INTRODUCTION 1.1 FILMS AND THEIR TRANSLATIONS
CONSTRAINTS OF AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION
Constraints in dubbing method of AVT will constitute an important part of this thesis in the following chapters since these constraints have a direct impact on the act of translation
Audiovisual translation (AVT) differs significantly from literary translation as it relies not only on text but also on visual elements, including lip-synchrony, performers' actions, and facial expressions This requirement applies to both dubbing and subtitling, necessitating that a film be translated into the target language in a manner that is both acoustically and visually synchronized Consequently, translators face various constraints, with cultural factors playing a crucial role in the AVT process, similar to challenges encountered in other translation forms like literary or technical translation.
As Aksoy (2000) has put it:
Translators face various constraints during the translation process, including the prevailing literary principles of their time, the expectations set by publishers or institutions, and the literary tastes and cultural traits of the target audience These factors significantly influence the translator's work and choices.
The role of a translator is crucial and unique within society, as they emerge as social beings during the translation process This process is recognized as a transfer that occurs within a sociocultural context.
Cultural constraints take place when an element in source culture does not exist in target culture because of the intercultural differences Again, Aksoy (2000) states:
Translation involves more than merely converting text from one language to another; it is a complex exchange between cultures Understanding the reasons behind a translator's choices—such as additions or reductions—reveals the cultural context surrounding the translation process This insight emphasizes the significance of culture in shaping the way language is used in translation.
Linguistic constraints, stemming from the syntactic differences between languages, present significant challenges for translators Elements such as wordplays, profanity, dialects, idiolects, and songs in films complicate the translation process, requiring careful consideration to preserve meaning and cultural nuance.
TYPES OF AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION
Films are globally exported and translated through dubbing or subtitling to cater to different languages Each country selects its translation method based on factors like past experiences, audience expectations, costs, and cultural traditions These decisions trace back to the late 1920s and early 1930s, coinciding with the advent of sound films.
In the realm of Audiovisual Translation (AVT), the primary methods employed are dubbing and subtitling Dubbing involves replacing the original dialogue with a translated version in the target language, while subtitling provides a translation of spoken dialogue displayed at the bottom of the screen Comparisons between these two techniques reveal differing opinions: critics of dubbing argue that it undermines the film's impact and facilitates censorship, whereas opponents of subtitling contend that it clutters the visual experience and distracts viewers' attention.
THE OBJECT AND THE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY
This study focuses on the animated comedy film "Shrek 2," directed by Andrew Adamson, Kelly Asbury, and Conrad Vernon, and featuring voices from Mike Myers, Eddie Murphy, and Cameron Diaz Although marketed as a children's film, "Shrek 2" is rich in allusions to popular culture and films that may be difficult for children in both the source and target cultures to comprehend Due to its significant cultural and linguistic challenges, this film serves as an ideal subject for translation research.
This thesis aims to provide valuable insights into translation strategies, focusing on the identification and definition of translation constraints and challenges The study will explore effective means and strategies for audiovisual translation (AVT) within this framework.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
In this thesis, only the dubbing method of audiovisual translation will be studied Because of the vast coverage of the topic, subtitling will not be studied
Audiovisual translation is an emerging field that has seen significant recent developments; however, these advancements lack a universally accepted methodology, leading to considerable variation in practices Nevertheless, the field continues to evolve rapidly.
A significant limitation of this thesis is the author's inability to meet the film's translator, which has hindered the opportunity to inquire about their decisions, preferences, and strategies Additionally, the author has not been able to engage with the film distribution company in Turkey to gain insights into their translation policies.
STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY
Chapter II, titled "Audiovisual Translation," aims to provide essential background for the study of this emerging field, which, despite being frequently encountered in our daily lives, has often been overlooked The chapter discusses the role of audiovisual translation (AVT) within Translation Studies and explores the terminology associated with this discipline It highlights the unique characteristics of audiovisual translations and the challenges they present in the translation process Additionally, the history of AVT is reviewed, followed by an overview of the various types of revoicing techniques used in this field.
