Basic concepts
Firstly, it is important to define the basic concepts: what is the role of the translator, and what is the common translation process
According to Toury (2014, p 20), translation encompasses any utterance in the target language that is recognized or treated as such within the target culture, regardless of the basis for this recognition This definition is notably expansive, granting translators significant freedom in their approach to the discipline.
Popovič (1983) defines translation as the process of recoding a linguistic text, creating a new linguistic and stylistic form while maintaining the original's expressive and semantic aspects He emphasizes that the invariant of the text must always be preserved, even if other elements may not be This notion extends beyond mere content transfer; it can also encompass the formal aspects of the original text Vilikovský (1984) supports this by asserting that an adequate translation should express not only the content but also the formal characteristics, emotional nuances, and associations inherent in the original work.
According to Nida (1964) a translation should always make sense, convey the spirit and manner of the original, have a natural form of expression and produce a similar response as the original does 4
Translation involves the re-coding of a linguistic text, resulting in a new linguistic form and stylistic shape It is the process of transitioning a text's invariant from one version to another while maintaining the original's expressive and semantic properties as much as possible.
3 Translated from the original quote from Vilikovský 1984, p 31 „Plnohodnotná reprodukcia predpokladá vyjadrenie nielen obsahovej, ale aj formálnej stránky textu i s jeho špecific kými zvláštnosťami, emocionálnym nábojom a asociáciami.“
4 Nida also defines two different types of equivalence – formal and dynamic – which will be further elaborated in chapter 1.5
Translating culturally specific items poses challenges, as highlighted by Vajdová (1999), who notes the difficulty in defining a culture's invariant, complicating the translation of cultural elements in a source text The question arises whether a similar response can be achieved by using American pop culture references from the original or by finding equivalent substitutions in Slovak or Czech culture With the advent of fast internet connections, the landscape of cultural exchange has transformed; unlike in the past when access to foreign culture was limited, translators now have the flexibility to incorporate diverse cultural references rather than strictly substituting source culture items with target culture equivalents.
The role of a translator is to interpret and reformulate the original text into their own language, as noted by Levý (1998) This task becomes more complex when dealing with allusions in novels Müglová (2009) emphasizes that a translator must be a bicultural expert, adept at understanding both the source language (SL) and target language (TL) cultures to meet readers' expectations Consequently, translators must pay close attention to identifying allusions, researching their origins, and integrating them appropriately into the translation Ruokonen (2010) further highlights the importance of analyzing contextual elements that may influence readers' interpretations.
The translation process, as outlined by Levý (1998), encompasses understanding, interpreting, and restyling the original text However, in instances involving allusions, it is essential to incorporate additional steps that facilitate the identification of these references, thereby altering the traditional translation methodology.
Müglová (2009) outlines three distinct phases in the translation process: the translation phase, the creation of the translation, and the self-checking of the translation This framework suggests that the translation phase includes several crucial steps where the translator engages deeply with the text During this phase, the translator reads the material, reflects on familiar and unfamiliar elements, compares these aspects, and develops tailored translation solutions (Müglová, 2009, p 211-212).
5 Translated from the original quote from Levý, 1998, p 44 „ Překladatel dešifruje sdělení, které je obsaženo v textu původního autora a přeformulováva (zašifrováva) je do svého jazyka “
6 Translated from the original quote from Müglová, 2009, p 211-212 „ zoznamuje s textom Číta ho, čuduje sa, hľadá známe a neznáme miesta v texte, porovnáva, premýšľa, vymýšľa konkrétne prekladateľské riešenia “
We synthesized the aforementioned theory into a set of instructions specifically for the translation of texts saturated with allusions:
The translation phase involves a comprehensive understanding of the original text, which includes recognizing unfamiliar references and allusions It is essential to identify the sources of these allusions and interpret their functions within the context of the text By grasping the significance of these elements, translators can explore various solutions to effectively convey the original meaning in the target language.
The translation process involves several key steps: first, restyling the original text by incorporating recognized translations of allusions; second, crafting translations for allusions that lack equivalents in the target language; and finally, employing various strategies to enhance the overall translation quality.
3 Checking the translation a Making sure the selected solutions serve the original function of the allusion in the text and are not distracting
Allusions
Types of Allusions
Allusions can be divided into multiple categories Ruokonen (2010) divides them into two simple categories based on their function:
1 Foreign – those that stand out in the alluding text
2 Familiar – those that blend into the text and become a part of the alluding text
Readers can easily grasp the meaning of familiar allusions without needing to know the original text, as these references seamlessly integrate into the surrounding content and require no additional clarification Such implicit allusions enhance comprehension and enrich the reading experience.
12 The different types of readers and their definitions can be found in Chapter 1.4 The Target Reader
18 stylistic markers However, even allusions that are noticeable in the text (e.g proper names) may still convey some implicit meaning
Leppihalme (1997) divides allusions into the following categories:
1 Key-phrase allusions – the author uses a whole phrase, it can be a direct quotation, or an allusion in a modified form
2 Proper-name allusions – using proper names to allude to famous characters, historical people, etc Names can also be slightly adapted in the alluding text
The studied novels feature both regular and modified allusions, which serve various functions These distinctions will be further elaborated in the following chapter, highlighting the significance of allusions in the narrative.
Function of Allusions
Allusions significantly enhance the richness of the text, as explored in this subchapter The impact of allusions varies depending on whether they are analyzed at the micro or macro level of the text.
Leppihalme (1997, p 37-50) defines these four main functions of allusions:
A thematic allusion is found on the macro-level of the text, where it brings a
The concept of universality in literature suggests that certain emotions and themes within a text carry deeper significance than what readers might initially perceive This notion emphasizes the importance of context in understanding characters and situations, as it can reveal thematic elements crucial for interpreting the work as a whole Additionally, these elements can serve to encapsulate the main ideas of the text, enhancing the reader's comprehension and engagement.
