Denmark.
The isostatic tilt line indicates geological changes in the Åmose bog area, where regions south of the line are experiencing sinking, while those to the north are rising Tybrind Vig is specifically marked within this context.
The site of Tybrind Vig, Denmark
In the 19th century, numerous artefacts were collected from the Danish coast and donated to museums (Malm 1995; Fischer 2007) The 20th century saw a surge in artefact discoveries due to industrialisation, particularly during commercial activities like chemical extraction Many of these finds, especially from submerged areas, consisted of organic materials While flint artefacts have historically endured well on land and have largely influenced Mesolithic studies, increasing evidence from underwater sites is revealing a growing presence of organic technology.
Submerged coastal areas are typically covered by a thick layer of gyttja, which plays a crucial role in sealing, preserving, and protecting archaeological artifacts However, rising sea levels have led to the erosion of the original land and settlement areas, leaving the underwater sites, such as Tybrind Vig, largely intact.
1984, 315) Areas with material that have been identified as over 100 years old are documented and protected Construction work must be checked against this documentation before being allowed (Malm 1995; Fischer 2007, 55)
Figure 2: Upper image: the settlement as in the Mesolithic Middle image: the settlement eroded as sea level rises Lower image: divers discovering artefacts (Malm 1995)
The Tybrind Vig area has gained recognition for its archaeological significance, highlighted by two divers who uncovered over 500 artifacts just 500 meters from the recent excavation site (Albrectsen 1959 as cited by Malm 1995).
In 1975, amateur archaeologists and divers began exploring a site designated for excavation, returning the following year as the "Marine-archaeological group" and collaborating with Assistant Professor Sűren H Andersen from Århus University Proper excavations were conducted seasonally from 1978 to 1988, despite the challenges and costs associated with submerged excavation The initial team comprised many volunteer divers passionate about archaeology, and their commitment not only enriched their own education but also benefited seasoned archaeologists with limited underwater experience This dedication has resulted in remarkable discoveries and advancements in marine archaeology techniques.
Tybrind Vig, located in Western Fyn, Denmark, is submerged under 2.5-3 meters of water, approximately 250 meters from the current coastline Artifacts found at the site date back to between 5,600 and 4,000 BC, indicating it was either revisited or continuously occupied during this time While the submersion has preserved many organic artifacts, tidal erosion has affected the settlement area This site is part of a broader collection of submerged Mesolithic sites that highlight human ingenuity beyond stone tool creation The Mesolithic era should no longer be viewed as a period of technological regression, as these submerged sites demonstrate remarkable organic preservation, revealing the true sophistication of Mesolithic technology.
Submerged archaeological sites should be interpreted alongside dry sites to enhance understanding (Coles 1987; Kubiak-Martens 1999) The excavation of Tybrind Vig set new standards and introduced innovative techniques that continue to be utilized in submerged archaeology today (Andersen 1987).
To facilitate underwater excavation, a raft was initially borrowed from a nearby harbor and later constructed by divers, becoming an essential tool for the process (Andersen 1984, 314; Malm 1995) The sea floor was divided into sections using ranging poles, large nails, and a spirit level, with each diver excavating one square meter at a time In 1986, a section rail, an 80cm wide by 10m long frame, was introduced to provide a stable reference on the sea floor, enhancing precision in recording and speeding up the excavation process The frame could hold equipment and featured rods with plumb bobs for accurate layering To address visibility challenges caused by muddy water, a pump was employed to clear the site, filtering the water through a series of sieves to collect small artifacts (Malm 1995).
Recent archaeological discoveries have revealed numerous fishing-related artefacts, including fishing lines, hooks, spear fishing tools, fish weirs, and organic fish traps Additionally, spun plant fibres were found, indicating the presence of textiles (Andersen 1985, 68 as cited by Malm 1995) Three dugout canoes were unearthed, each featuring clay “fireplaces,” which Malm (1995) suggests should be reinterpreted as “ember places” due to fire hazards on wooden vessels The excavation also uncovered complete and decorated oars made from Ash (Fraxinus ex.), marking the first instance of decorated wood at a Danish Mesolithic site (Andersen 1987, 276; Andersen 1994, 1) Furthermore, a grave containing a young woman and a child, dated to 6,440 BP, was identified as part of the early Ertebülle culture Other skeletal remains were discovered as stray finds, indicating either unburied remains or eroded burial sites (Andersen 1984, 317; Uldum 2011).