Chapter III covers the theoretical framework Unfortunately, there is not a definite and agreed methodology for audiovisual translations This chapter includes some ideas about the place of AVT within the Translation Studies Target-oriented approach by Gideon Toury and domestication approach by Lawrence Venuti will be adopted for this specific study The reason for such an approach is that first, dubbing itself as a method of AVT attempts to hide the foreign nature of a film Second,
Shrek 2 is an animated comedy and the translator is expected to try to create the same humorous effect in the target audience by domesticating the source culture elements which are non-existent in the target culture
Chapter IV deals with the constraints of dubbing and Chapter V addresses the issue of challenges of dubbing Constraints and challenges are dealt in different chapters because constraints shape the translator’s choices during the process of translation First and foremost, lip-synchrony is discussed and then other constraints like content synchrony, institutional norms, social norms, state norms and translator’s attitude are treated in detail Challenges are the issues that are difficult to translate and that test the translator’s abilities to the limit They are categorized into cultural elements, humorous elements and linguistic elements Linguistics elements are also subgrouped into five: wordplays, swear words, dialects, idiolects and songs
Chapter VI gives information about the film After some statistical facts about the film are reported, the summary of the film is presented and some implicit messages that the film includes are discussed Then the source material which has been studied is explained
Chapter VII deals with analyzing the constraints of dubbing as norm-based constraints, synchrony-based constraints and translator’s attitude Chapter VIII deals with analyzing the challenges of dubbing in three main categories as cultural, humorous and linguistic elements
Conclusion contains a global assessment of the study Findings are examined under the light of Gideon Toury’s target-oriented approach and Lawrence Venuti’s domestication approach.
AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 2.1 AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION
HISTORY OF AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION
The introduction of cinema in 1895 led to the early use of intertitles, the precursor to modern subtitles, to convey dialogue to audiences Edwin Stanton Porter's 1903 film 'Uncle Tom's Cabin' marked the first use of these printed texts, which were strategically placed between scenes to enhance plot clarity and verbal communication among performers Additionally, intertitles facilitated translation for international audiences by allowing easy replacement with text in the target language.
The release of the first sound film, "The Jazz Singer," in 1927 presented a significant linguistic challenge for American film companies Initially, they attempted to reshoot films in various languages, but this approach was both unprofitable and ineffective Ultimately, the industry shifted to dubbing, which involved post-synchronized revoicing of films to address the language barrier.
In Turkey, the initial screening of foreign films in their original languages shifted in the 1930s due to the audience's limited foreign language proficiency, prompting the first dubbing efforts at İpek Film Stüdyosu This dubbing evolved beyond simple translation, adapting films to meet the expectations and cultural nuances of Turkish viewers Renowned dubbing actor Ferdi Tayfur played a pivotal role in this transformation, particularly known for his work on comedy films like Laurel and Hardy and the Marx Brothers Tayfur innovatively crafted new characteristics and dialogues for the characters, stating in an interview that he initially aimed for direct translations but found it more effective to align his crafted jokes with the actors' lip movements and physical expressions.
In the 1940s, the rise of dubbing studios in Turkey was primarily driven by the shift from sound films to dubbed films, with Turkish movies initially shot without sound and later dubbed by the original or different actors The popularity of Arabic films, especially Egyptian cinema, also contributed significantly, as these films were not only dubbed but featured songs re-recorded by renowned Turkish artists By the 1960s, all films underwent dubbing, whether interlingually or intralingually, through post-synchronization Today, in Turkey, most films, except for animated children's movies in theaters, are subtitled, while television broadcasts predominantly feature dubbed content, with a few exceptions on private channels.
REVOICING
In the realm of film language transfer, two primary methods are utilized: revoicing and subtitling Revoicing refers to the process of substituting the original audio track with a new language version, which can be in the same language or a different one This technique encompasses four distinct categories, each contributing to the overall experience of multilingual films.
Burgess (1980) gives three different definitions of dubbing:
(a) to make a new recording out of an original tape or record or track in order to accommodate changes, cuts or additions;
(b) to insert a totally new sound track, often a synchronized translation of the original track;
(c) to insert sound into a film or tape (p 297)
Lip-synch dubbing involves replacing the original audio with a translated voice track that closely mirrors the timing, phrasing, and lip movements of the original speech, as defined by Luyken et al (1991).
Dubbing is a complex process involving multiple stages, beginning with the dubbing translator who translates the film transcript and returns it Once the translation is complete, the dialogue writer, dubbing director, and dubbing actors review and modify the transcript as needed However, if the dialogue writer and dubbing director are not fluent in the source language, errors may occur Ideally, the translator would be present in the studio to ensure accuracy, but this is often not feasible.