A humorous allusion can be created through parody, wordplay, or as a type of a code, the reader has to decode (Leppihalme, 1997)
A parody on the macro-level occurs when the whole text is a parody, however a parody on the micro-level usually pokes fun at overused literary references (ibid.) Parody on the
The macro-level analysis examines the internal structure of a text, including its narrative and poetic elements, whereas the micro-level analysis delves into the lexico-semantic and stylistic aspects of the text (Leppihalme, 1997).
In Niknasab (2011), themes and humor are categorized together, as humor on a macro-level serves to highlight thematic significance, particularly through parody and irony Conversely, other forms of humor are primarily identified at the micro-level (Leppihalme, 1997).
Micro-level interactions among characters can serve as a humorous tool, allowing them to poke fun at each other's tastes in pop culture by parodying specific excerpts from various works.
Wordplay is achieved by what Leppihalme calls ‘frames’, i.e “combination of words that is accepted in the language community as an example of preformed linguistic material”
Unmodified frames can create humor without requiring prior knowledge of the referent, while modified frames, achieved through keyword substitution, rely on context To maintain recognizability, any syntax changes should be minimal Additionally, allusive humor can be enhanced by incorporating proper names, such as placing a narrative within another author’s fictional universe, which generates humor through the reader's recognition of the unusual connection between two fictional worlds.
Allusive humor can also be created using a code, where hints are provided to a specific referent, requiring readers to decode these hints on their own This decoding process can be particularly challenging for those unfamiliar with the original culture.
Ninkasab (2011, p 47) summarizes the function of creating humour as a way “detract from the importance of a situation or character”
Allusions serve as a powerful tool for characterisation, acting as a "fast and economical aid" (Leppihalme, p 44) Characters who frequently use allusions are typically perceived as intelligent, well-educated, and quick-witted, demonstrating their interests through these references Conversely, those who fail to recognize allusions or misuse them are often seen as naïve and ignorant This contrast is evident in the novel Ready Player One, where the protagonists are well-versed in the essential lore needed to solve puzzles, while the antagonists struggle to understand allusions and rely on others for assistance Ultimately, "characters may also adopt different attitudes towards referent texts" (Ruokonen 2010, p 122).
Allusions play a crucial role in enhancing interpersonal relationships among characters by fostering connections, forming ingroups, and establishing power dynamics This aspect is closely linked to the earlier discussion on how the use of allusions can either strengthen or weaken the bonds between characters, influencing their closeness or distance.
15 For an example of such allusive humour, check Leppihalme, 1997, p 43
16 Although, when looking at this fact from a different point of view, it could also be said that they are typical
“nerds” who have no life outside of studying the lore and cannot hold a normal conversation without referencing other works
In their conversation, characters often employ allusions, which can significantly influence their relationship dynamics (Leppihalme, 1997) Recognizing these allusions can deepen their connection, while a lack of recognition may create distance between them This interplay highlights the status of their relationship, as allusions can serve as a device of power, echoing the folklore belief that knowing a secret name grants one control (Nash, 1985, p 146).
In narratives, characters may perceive themselves as intellectually superior based on their ability to recognize allusions, while others may feign superiority despite their limited understanding, revealing their naivety or lack of intelligence Additionally, a character's social class may influence their exposure to certain texts, affecting their recognition of allusions Ultimately, a character's response to allusions provides insight into their personality and relationships with others, often leading to a power dynamic where they compete to out-quote one another (Leppihalme, 1997).
The alludee, or the character receiving the allusion, can respond in various ways that reveal their personality and relationship with the alluder They might identify the source of the allusion to demonstrate their intelligence, react with laughter or grunts, take time to connect the reference, respond neutrally if they don't recognize it, give an inappropriate reply, or even ask for clarification A lack of response can also indicate their familiarity with the reference Conversely, an unsolicited explanation from the alluder may come off as condescending, and the alluder might intentionally reference works unknown to the alludee to belittle them For further insights, see Leppihalme (1997, pp 46-50).
Ruokonen (2010, p 121) defines these functions of allusions on the intratextual level, and furthermore defines two different functions on the extratextual level:
1 Intertextual function: relations between the alluding text and the referent text(s)
2 Interpersonal function: relationship between the reader and the author
These are only mentioned briefly, since they are not very important for the purpose of this thesis and possibly do not affect the strategies used for translation
Strategies for Translating Allusions
Translating allusions requires distinct strategies compared to non-allusive texts, as these references often hold significant meaning within the context It is essential to focus on allusions in texts rich with such devices, particularly when they contribute to the overall message or theme of the work.
The basic strategies for translation of cultural features were explained by Vilikovský
In his 1984 work, the author introduces three translation strategies: naturalisation, exotisation, and creolisation Naturalisation emphasizes target culture (TC) elements over source culture (SC) ones, reflecting the translator's focus on the target audience Conversely, exotisation prioritizes SC elements, showcasing the original work's cultural context Creolisation strikes a balance between SC and TC elements The author notes that the challenge in reproducing specific cultural elements arises from the fact that aspects tied to the original language and culture often lose their communicative significance in a new context.
However, when focusing more specifically at the translation of allusions, Ruokonen
In 2010, a comprehensive list of strategies for translating quotations was presented, drawing comparisons to the procedures outlined by Nord in 1990 Given that many allusions in texts appear as quotations, it is essential to acknowledge these elements The strategies for effectively translating quotations include various methods designed to preserve the original meaning and context.