The discovery of human skeletal remains, along with stable carbon isotope 13 testing, highlights the significance of marine resources in the diet of the inhabitants Isotope analysis revealed that their subsistence practices heavily relied on fish, shellfish, and even seals, demonstrating the crucial role these marine finds played in their daily lives.
Faunal remains at the site indicate that small fur-bearing animals were primarily skinned rather than butchered for meat, suggesting that the community may have been prosperous enough to prioritize fur over food (Andersen 1987) The presence of articulated skeletons further supports the idea that these animals were caught mainly for their pelts Additionally, the influence of nearby agrarian societies is evident in the gradual adoption of pottery and technological changes, which occurred before the full transition to agriculture in late Mesolithic Denmark (Troels-Smith 2002) This suggests that the community embraced innovations that complemented their traditional economy rather than fully shifting to farming practices (Troels-Smith 2002; Jensen 2003).
Research indicates a significant distinction in stable carbon 13 isotope enrichment between the remains of hunter-gatherers and agriculturists in Denmark, with hunter-gatherers exhibiting higher carbon 13 levels, suggesting a dependence on marine resources (Fischer 2007) The faunal remains at Tybrind Vig appear to be a single deposit, yet isotopic analysis reveals a long-term dietary reliance on specific food types (Tauber 1981; Andersen 1987; Uldum 2011) The stable carbon 13 isotope testing of human skeletal remains from this site underscores the crucial role marine resources played in the diet of these communities, highlighting their importance for survival, a fact evidenced by the isotopic signatures preserved in their bones.
Figure 3: Table showing the level of difference in levels of isotope 13ͨ in humans from the Mesolithic and Neolithic Mesolithic diet consisted of mainly marine resources (Fischer 2007,
Tybrind Vig's strategic location between the sea and a protected cove facilitated a unique ecosystem, as tidal actions effectively removed waste and introduced nutrients This environment proved beneficial for tidal species, particularly molluscs, which thrived in large colonies despite the limited variety of species present.
During the Mesolithic period, salmon (Salmo lrulla) and trout (Salmo salar) were available at different times of the year, while eels (Anguilla anguilla) could be caught year-round, although they had a preferred season for consumption Shoreline vegetation, including reed grass (Phragmites australis) and water lilies (Nuphar lutea), flourished in the area, attracting various bird species such as wading birds, ducks, and grebes, which utilized the reed banks for nesting The shoreline was bordered by a reed bed, where canoes (Tybrind I and Tybrind II) were discovered, highlighting the significance of watercraft technology in subsistence practices that contributed to a diverse marine-based diet The presence of decorated technological artifacts emphasizes the importance of these tools and the lifestyle they supported within Mesolithic society, reflecting both the variety of food sources and the multifaceted value of technology in that era.
Figure 4: Present coastline and land represented by lighter shaded area Old coastline represented by darker cross hatched area, with the sea to the west
Evidence indicates that summer, autumn, and winter were the primary seasons of occupation, while spring appears underrepresented, likely due to food seasonality rather than human migration patterns This challenges the traditional view that hunter-gatherers were highly mobile and did not establish long-term settlements Although red deer were hunted, their bones were primarily repurposed for fishing tools, highlighting a focus on marine resources The remains of seals and whales suggest a high level of community planning and cooperation necessary for hunting large animals, reflecting a diverse and rich subsistence economy Tybrind Vig serves as a testament to the knowledge embedded in artifacts, which were shared and transmitted through collaborative activities across generations.
Tybrind Vig is part of a network of archaeological sites that remain largely unexcavated, as indicated by stray finds (Fischer 2007, 56) These sites face increasing threats from erosion, particularly due to the decline of eel grass, which previously helped stabilize the gyttja layer and protect the underlying sites (Malm 1995) To combat this erosion, a simple yet effective marine protection solution has been implemented, involving the use of a geotextile mat secured by water weight, sandbags, and tree trunks This approach is supplemented by the natural accumulation of sand and mud, further safeguarding the archaeological site.