This technique is commonly employed in monologues and documentaries to enhance the authenticity of the broadcast According to O’Connell (2003), the original sound is lowered to a manageable level whenever the speaker begins to talk, allowing viewers to fully engage with the content.
Voiceover translation prioritizes the accuracy of the source language text, allowing for more precise translations Unlike lip-sync dubbing, which is constrained by strict timing requirements, voiceover offers greater flexibility in conveying the original message effectively.
According to Luyken et al (1991) “narration is basically an extended voiceover” (p 80) Gambier (1995) points out the difference between voiceover and narration as follows:
Voiceover and narration differ primarily in their linguistic approach Narration involves pre-prepared text that is often translated and condensed, typically read by a journalist or actor In contrast, voiceover is utilized for more spontaneous interactions Both methods require synchronization with broadcasting, particularly when the narrator is visible on screen, as the verbal content is closely tied to the visual information presented.
This technique is commonly employed in children's programs and documentaries, where the original content is adapted for the target audience rather than translated literally It may include additional information to enhance understanding, involving adaptations with omissions, explanations, and comments Synchronization aligns with on-screen visuals instead of the original audio (Gambier, 2003) The commentary can be pre-recorded or delivered live, requiring the commentator to possess in-depth knowledge of the subject and strong journalistic skills (Luyken et al., 1991, p 82).
Luyken et al (1991) explain that free commentary differs from the revoicing methods on two counts:
The new commentary is an original creation that does not aim to replicate the original speech, resulting in content that significantly differs from the soundtrack of the original program.
No spotting is necessary but synchronization with on-screen images is essential (p 82)
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 3.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Since the release of the special edition of Babel titled "Cinéma et traduction" in 1960, research on Audiovisual Translation (AVT) over the past five decades has focused on its role within Translation Studies, yet a universally accepted theoretical framework for AVT remains elusive Early investigations into dubbing and subtitling primarily emphasized linguistic aspects, often neglecting socio-cultural influences The debate over whether AVT constitutes translation or adaptation has led some scholars to distance themselves from this field, viewing it as outside the traditional boundaries of translation studies, as noted by Diaz-Cintas (2004).
Translation theories often fail to effectively address Audiovisual Translation (AVT), leading scholars to analyze simpler phenomena rather than developing new theories that capture AVT's unique aspects This gap in research contributes to the perception of AVT as a marginal field, especially when contrasted with the translation of significant texts like the Bible and literary classics Despite translation's crucial role in cultural exchange, its academic study is relatively recent and has historically overlooked even its most esteemed forms, resulting in a further neglect of AVT research.
After talking about the research difficulties of the AVT, Karamitroglou
The essence of translation is rooted in how we define it By adopting Toury’s definition, which views translation as any target-language expression recognized within its culture, we can seamlessly integrate audiovisual translation into the wider field of Translation Studies.
Also, Karamitroglou (2000) lists a number of additional reasons that allow us to accept audiovisual translation as a sub-field of Translation Studies:
Audiovisual translation has more in common with written translation Most audiovisual translations are performed with a written form of the original text in hand
Typological studies in audiovisual translation have already managed to present the various audiovisual language transfer methods within the general framework of Translation Studies and alongside the other
Research on audiovisual translation has revealed connections between specific language transfer methods and established principles in general translation theory For instance, subtitling is associated with the concept of 'overt translation,' while dubbing aligns with 'covert translation.'
Audiovisual translation was born out of the same drive that guided literary translation: the need to overcome the communication barriers imposed by linguistic fragmentation
The identification of the hierarchical factors influencing translation processes, procedures, and products is a crucial objective of translation theory Similarly, establishing a hierarchy of factors specific to audiovisual translation is essential for developing a robust audiovisual translation theory.
In his 2000 study, he concludes that audiovisual translation does not necessitate a new translation theory; instead, it can rely on insights from general translation theory He asserts that translation theory offers a solid theoretical framework for exploring audiovisual translation.
On the other hand, Gambier (2009) asserts that certain concepts in Translation Studies should be revised, extended and rethought when they are applied to AVT For example:
"Screen texts" are characterized by their transient nature and multimodal elements, where coherence arises from the interaction between text, images, and sound This evolution from traditional linear texts to hypertexts on the Internet, which incorporate hyperlinks, has rendered the concept of text increasingly ambiguous.