1 Direct quotation – ST quotation is used in the TT without any change
2 Transcription/transliteration – ST quotation is transliterated in the target-cultural alphabet
3 Substitution – ST quotation is rendered by means of an existing TL formulation
4 Literal translation – ST quotation translated as literally as possible
5 Paraphrase – the meaning of ST quotation is conveyed in TL, but the passage is not marked as an exact quotation
6 Adaptation – ST quotation is replaced by an original TL quotation
7 Expansion/reduction – an explanation needed for the TC receiver is added to the quotation or an explanation used for the SC receiver is omitted
8 Omission – the quotation is omitted or replaced by another device
On the other hand, the strategies proposed by Leppihalme (1997) are more detailed These strategies are, according to the author, based on Levý‘s minimax strategy – choosing a
17 Paraphrase is based on the translation from German by Ruokonen (2010, p 134)
22 solution for the translation problem at hand “which promises a maximum effect with a minimum of effort” (Levý, 1966, p 75)
In chapter 1.2.2 on types of allusions, Leppihalme categorizes allusions into key-phrase (KP) and proper-name (PN) allusions, each requiring distinct translation strategies The translation strategies for proper-name allusions are detailed in Leppihalme's work (1997, p 79).
1 Retention of the name: a use the name as such; b use the name, adding some guidance; c use the name, adding a detailed explanation, for example a footnote;
2 Replacement of the name by another: a replacement of the name by another SL name; b replacement of the name by a TL name;
3 Omission of the name: a omit the name, but transfer the sense by other means, for example a common noun; b omit the name and the allusion altogether
In translation, proper names are typically retained, but certain cases necessitate their adaptation for clarity and understanding For instance, in the Slovak translation of Harry Potter, house names like Gryffindor, Ravenclaw, Hufflepuff, and Slytherin are transformed into Chrabromil, Bystrohlav, Bifľomor, and Slizolin, respectively This principle also applies to personal names, such as translating Jesus to Ježiš, geographic locations like Rome to Rím, and titles of books, films, and games, ensuring the audience comprehends the references accurately.
The strategies for KP translation, on the other hand, are as follows, according to the list also given by Leppihalme (1997, p 84)
B Minimum change – a literal translation, without regard to connotative or contextual meaning – there is thus no change that would aim specifically at the transfer of connotations
C Extra-allusive guidance added in the text, where the translator follows their assessment of the needs of TT readers by adding information which the author did not think necessary
D The use of footnotes, endnotes, translator’s prefaces and other explicit explanations not slipped into the text but overtly given as additional information
E Simulated familiarity or internal marking – the addition of intra-allusive allusion- signalling featured that depart from the style of the context, thus signalling the presence of borrowed words
F Replacement by a performed TL item
G Reduction of the allusion to sense by rephrasal, i.e making its meaning overt and dispensing with the allusive KP itself
H Re-creation, using a fusion of techniques – creative construction of a passage which hints at the connotations of the allusion or other special effects created by it
In her 2010 study, Ruokonen revisited the translation procedures of quotations proposed by Nord, the strategies outlined by Leppihalme in 1997, and the allusion translation strategies suggested by Gambier (Rukuonen, 2001, p 232-233) She refined her own classification into two main categories: retentive strategies and modifying strategies, as illustrated in the table from her research (Ruokonen, 2010, p 142).
Nord’s procedures Leppihalme’s strategies Gambier’s strategies Revised classification
* leaving the key-phrase allusion untranslated 1a) retaining the proper name unchanged borrowing 1) Replication
1a) KP retained untranslated 1b) PN retained 1c) Adaptive replication (d) literal translation
B) minimum change of the KP allusion literal translation / calque
Leppihalme (1997) proposes several strategies for handling allusions in translation, including giving up on translating them entirely, leaving them untranslated, replacing them with more familiar source-specific references, or treating them as idioms and substituting them with equivalent expressions.
(c) substitution 1a) retaining the proper name in its conventional TL form A) standard translation of the
1b) retaining the proper name and adding guidance
1c) retaining the proper name and adding an overt explanation C) adding external marking to the KP allusion
D) adding explicit explanations such as footnotes to the KP allusion E) adding internal marking to the KP allusion addition of a definition, a paraphrase or an explanatory note
(g) reduction 5) Reducing guidance (f) adaptation 2a) & 2b) replacing the proper name by another TL/SL name F) replacement of the KP allusion by a preformed TL item
* replacement of the KP allusion by a better-known source-cultural allusion substitution; compensation or conversion
F) replacement of the KP allusion by a preformed TL item
* treating the KP allusion like an idiom compensation or conversion
(e) paraphrase 3a) replacing the name by a common noun G) reducing the KP allusion to sense by rephrasal transferring the sense by a common noun compensation or conversion
- H) re-creation of the KP allusion
(h) omission 3b) omission of the proper name I) omission of the KP allusion deliberate omission 7) Omission
Table 1 : Classification of translation strategies for allusion according to Ruokonen (2010, p 142)
In concluding this chapter, we highlight the issue of existing translations in allusive texts, particularly in Slovakia, where many referent texts in novels remain untranslated into Slovak but are available in Czech Since these novels target young adult readers who grew up during the Czechoslovakia era, they are familiar with references in Czech from various media Therefore, we propose that utilizing existing Czech translations could be beneficial, as many readers recognize these allusions However, we acknowledge that incorporating a different language may be distracting Thus, we recommend that instead of a direct translation, a transliteration of the existing Czech text could be employed to maintain coherence while minimizing disruption.
Translation Shifts
Translating a source text (ST) into a target language (TL) cannot be done word-for-word due to inherent differences between languages and cultures As noted by Catford (1965), translations often involve shifts or departures from formal correspondence, stemming from the lack of complete equivalence between languages and the various translation strategies employed These strategies may necessitate alterations to certain aspects of the text to convey the intended meaning effectively.