25 even though this is a fairly simple solution there is still a cost This cost may be deemed too much even for sites that are severely threatened (Malm 1995; Fischer
Use of Ethnography
The interpretation of the Mesolithic period in the UK has been significantly shaped by the anthropological approaches of American archaeology While these methods offer valuable insights into social differences, the use of direct ethnographic comparisons to analyze social phenomena based on material similarities across cultures has sparked considerable debate.
Studies by Binford (1978) on the Inuit and Shostak (1981) on the !Kung have significantly advanced our understanding of prehistoric archaeology, particularly regarding tool usage in the Palaeolithic, Neolithic, and Mesolithic periods Binford's research examined the social structure and organization of Inuit society, while Shostak's work provided insights into the daily life of the !Kung people.
!Kung woman, exploring the way in which sex and gender are interpreted by the
The Inuit and !Kung peoples inhabit some of the most challenging environments on Earth, specifically the Arctic Circle and the Kalahari Desert, respectively These harsh conditions raise questions about their lifestyles, as past hunter-gatherers typically resided in more hospitable areas.
Recent studies have highlighted the functional aspects of daily activities while often neglecting their connection to societal ideology Munn’s (1977) examination of Gawa canoes emphasized the significance of ideology in technological development, a perspective that has gained traction in recent years Additionally, concerns have been raised about the influence of outsiders on indigenous groups, such as the !Kung, who have shifted from farming back to hunting and gathering due to external encroachments on their land These insights have prompted archaeologists to approach ethnographic studies, particularly relational analogy, with caution, recognizing their limitations and using them to enhance interpretations of past societies.
Archaeologists have recently focused on studying modern hunter-gatherers in environments similar to those of their ancient counterparts, particularly examining groups such as the Evenki, Ket, and Khanty in Western Siberia These studies reveal the deep connection these indigenous groups have with their environment and the shared ideology that shapes their interactions with it Central to their worldview is the belief in spirits inhabiting the environment, which influences their creation and disposal of material culture and waste This ideology not only guides their daily activities but also underscores the integral relationship between their cultural practices and the natural world they inhabit.
In upcoming chapters, we will delve into various ethnographies, highlighting a common theme in tribal studies: the significance of knowledge transmission among cultures such as the Australian Aborigines, Evenki, Inuit, Ket, Khanty, and Native Americans These groups predominantly use stories, myths, legends, and songs to convey their ideologies, shaping both internal and external understanding of their worldviews An important yet underexplored area in ethnographic research is how hunter-gatherers construct their sense of self and identity, revealing contrasts with contemporary interpretations of these concepts.
Understanding artefacts
Material Culture and Identity
Material culture is deeply embedded in a socially constructed framework Familiar objects serve as extensions of personal identity, but their significance is shaped by the social context in which they are understood.
Material culture enhances human life by the meanings attributed to it by society, rather than serving as the primary means through which individuals understand themselves It exists within a broader framework of social activities and reproduction that contribute to identity formation Human identity is shaped not by material possessions, but by the societal and cultural contexts that imbue these possessions with significance, alongside the transmission of cultural knowledge.
In 1990, research highlighted that objects serve as signifiers within a broader structure, with their meanings intricately linked to this framework (Gell, 1998) While the significance of these objects may diminish outside their contextual structure, this does not alter their inherent interpretation.
Individuals express and understand their identity through their cultural, religious, and societal practices in daily life While objects may seem to hold significant power, it is essential to recognize that their true purpose lies in facilitating participation in activities that form the foundation of one's cultural, religious, or social identity.
A cross serves as a religious symbol, signifying the wearer's faith; however, its recognition by others does not diminish the wearer's spirituality Similarly, an individual who does not visibly express their religious beliefs remains equally devout Identity is shaped by personal experiences, often framed within social, cultural, or religious contexts that encompass material culture.
Archaeology often focuses on the material culture of the prehistoric era primarily as technology, emphasizing functional aspects, typologies, and cultural identification, while neglecting its broader social significance This perspective is evident in the term "hunter-gatherer," which is derived from an economic viewpoint rather than recognizing these practices as part of a communicated ideology that shapes their interaction with the world.