19 translators, subtitlers, conference interpreters, and localizers refer to the same concept of “text”?
In literary and translation studies, authorship is typically attributed to a single individual; however, in Audiovisual Translation (AVT), this notion is more complex The AVT process involves multiple contributors, including screenwriters, producers, directors, actors, sound engineers, and editors, all of whom play vital roles in shaping the final product.
In Audiovisual Translation (AVT), meaning is generated through a complex interplay rather than a straightforward sequence or a singular system of signs This dynamic interaction occurs among the various creators of the AV content, the audience, and even across different AV productions through visual references and allusions.
Translation units: The issues of text, authorship and sense entail questions regarding translation units in AVT
Translation: The very concept of translation highlights a lack of consensus, overlapping as it does those of adaptation, manipulation, transfer, and remake
Translation strategy encompasses both macro and micro perspectives, influenced by socio-political and cultural factors in Audiovisual Translation (AVT) A key question arises: does subtitling, being presented alongside the original language, inherently lead to a foreignizing effect, while dubbing is inherently domesticating?
Reevaluating the relationship between translation norms and technical constraints is essential, especially as films are now frequently distributed on DVDs and through online downloads The rise of fansubs has led to what can be termed “abusive” subtitling, which disregards established conventions by incorporating typographic variations, adding glosses or commentaries, and altering the positioning of lines.
The interplay between written and oral language is crucial, particularly in the context of subtitles and dubbing, known as "dubbese" in Italian This relationship highlights the influence of established written norms and conventions on the language used in subtitles Additionally, it raises important questions about the sociolinguistic role and responsibilities of subtitlers in bridging the gap between everyday speech and formal written language.
Audiovisual Translation (AVT) has the potential to significantly impact the field of Translation Studies Conversely, Translation Studies can enhance AVT research by applying relevance theory, Descriptive Translation Studies, and a polysystemic perspective, fostering a more comprehensive understanding of both disciplines.
Gambier raises critical questions regarding the applicability of Translation Studies concepts to Audiovisual Translation (AVT), highlighting the distinction between screen texts and conventional texts He queries whether the term "text" holds the same meaning across different Translation Studies fields and emphasizes that authorship in AVT involves multiple contributors, unlike in literary studies where it typically refers to a single author Gambier notes that various interactive factors contribute to the meaning of audiovisual products, prompting inquiries into the nature of translation units in AVT He argues that the concept of translation itself is contentious, with no universal agreement on its definition, and that translation strategies differ based on the intended effects of AVT Furthermore, he points out that fans often engage in unconventional subtitling practices known as fansubbing, disregarding traditional translation norms Finally, Gambier examines the interplay between written and oral forms and questions the subtitler's role, suggesting that while AVT challenges traditional Translation Studies, it can also benefit from its diverse theoretical frameworks.
Gambier and Gottlieb (2001) explore the relevance of (multi)media translation to Translation Studies, highlighting the complexities involved They conclude that research in this area is challenging due to the absence of suitable theoretical frameworks and methodological tools.
It reveals the complexities and challenges of all types of communication and highlights the necessary functions of any translation
CONSTRAINTS OF DUBBING 4.1 NORM-BASED APPROACH…
Institutional Norms
The role of the institution or employer in the translation process is increasingly recognized as a critical factor that shapes the outcome of translation projects As noted by Hewson and Martin (1991), the "Translation Initiator" serves as the driving force behind translation, significantly influencing the translation operation Translators must navigate a predefined set of conditions established by the institution, which shares responsibility for the final product The institution determines guidelines based on the film's type, content, and target audience, providing essential direction to the translator While these guidelines may initially seem restrictive, they can ultimately assist the translator by offering clarity and structure, reinforcing the collaborative nature of the translation process.
Clearly defining the parameters simplifies the translator's decision-making process when selecting from various translated text forms This thorough consideration not only assists translators in their work but also allows translation critics to assess the resulting translated text more objectively.
It is crucial to determine if the institution is capable of evaluating the translated text, understands the complexities of translation, and, most importantly, verifies the translation before it is sent to the dubbing studio.
Social Norms
When translating, it is essential for the translator to consider the cultural, moral, traditional, and religious values of the target audience, as these elements significantly influence the final product Understanding the specific audience allows the translator to make informed decisions throughout the translation process Social norms, which encompass ideology, moral values, and religious beliefs, play a crucial role in guiding the translator's activities, ensuring that the translation resonates with the intended audience.