Popovič (1983) divides the shifts in translation into 4 main categories:
1 Constitutive shift – an unavoidable, functional and objective shift, which is caused by the difference between the SL and TL, their structure, linguistic and stylistic norms
2 Individual shift – caused by the individual tendencies and methods of the translator It is intentional and reflects the translator’s idiolect
Thematic shifts occur when there are differences between the thematic elements of the source text (ST) and the target text (TT), often resulting from the use of varied denotates and a preference for connotation over denotation Translators may employ strategies such as actualisation, localisation, and adaptation based on their subjective evaluation of the ST This shift often involves replacing foreign elements with domestic ones to better resonate with the target audience.
4 Negative shift – non-adequate solution for the ideological and aesthetic features of the
ST caused by misunderstanding of the ST, the author’s intentions, or by neglecting the integrity of the translation process
The central focus of this thesis is the thematic shift, which involves substituting foreign cultural elements with domestic characteristics Vilikovský (1984, p 44) characterizes this shift as an instance of "pragmatic equivalence" driven by cultural rather than linguistic factors Chapter 1.2 elaborates on the various methods through which culture can be represented in translation, particularly through allusions.
For the purpose of this thesis another shift can be added to the list, as defined by Ruokonen (2010):
5 Functional shift – caused by different interpretative possibilities, since every reader/translator will understand some of the allusions and gloss over others
To convey the thematic importance of an unfamiliar reference, it may be essential to substitute the allusion with a clear explanation of its meaning However, this approach may diminish the portrayal of the character as knowledgeable and well-read.
The Target Reader
In translation theory and literary studies, the concept of the target reader varies significantly, as individuals possess unique reading experiences and expectations from translated fiction Vajdová (1999) highlights that different readers interpret literary works in diverse ways due to various personal characteristics Consequently, foreign literature is viewed differently by translators, writers in the target language, and general readers who lack specialized knowledge.
19 Translated from the original quote from Vilikovský, 1984, p 44 „Tematický posun je zase príkladom pragmatickej ekvival encie; jeho motiváciu treba spravidla hľadať nie v oblasti jazykovej, ale kultúrnej “
27 is why there are not many scholars focusing on the problem of the target reader, since the ideal target reader is even more ambiguous, than the ideal translation
In technical translation, the final product is shaped by client specifications, resulting in multiple target text (TT) versions based on the text's purpose In contrast, literary translation lacks a direct client, leaving translators without definitive guidelines Achieving an ideal literary translation is impossible, as it requires an imaginary perfect reader, leading to subjective evaluations of texts and audiences Consequently, translators must rely on the historical and sociocultural contexts of the target culture to inform their work.
Assis Rosa (2006) has selected 3 basic types of a reader for her study:
1 the actual or real reader representing the real person reading the book,
2 the ideal reader is ideally competent, informed and sensitive and understands all the implications in the text,
3 the implied reader, that corresponds with the writer’s expectations
Assis Rosa's defined types of readers align with Umberto Eco's (1995) classifications The empirical reader represents the typical reader, open to a multitude of interpretations, while the model reader closely resembles the ideal reader envisioned by the author during the writing process.
While an ideal reader for a specific novel may be identified within the source culture (SC), there is no assurance that similar readers exist in the target culture (TC) This discrepancy arises from the inherent differences among cultures and languages, as noted by Gideon Toury (1995, in Assis Rosa).
Translations are shaped by the constraints and motivations of the target culture, resulting in different interpretations between the translator's experience (TR) and the source reader's experience (SR) This divergence leads to varied understandings of the same text.
The interpretation of a source culture in translation is inherently subjective, shaped by the translator's understanding of their own cultural context This leads to varying perceptions of foreign cultures among readers from different backgrounds, eras, or experiences Consequently, the source culture is represented in the translation only to the extent that the target culture can recognize and accept it, making the source context merely an interpretation within the target culture's framework.
28 a dynamic body of information, knowledge, and facts about the source culture” (Vajdová,
Not all readers possess the necessary knowledge to identify allusions in a text, often leading them to skip over passages that are unclear or poorly translated (Vajdová, 1999) However, recognizing a creative allusion enhances a reader's understanding and engagement with the text, providing a sense of achievement (Leppihalme, 1997) Given the vast diversity of reader knowledge, it is challenging to accommodate the needs of every individual, as millions interpret texts differently Vajdová (1999) emphasizes that translational inadequacies stem not from language or cultural specifics, but from how certain groups perceive foreign elements in a text, highlighting the variability among readers across different eras and contexts.
When conducting research, it is crucial to decide whether to focus on the ideal reader or the implied reader The concept of the implied reader indicates that the translator holds specific expectations regarding the target reader's knowledge and anticipations, which influence both the translation process and the final output These expectations are reflected in the target text as a series of consistent patterns derived from the translation methods employed (Assis Rosa, 2006).
For the purposes of this thesis, the intended audience for the novels will be considered as ideal readers, equipped with the comprehensive knowledge necessary to fully grasp all the allusions presented.
The ideal reader, as described in 1994, is someone motivated to act upon the text they engage with, whether it's a call to action or an advertisement In literary works, this reader immerses themselves in the narrative, often experiencing a shift in their perspectives on life as they connect deeply with the story.
Even the ideal reader may lack some essential knowledge, yet they will feel compelled to research it in order to fully grasp the story.
The broadcasting environment is perceived by the receiving environment only to the extent and in the manner that it is willing and able to interpret This means that the context of the sender is merely an interpretation within the receiver's framework Ultimately, it represents a dynamic collection of information, knowledge, and facts about the broadcasting environment.