2001, 12) In many cases the archaeology itself has come under fire (cf Conkey
Hunter-gatherer archaeology has largely focused on lithic studies, which is a limitation of the discipline rather than the archaeological record itself This emphasis on stone tools highlights the ephemeral nature of hunter-gatherer finds, as organic artifacts are often less preserved As Lowenthal (1985) notes, archaeologists play a crucial role in shaping the record, underscoring that they are creators of the archaeological narrative (Hoskins 2013).
The contemporary perspective on objects and artifacts reveals a significant disconnect between their creators and consumers Most scholars in material culture seldom engage in the hands-on creation of items, relying instead on mass-produced goods from distant manufacturers, often rendering these creators invisible (Tilly 2006a, 2) Similarly, archaeologists navigate this gap, examining artifacts without a direct connection to their origins.
Artifacts often emerge from the ground seemingly by magic, with no direct connection to their creators These objects are subsequently imbued with symbolic significance rooted in contemporary ideals, emphasizing the importance of the past and our desire to understand it through these historical items.
Many studies of material culture acknowledge that objects are crafted by human hands, yet they often overlook the processes, motivations, locations, and knowledge involved in artifact creation While archaeologists typically avoid romanticizing the past, material culture is increasingly seen as intertwined with human emotions and attachments, extending beyond mere functionality (Belk 1990, 670; Dobres & Hoffman 1994, 234).
The article suggests a need to 'refocus the Microlithic gaze' by re-evaluating Microlithic blades through the lens of biography and multiple authorship It emphasizes the importance of shifting the focus from purely functional aspects to also consider the cultural and social significance of organic artifacts This approach highlights how these artifacts contribute to the reproduction of knowledge and cultural practices (Dobres & Hoffman 1994, 214).
The knowledge required to transform raw materials into artifacts is traditionally passed down through generations, highlighting the symbolic language used in teaching and learning these skills This process fosters relationships that embed meaning into objects even before their creation In today's world, our physical separation from the creation of objects, along with the temporal distance faced by archaeologists, can lead to a loss of meaning associated with these artifacts.
Material culture is a vital aspect of knowledge sharing that fosters social relationships and shapes individual identity It serves as a testament to the craftsmanship and skills of prehistoric humans, highlighting their intelligence and social nature (Olsen 2006, 90) Furthermore, material culture provides insights into the lived experiences of our ancestors, revealing how they navigated survival beyond mere economic and functional needs.
Human experience shapes our understanding of the world, as it is influenced by both individual activities and the exchange of knowledge and ideas This process of communication is continually shared, taught, and preserved across generations, ensuring that our collective understanding evolves over time.
Taskscape
A person's perception of the world is shaped by their cultural experiences and societal teachings, influencing how they understand and interact with their environment Ethnographic studies reveal that modern hunter-gatherer groups view themselves as an essential part of the forest ecosystem, highlighting a connection to nature that contrasts with contemporary post-industrial perspectives While past cultures may differ from our own, they were equally complex and emotionally rich, challenging the misconception that they perceived the world in a detached manner Recognizing this integral relationship with nature is crucial for understanding the depth of human experience across time.
Ingold's (2000) theory of taskscape highlights the contrasting perceptions of the environment between post-industrial societies and modern hunter-gatherers While post-industrial societies view nature as separate from their built environment, hunter-gatherers see themselves as integral to their surroundings, inhabiting an un-built environment that feels as familiar to them as urban infrastructures do to city dwellers This distinction is visually represented in figure 5, illustrating how hunter-gatherers do not separate their environment into distinct categories, unlike post-industrial societies.
31 those living in human built environments To hunter-gatherers collecting food from the forest compares to walking to the corner shop
Figure 5: the top diagram represents the post-industrial perception of environment; the bottom diagram represents the hunter-gatherer perception of environment (Ingold 2000, 46)
Ingold's (2000) taskscape theory examines the interplay between material culture, environment, and activities in shaping human perception and identity This cyclical relationship illustrates how our perceptions influence our interactions with these elements, as depicted in Figure 6.
7) The two figures (6 and 7) should not be seen as separate but overlaid, a continuous cycle of activities initiated and undertaken within a social sphere
Figure 6: Visualisation of the foundations of perception (Author’s own)
Figure 7: Visualisation of the cyclical nature of perception (Author’s own)
In modern hunter-gatherer societies, storytelling plays a crucial role in transmitting social organization and cultural values to younger generations, shaping their perceptions (Ingold 2000) While material culture contributes to this conditioning, it serves as a representation of perception rather than a means of production Some anthropologists suggest that the myths and stories passed down through generations reinforce gender segregation and justify the killing of animals for food, despite animals being viewed as spirits of the landscape, akin to humans, who are not killed for sustenance (Grứn & Kuznetkov).