It is important to acknowledge, as noted by Booth (1961/1978) and Eco (1995), that the ideal reader discussed in literary analysis is a theoretical construct that cannot truly exist However, for the sake of our analysis, this concept serves as a useful framework for understanding the diverse audience of these novels.
Equivalence
When the original text is deeply rooted in its native culture and serves as the foundation for its narrative, the translated version must maintain an 'equivalence' to the original, similar to any other translation.
The concept of 'equivalence' originally referred to a significant form of cultural adaptation in translation (Pym, 2010) For instance, a translator might replace the Slovak dish 'bryndzové halušky' with 'sushi' to convey the idea of a local delicacy in a Japanese context Additionally, finding comparable Slovak pop culture from the 1980s is essential for ensuring that the translated novels maintain their intended impact and resonance with the original American versions.
Catford (1965) distinguishes between ‘textual equivalence’ and ‘formal correspondence’ This thesis will be concerned with textual equivalence 22 , which refers to any
Textual translation equivalence refers to a target language (TL) form that corresponds to a specific source language (SL) text According to Catford (1965), this can be defined as any TL text or portion that is recognized as equivalent to a given SL form.
Translating between languages presents challenges due to the lack of identical equivalents, requiring translators to find the closest possible match When dealing with allusions, translations may be absent or have multiple interpretations As noted by Nida (1964), translators must strive to identify the most suitable equivalent, which may involve crafting their own translation or selecting the best contextually appropriate option.
Eugene Nida (1964) distinguished between 'formal equivalence,' which emphasizes closely matching the source language's form and content, and 'dynamic equivalence,' which prioritizes the message's equivalent effect Dynamic equivalence focuses on connecting the audience with culturally relevant behaviors, allowing for comprehension without requiring an understanding of the source culture's patterns (Nida, 1964, p 176) While dynamic equivalence suggests naturalizing foreign culture, it may be more effective to use an existing translation if the referenced material is well-known in the target culture.
22 Since formal correspondence is concerned with units, classes, structures, etc it is not important for the research in this thesis
30 a translation is not always readily available, as well as it is impossible for people of one culture to be aware of an entire foreign culture
Nida (1964) also differentiates between three types of relatedness according to the linguistic and cultural distance:
1 Both the language and the culture are closely related
2 The languages are not related, but the cultures are
3 Neither the languages nor the cultures are related
Translation between English and Slovak used to be considered less significant; however, the rise of the internet has changed this perception Today, individuals can easily access popular content from other countries if they understand the language For those who do not speak English, much of American and British culture is translated into Slovak and Czech, making it widely familiar to those open to American cultural influences.
According to Vilikovský (1984), translation should prioritize the functional role of language within its broader context rather than merely replicating individual linguistic elements The translator's goal is to ensure that the translated text serves the same purpose as the original in the target culture (TC) He further defines translational equivalents as means that effectively convey contextually relevant information in a different language while maintaining the essential meaning.
Pym (2010) introduces the concept of 'directional equivalence,' contrasting it with natural equivalence, which allows for a reversible translation between languages L1 and L2 In directional equivalence, translators have the freedom to make active choices, and there is no assurance of achieving an exact return to the original text in L1.
Equivalence in translation is not limited to a simple 'one-to-one' relationship; it can also manifest as 'one-to-several' or 'one-to-part' (Kade, 1968, In Pym, 2010) Pym emphasizes that outside the realm of specialized terminology, theorists cannot guarantee that a specific unit from the source text will correspond directly to a particular unit in the target text.
23 Translated from the original quote from Vilikovský, 1984, p 38-39 „ Úlohou prekladu nie je reprodukovať samotné jazykové prostriedky, ale funkciu, ktorá im pripadá v rámci vyššieho celku.“
A translated equivalent can be defined as a means or set of means that functionally reproduces contextually relevant information contained in the original text in another language, while preserving its invariance.
The proper translation of the novels in question raises the issue of how the author uniquely influences language, incorporating famous quotations and establishing a distinct tone, atmosphere, or imagery This approach allows the writer to enhance brief, objective passages with emotional and associative nuances, effectively using allusions to deepen the reader's experience.
Roman Jakobson views translation as a form of reported speech, highlighting that complete equivalence between languages is unattainable He introduces the concept of "equivalence in difference," emphasizing that translation encompasses two equivalent messages conveyed through different linguistic codes According to Jakobson, understanding any linguistic specimen requires translating its signs into either the same or another system, and the comparison of languages necessitates examining their mutual translatability He argues that if languages were entirely untranslatable, communication between speakers of different languages would be impossible Furthermore, every linguistic sign can be refined through translation, and deficiencies in terminology can be addressed using loanwords, neologisms, or semantic shifts, demonstrating that literal translations can still convey comprehensive conceptual information despite grammatical limitations.
To enhance cultural relevance and resonance, it may be more effective to translate specific quotations and allusions by substituting references to music and film with local equivalents, such as replacing Pink Floyd with Miro Žbirka and Star Wars with Slnko, seno,… This approach ensures that the content remains relatable and meaningful to the target audience.
In today's digital age, where access to information is more readily available than ever, it may be beneficial to maintain consistent references within the text This approach allows readers to naturally engage with the content while encouraging them to seek out any additional information they may require online.
According to Levý (1998, p 85), the primary goal of a translator is to faithfully represent and present the original work rather than to create something entirely new Although a translation can never perfectly replicate the original, its purpose is to reproduce the essence and meaning of the source material.
25 Translated from the original quote from Vilikovský, 1984, p 36 „ veľkí tvorcovia vtláčajú jazyku svoju pečať, a to nielen spopularizovanými citátmi, ale tým, že si akoby zmonopolizujú určitý tón, atmosféru, stavbu obrazov.“
26 Translated from the original quote from Vilikovský, 1984, p 36 „ zároveň možno prostredníctvom vedomých citátov a narážok obdariť stručnú a zdanlivo vecnú pasáž emocionálnymi a asociatívnymi podtónmi “
27 Translated from the original quote from Levý, 1998, p 85 „ Cílem překladatelovy práce je zachovat, vystihnout, sdělit původní dílo, nikoliv vytvořit dílo nové, které nemělo předchůdce; cíl překladu je reprodukční “
Translation criticism
The practical section of this thesis focuses on the translation criticism of the analyzed novels While the term "criticism" often carries negative implications, historically emphasizing flaws in translations, Berman (1995) highlights that this inclination arises from the expectation that the target text (TT) should mirror the source text (ST) and its inherent shortcomings However, critics are encouraged to adopt a more balanced perspective, acknowledging the merits of translations alongside their faults This positive approach is vital, as even imperfect translations contribute to the richness of the target language (TL) and its literature, fostering communication and cultural exchange (Berman, 1995).
Translation criticism, as noted by Berman (1995, p 5), involves evaluating a translation as a critical work in itself This perspective is particularly relevant during re-translation, where the translator critiques the original translation However, the need for critique extends beyond re-translation; translators must assess the source text (ST) and base their entire project on this evaluation This process of judgment is integral to translation and is elaborated upon in chapter 1.1 of this thesis.
When analyzing a work of translation for translation criticism, various approaches can be employed According to Newmark (2008), translation criticism comprises two main phases The initial phase is analytical, focusing on a comparative analysis between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT).
(2008) says, it is important to analyse the ST’s intention and functional aspects, the translator’s interpretation of the text’s purpose, the methods and strategies they used during translation,
28 The translation of the original “Pour une critique des traductions: John Donne” was done by Louis von Flotow, in 1995
34 and the TT’s potential readership 29 The analytical phase outlined by Newmark finishes with a selective and representative comparison of the allusions in the STs and TTs
After finishing the analytical phase, a synthesis follows, bringing the results from the analysis together to create an evaluation of the translation and assess the translation’s place in the TC
Berman (1995) presents a unique framework for analyzing translations, which consists of two key stages: first, examining the translation alongside the original text and relevant supporting materials; second, engaging in the critical evaluation of the translation itself.
The initial step in Berman's framework involves thoroughly reading and rereading the translation while completely ignoring the original text (Berman, 1995, p 9) This approach allows the critic to evaluate the effectiveness of the translation as a standalone piece in the target language (TL) and to identify any issues or cultural discrepancies within the translated text (TT) Additionally, this process of rereading can reveal not only problem areas but also exceptional elements, referred to as 'miracle spots,' that enhance the overall quality of the translation.
“the foreign passes seamlessly into the target language” (Berman, 1995, p 11) Based on the reading and rereading of the TT, the critic gets their own impression of the text
The next step involves thoroughly reading and re-reading the original text to identify areas where the translation posed challenges or excelled During this phase, the critic conducts a textual pre-analysis, which is essential for selecting relevant and significant stylistic examples These examples should stem from a thoughtful interpretation of the work being critiqued, enabling the critic to compile a comprehensive, well-reasoned, and representative selection.
The third step of the translation process involves understanding the translator's position, the translation project, and the horizon of the translation According to Berman (1995), it is essential to identify the translator's background, including their profession, languages, and translation experience, to better understand their approach This self-positioning helps clarify the translator's perspective in relation to the work Following this, the focus shifts to the translation project, which is shaped by the translator's position and the constraints of the source text (ST), ultimately guiding how the translator executes the literary transfer.
29 However, as was already stated, this thesis considers the readership as ideal readers, who are able to recognize the analysed aspects of the novels
30 These are “the passages from the original, taken from spots where the work is most condensed, representative, meaningful, or symbolic” (Berman, 1995, p 16.)
Allusion-saturated texts can be analyzed through the lenses of naturalisation, exotisation, or creolisation Critics evaluate translations by considering these perspectives, which are influenced by the translator’s horizon This horizon encompasses the linguistic, literary, cultural, and historical factors that shape the translator's feelings, actions, and thoughts, as noted by Berman.
To effectively analyze a translation, critics must conduct a grounded comparison between the original text and its translation, as noted by Berman (1995) Even when assessing a single translation, it is essential to compare it with others, since every initial translation is inherently flawed While a skilled translator with adequate resources may produce a satisfactory first translation that minimizes the need for re-translation, the translation process itself is ongoing, meaning that even re-translations can be seen as imperfect.
The translations presented in this thesis serve as first translations; however, the allusions within them have been previously translated to some extent, making these translations a form of re-translation of those allusions.
The comparison of texts functions at four levels, based on Berman (1995):
1 Comparing selected elements and passages from the ST with corresponding passages in the TT
2 Problem spots and miracle spots are compared with the corresponding parts of the ST
4 Considering the TT in terms of its project to find out the result and its consequences
To prevent dogmatism in translation evaluation, critics should focus on two key criteria: ethics and poetics These criteria ensure that translation enriches the target language (TL) at all levels, resulting in a literary work that resonates and corresponds effectively with the original.
Quality translation hinges on several key criteria that must be considered during analysis According to Ferenčík (1982), essential aspects for evaluating translated texts include cultural politics, comparative literature, literary history, linguistics, and various literary theories These factors influence the translator's approach and decisions even before the translation process begins Ultimately, translation criticism should assess whether the translation is conceptual, creative, adequate, and useful.