2003, 218) The hunter-gatherer perception needs no justification Hunter-gatherers
Predators play a crucial role in the ecosystem, as they must kill to survive, just like other creatures Myths and stories serve to impart wisdom on hunting practices, emphasizing the importance of respect and gratitude towards both the animals taken and the earth that sustains them.
The integration of taskscape and biography offers valuable insights into how environmental changes have impacted past human societies This approach has been effectively utilized in analyzing historical environmental transformations using GIS software For instance, Sturt's (2006) research on the East Anglian Fenland in the UK illustrates significant environmental shifts occurring even within a single generation, highlighting the dynamic and modified nature of landscapes over time Additionally, the predictable seasonal and tidal rhythms of the sea demonstrate how ancient populations interacted with their environment, relying on their knowledge and understanding of these natural patterns.
A study from 2006 indicates that instead of relocating due to rising sea levels, ancient inhabitants expanded their settlements The increasing water levels in the fenland provided easier access to the sea, leading to the establishment of multiple sites This strategic approach enabled them to utilize various water resources effectively, leveraging their understanding of the local environment and advancements in watercraft technology.
Sturt's exploration emphasizes the landscape and occupied sites, neglecting specific objects related to water and watercraft technology Similarly, Van Hove's 2004 study of southern Calabria, Italy, integrates environment, taskscape, and GIS, focusing on economic choices within a landscape However, it overlooks the essential knowledge required to locate, acquire, and utilize these resources effectively.
Walker (2011) emphasizes the concept of taskscape and biography, highlighting the interplay between humans and their environment, particularly in agriculture and political authority He argues that local knowledge is crucial for agricultural productivity, asserting that crop growth relies more on the efforts of those who cultivate and care for the land rather than on the dictates of those in power (Trigger 2003, 397 cited by Walker 2011).
292) The local knowledge is focused on understanding the environment and the seasonal changes to tend crops for the most productive harvest Whilst this
Walker (2011) emphasizes the importance of studying tasks to gain a deeper understanding of how knowledge evolves over time However, he notes that there is a lack of examination concerning the essential knowledge that humans require to perform these tasks.
This dissertation examines biographies that utilize material culture to investigate the processes involved in creating and utilizing objects from raw materials, emphasizing the essential knowledge required for their production.
This dissertation aims to portray historical figures as complex individuals shaped by their surroundings and influenced by their social networks, highlighting their ability to navigate both their environment and social groups.
Object Biographies
Many biographies analyze artefacts as commodities, emphasizing the value of the knowledge, time, and energy invested in their creation, akin to modern wages and labor costs Anthropology often examines an object's life history from a commodity perspective to understand societal economics, rather than appreciating it as a human creation rich with knowledge and meaning While this approach may be applicable to contemporary mass-produced items, it is less effective for prehistoric artefacts Nevertheless, a commodity perspective can illuminate the agency and significance of the creator or owner, highlighting how their relationship with the object reflects their identity and social status.
Munn's (1977) study highlights the significance of the Gawa tribe within the Kula ring, an intricate exchange network in the Trobriand Islands of Papua New Guinea The Gawa tribe plays a crucial role as the sole creators of the canoes essential for transporting goods and people between the islands This unique responsibility not only underscores their importance in the Kula trade system but also shapes their tribal identity, as they possess the specialized knowledge required for canoe construction.
In archaeology, the movement of goods among tribes reflects their identities, as seen through the example of grave goods These items not only signify an individual's social status within their community but also convey their agency in the afterlife By facilitating the communication of identity, these objects are integral to the construction of social standing, which is recognized and interpreted within a human-managed framework (Thomas 2006).