Every translation involves a decision-making process where the translator must select suitable solutions for various translation challenges When these solutions are effective, the entire target text (TT) can be considered a successful translation However, it's crucial to examine the impact of individual translation choices, as any standout element can disrupt the reader's engagement with the narrative Conversely, if all text units are translated exceptionally well, they can enhance the overall reading experience Thus, analyzing each unit independently, rather than solely focusing on the text as a whole, is essential for achieving a coherent and enjoyable translation.
Translation research
This section of the thesis explores the broader field of translation research, laying the groundwork for the methods and strategies employed in analyzing the selected novels The insights presented are informed by the work of Williams & Chesterman (2002).
Translation research can be conducted in multiple ways Williams & Chesterman (2002) classify the following options:
1 Source text analysis – examining various syntactic, semantic, and stylistic aspects of the text, that might cause translation problems, usually conducted to prepare for a translation
2 Comparison of TTs and their STs – comparing several translations of the same
This analysis emphasizes key stylistic and syntactic features, examines how the translator addressed translation challenges, and highlights the strategies employed in the process Additionally, it discusses the conditions under which specific strategies were utilized, providing insight into the translator's decision-making.
3 Comparison of translations and non-translated texts – comparing translations into the TL with similar texts written in that language (parallel texts)
Translation with commentary is a research method where the translator not only translates a text but also provides insights into their translation process According to Williams & Chesterman (2002), this approach is explicitly evaluative and allows for analysis in various contexts, including training sessions, official certification exams, critiques by reviewers, and feedback from readers Multiple evaluation methods can be employed to assess the quality of the translation.
Williams & Chesterman (2002) distinguish three general approaches to QA:
1 Source-oriented – setting up definitions of required equivalence and classifying deviance from this equivalence
2 TL-oriented – using text analysis to assess the differences between the translation and comparable texts in TL, measuring the translator’s degree of naturalness
3 Translation effects – assessing the effects on clients, teachers, critics, and readers
In literary translation it is possible to examine published reviews in the press, interview publishers or readers about their expectations, send out a questionnaire, etc
Furthermore, Williams & Chesterman (2002) define multiple kinds of research
Conceptual research plays a crucial role in defining and clarifying concepts, connecting them to broader systems, and interpreting ideas, which enhances the understanding of the research subject This type of analysis often presents a compelling argument that surpasses previous analyses, as highlighted by Williams & Chesterman (2002, p 59), who state that one's conceptual understanding influences practical actions, such as translation methods Additionally, conceptual analysis frequently complements empirical research, underscoring its significance in the research process.
Empirical research aims to gather new insights through data observation and experimentation, focusing on confirming or refuting hypotheses According to Hempel (1952, In Williams & Chesterman, 2002), its two primary objectives are to describe specific phenomena and to establish general principles for explanation and prediction In the context of translation studies, predictions are inherently probabilistic, meaning they are not absolute; while it is feasible to anticipate the strategies translators may employ in specific scenarios, certainty is never guaranteed.
Empirical research encompasses both naturalistic and experimental methodologies Naturalistic studies examine real-life phenomena without interference, allowing for exploratory analysis or focused observation through tools like questionnaires, and can begin with or without a specific hypothesis In contrast, experimental studies manipulate the observed environment to isolate specific variables while controlling for irrelevant factors.
Qualitative and quantitative research represent two distinct approaches in the field of research Qualitative research focuses on describing the quality of phenomena in a meaningful way, enhancing readers' understanding of the possibilities in translation (Williams & Chesterman, 2002) This subjective approach often demands empathy and imagination, with the primary goal of illustrating the various interpretations a single text can yield In contrast, quantitative research seeks to examine general trends and patterns, providing a more objective analysis of data.
Quantitative research involves measuring, counting, and statistically comparing various aspects, leading to more objective findings It utilizes metrics such as tokens, types, type to token ratio, average word and sentence length, frequency lists, lexical density, concordances, and collocations Typically, qualitative research precedes quantitative analysis, helping to establish and define concepts and categories This combined approach allows researchers to make general claims and compare trends effectively.
Qualitative research emphasizes subjectivity, while quantitative research is characterized by objectivity To mitigate the subjectivity inherent in qualitative research, researchers can employ empathy and imagination, striving to uncover the complexities within the translator's thought process.
Empirical research methods encompass various approaches, including case studies, corpus studies, survey studies, and historical and archive studies Case studies are characterized by their naturalistic focus on specific situations within a non-experimental context, as noted by Williams & Chesterman (2002) They can be simple, examining a single unit, or complex, comparing multiple units across different cases Furthermore, case studies can be categorized into exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory types, serving as effective tools for hypothesis testing and generation On the other hand, corpus studies analyze extensive textual data, providing numerous instances of the subject under investigation, as highlighted by Williams & Chesterman (2002).
Survey studies utilize questionnaires or interviews to describe phenomena across a population, while historical and archival studies focus on exploring existing information, including bibliographies and historical records.
A hypothesis is a foundational concept in research, defined by Oxford dictionaries as a proposed explanation based on limited evidence, serving as a starting point for further investigation According to Williams & Chesterman (2002), it is characterized as a tentative claim aimed at generalization and capturing observed patterns They further elaborate that a hypothesis represents a claim about a specific general characteristic, developed through a process of thought and data analysis.
The authors distinguish four types of hypotheses: interpretive, descriptive, explanatory and predictive They define the hypotheses, as follows
31 Available at
1 Interpretive hypothesis – something can be defined as something else It is “a claim about how best to interpret something or understand what something means”
2 Descriptive hypothesis – there are two subtypes of descriptive hypothesis They can be either unrestricted, without any conditions, meaning that the hypothesis is
An empirical claim can either aim for generality, as it seeks to generalize a condition (Williams & Chesterman, 2002, p 75), or it can be restricted, indicating that the claim is subject to certain conditions (Chesterman & Williams, 2002, p 76).