45) The biographical study of the canoes allows Munn to explore all the tasks involved within the creation of a canoe, the use and the deposition of the canoes
Munn’s (1977) biography illustrates how a canoe, crafted from a tree, serves as a vital connection between land and water, emphasizing the need to appease tree sprites to prevent damage to the canoe Although archaeological evidence is lacking, comparisons with cultures such as the Gawa, Native Americans, and Khanty reveal symbolic practices that intertwine spirits with material culture The canoe's carving is particularly important, with carvers undergoing special ceremonies to ensure their mental purity Furthermore, the canoe's decorations encapsulate human experiences, linking it not only to the land and the Kula ring but also to the individuals who create and use it.
The construction of a canoe among the Gawans is significantly extended due to necessary ceremonies and communication with environmental spirits, which are integral to the process Munn (1977) estimates that, under ideal conditions, a canoe could be built in about three months with a suitable labor force However, in reality, the construction often takes around seven months or more, as individuals cannot neglect their gardens and other life events can disrupt the process While post-industrial societies may view these rituals as unnecessary, for the Gawans, they are essential to the canoe-building tradition.
Creating a canoe involves essential ceremonies that are integral to the social structure of the community, ensuring the object functions properly within their world However, the biography overlooks the crucial knowledge required for constructing, utilizing, and disposing of these canoes, as well as the understanding necessary to conduct the ceremonies and the origins of the associated ideology.
In her work "Biographical Objects: How Things Tell the Stories of People's Lives," Hoskins (2013) examines the deep connections between humans and their belongings, emphasizing that "people and the things they valued were so complexly intertwined they could not be disentangled" (Hoskins 2013, 2) By encouraging her subjects to discuss specific objects rather than their life stories, she uncovered richer insights into their experiences However, Hoskins reminds us that while objects play a significant role in shaping identities, they do not define individuals; rather, it is humans who ascribe meaning and agency to these items This understanding of material culture is shaped by human experiences and is passed down through generations Notably, Hoskins does not address the knowledge required to create these objects from raw materials or the methods by which individuals learn to make and utilize them.
Strathern (1990) highlights a tendency to overlook the human element in analyses, a sentiment echoed by Ingold (2000), who notes that ethnographic studies often prioritize practical aspects of hunter-gatherer activities over their underlying ideologies In archaeology, artefacts are frequently examined solely for their intrinsic qualities, risking a narrow interpretation of past human interactions To gain a fuller understanding of historical societies, it is crucial to utilize artefact data not just to answer specific questions, but to expand interpretations that encompass the social relationships and connections people had with each other and their environment (Gregory 1982).
Archaeologists play a crucial role in interpreting artefacts and presenting them to a broader audience, which revitalizes the artefacts and imbues them with new meanings and significance This transformation differs from the original context and status that the artefacts held for their creators.
Since 1999, archaeology has increasingly focused on the object itself, emphasizing the importance of artifacts as symbols of our identity as archaeologists The discipline carries the responsibility to present these artifacts authentically, acknowledging that while scientific analysis is often perceived as the ultimate truth, it can obscure the deeper purpose of studying artifacts: to understand and represent past human experiences, which may differ significantly from contemporary interpretations.
Recent trends in archaeology highlight the increasing use of object biography to explore technology, resource utilization, and the production processes involved in tool-making, particularly through use-wear analysis This approach aims to understand the interplay between these actions and broader social networks (Finlay 2003; Bruijn 2006) While much of the focus has been on lithic technology, there is a growing body of evidence that reveals the complexity of organic technologies, indicating that Mesolithic societies cannot be solely defined by their use of stone tools It is essential to integrate lithic technology within a broader context of organic technology (Cobb 2014, 1213) Furthermore, current object biographies often overlook the archaeological discipline's own creative and authoritative perspectives, especially regarding the Mesolithic period, which remains relatively unexplored in this regard (Lowenthal 1985; Holtorf 2000; 2005; Hodder).
This biography primarily emphasizes the essential knowledge required for the creation, utilization, and deposition of an artefact Additionally, it includes a section dedicated to its current location and how it is presented to audiences beyond the discipline.
The integration of taskscape and biography facilitates the investigation of human activities and tasks from the creation to the deposition of artifacts This approach also enables the reassessment of interpretations and the methodologies employed by archaeologists in constructing meanings.
Archaeologists attribute meanings to artefacts, but exploring the biography of past individuals highlights their choices and the knowledge behind those decisions This approach shifts the focus from the artefacts themselves to the human experiences and narratives that shaped them.