3 Explanatory hypothesis – stating that a particular phenomenon influenced by certain conditions
4 Predictive hypothesis – stating that certain conditions will influence certain phenomenon, for example if translator uses a certain strategy critics and readers will like the result.
Research definition
This thesis analyzes the translations of two novels, comparing them to their original texts It examines how the translator addressed translation challenges related to allusions within the narratives, the strategies employed, and the resulting shifts in the translations A representative research sample from both novels is presented and categorized in the subsequent chapter.
This study employs a naturalistic empirical approach, utilizing a case study format that focuses on a source-oriented comparative analysis of target texts (TTs) and their corresponding source texts (STs) By examining allusions, the research necessitates a thorough investigation of the referents and their translations alongside the comparative evaluation.
The research will, therefore, be carried out in this order:
1 find an allusion in the ST;
2 find its respective referent in the SL;
3 search for a translation of the referent;
4 compare this translation to the translated allusion in the TT
Due to capacity limitations, analyzing every allusion present in the two novels is unfeasible During the research process, we collected all pertinent allusions and references to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the texts.
40 texts found in the novels were extracted, however for the purpose of this a relevant sample has been randomly selected for the analysis
This thesis examines the translation strategies employed to address allusions in two novels and their effects on the text Conducted through qualitative analysis, the research evaluates the quality of translations based on various methods, such as literal translation, existing translations, omissions, and adjustments in guidance It explores how these strategies influence the translated text and suggests alternative approaches when outcomes are unsatisfactory The evaluation of these strategies is framed with the ideal reader in mind, someone equipped with the necessary knowledge to fully grasp all elements of the text.
Methods
This study conducts a source-oriented comparative analysis of selected novels to explore translation criticism, focusing on how translators handle allusions While criticism often implies a negative assessment, this thesis aims to objectively evaluate the target texts (TTs) against the source texts (STs) to understand the translation strategies employed and the resulting shifts Drawing on Vilikovský (1984), the research seeks to determine whether the meanings and aspects of the TTs align with those of the STs It emphasizes that translation shifts can arise not only from inadequate strategies but also from inherent differences between languages and cultures Ultimately, the study aims to uncover the translator's project and approach in rendering the novels and their allusions through a comprehensive analysis.
The translation criticism of the selected novels will follow the methodology detailed in chapter 1.6, beginning with an analytical stage that involves a thorough examination of the target texts (TTs), source texts (STs), and relevant materials This analysis will utilize Berman's (1995) four levels of comparison, which include evaluating corresponding passages from both ST and TT, identifying problem and miracle spots, comparing the TTs with other existing translations, and analyzing allusions within the TTs in relation to their original counterparts.
The TT project aims to assess the consequences of the employed strategies, followed by a synthesis of the analytical results to evaluate the translation's effectiveness.
Categorisation of the Researched Material
Williams & Chesterman (2002) highlight that research on translation problems and strategies relies on textual data, specifically the identification of issues in source texts (STs) and their resolutions in target texts (TTs) The process of categorization, essential for analysis, involves both identifying differences (analysis) and recognizing similarities (synthesis) They describe categories as interpretive hypotheses that are useful for making valid generalizations and formulating precise hypotheses about the data Categories can be classified as either classical, which are mutually exclusive, or natural, which may overlap Additionally, a related set of categories forms a classification, which can be binary, a combination of binaries, or exist on a continuum, such as the spectrum between free and literal translation.
To effectively analyze the researched material, it must be categorized according to the theoretical framework established earlier All allusions identified in the texts have been extracted and organized in the Annexes by their respective mediums, and further classified based on potential translation strategies A representative sample has been selected for a detailed comparative analysis, which will be discussed in the subsequent chapter For the sample to be deemed representative, it must be randomly chosen to ensure that it is unbiased and fair in testing the hypothesis.
Random sampling is essential for minimizing bias in data selection, as highlighted by Chesterman (2002) To ensure a truly random sample, every potential sample must have an equal chance of being chosen (Williams & Chesterman, 2002) This process requires a list of random numbers to facilitate the selection of a representative sample In this thesis, the representative sample was created by writing down numbers on a separate sheet and utilizing a random number generator Consequently, the sample comprises randomly selected allusions from both the source language (SL) and target language (TL), along with their corresponding referents in both languages.
32 However, as Williams & Chesterman (2002, p 93) say, “we can seldom be absolutely sure that data are indeed 100% representative”, so most conclusions need to be qualified and made relative
The number of TL referents may vary, as there are instances where a referent lacks a translation or has multiple translations The analysis will utilize these samples, and a comprehensive list of allusions can be found in the appendix at the end of the thesis.
The categories for analysing the selected research materials are based on the categorisation by Rukuonen (2010) from chapter 1.2 on allusions The researched material is divided according to the following categories:
1 Replication – keeping the SL allusion unchanged in TL: a KP untranslated, b PN retained, c adaptive replication
2 Literal translation – translating the allusion literally by the translator themselves
When dealing with existing translations of an allusion in the target language (TL), the translator should identify the available translations If multiple translations exist, the translator can select the most popular option, opt for the latest version, or choose the translation that best aligns with the context of the text being translated.
1 Adding guidance – in form of footnotes, explanation, markers
3 Replacement – by a TL item or by paraphrase
This qualitative analysis will evaluate individual strategies by examining a selected sample to determine the frequency of correct strategy usage While perceptions of quality may vary among individuals, this thesis aims to maintain an unbiased perspective throughout the assessment.