Lefevere (2001) describes ideology as a conceptual framework made up of the opinions and attitudes that are considered acceptable within a specific society at a given time, influencing how readers and translators engage with texts Additionally, Lefevere (1992) emphasizes the significance of ideology in shaping the interpretation and translation of literary works.
Ideology significantly impacts the translator's decision-making throughout the entire translation process, often overshadowing linguistic considerations when conflicts arise.
The ethics and moral values of a society significantly influence translation practices, as certain cultural norms may be surprising or even shocking to the target audience Translators often need to adapt these values to align with the target culture However, if a translator disagrees with the prevailing ethics of their own culture, they may choose to introduce the ethics of the source culture to challenge and disrupt the dominant societal norms.
Religious constraints significantly impact translation, as translators often employ domesticating strategies when faced with content deemed unacceptable by the target religion This can lead to the inclusion of the translator's own ideas or religious opinions in the text Historical examples, such as William Tyndale, who was executed for heresy in 1536, and French humanist Etienne Dolet, who was also sentenced to death, highlight the dangers of translating sensitive religious material.
1546 for adding, in his translation of one of Plato’s dialogues, the phrase rien du tout (‘nothing at all’) in a passage about what existed after death (Munday, 2008).
State Norms
Governments often establish guidelines for films presented in cinemas and on television, with many countries implementing a rating system based on content such as sex, violence, and language Ignoring these regulations by translators can lead to censorship issues.
Gürata (2007) explains this as follows:
Movies were often significantly altered for specific export markets, as local distributors and censorship bodies modified them to better suit culturally specific audiences This included removing certain scenes or inserting performances by local stars into the original films Such transformations greatly influenced how these movies were received, particularly in the context of modernization and the experience of modernity.
There are also some individuals called “gatekeepers” who decide whether a message from a sender will be passed to the receiver intact or changed
Baumgarten (2005) talks about this issue of “gatekeeping”:
Gatekeeping is a phenomenon of information filtering aimed at executing social control, where messages are altered as they travel from sender to receiver This process involves successive gates, each manned by individuals—often cultural representatives or institutional figures—who can modify the message by adding or removing information The transformation of messages is influenced by the interests and knowledge of those at each gate Similarly, in film translation, the film text also passes through multiple gates, undergoing changes along the way.
Politics significantly influences the translation process, constraining the translator's ideological space It determines what aspects of other cultures can be translated at any given time, aligning with the political objectives and social development of the target culture Consequently, the impact of political power on a translator's work should not be underestimated.
When confronted with political constraints, translators often employ various strategies to navigate censorship They may alter the source text deemed politically inappropriate, utilizing techniques such as revision, condensation, and neutralization to ensure compliance with political standards.
SYNCHRONY-BASED APPROACH
Istvan Fodor (as cited in O’Connell, 2003) was the pioneer of the constraint-based approach to dubbing, focusing on various forms of synchrony He categorized synchrony into three types, one of which is phonetic synchrony, defined as the alignment between the visible articulatory movements and the corresponding sounds produced.
Character synchrony refers to the alignment between the dubbing voice's timbre and tempo and the original actor's physicality and gestures Content synchrony occurs when the semantic meaning of the original script closely matches that of the dubbed version Whitman-Linsen, as referenced by Thompson (2009), conducted an in-depth analysis of various types of synchrony in dubbing.
Visual or optical synchrony encompasses various forms of alignment between auditory and visual elements in media Lip synchrony refers to the correspondence between sounds and the lip movements observed on screen Syllable articulation synchrony involves the alignment of heard syllables with those perceived visually Isochrony pertains to the synchronization of the duration of spoken utterances with their visual representation, ensuring that the audio begins and ends in tandem with the on-screen action Lastly, kinetic synchrony highlights the relationship between the heard voice and the accompanying gestures and facial expressions, creating a cohesive viewing experience.
Audio and acoustic synchrony play a crucial role in dubbing, focusing on several key elements First, the idiosyncratic vocal type must align with the character's persona, ensuring the voice feels authentic Additionally, paralinguistic elements, such as pitch and tempo, are essential for conveying mood and emotion effectively Prosody, which encompasses the tone and rhythm of the voice, also significantly impacts the audience's perception Cultural variations must be carefully navigated to address differing reactions to situations across cultures Finally, accents and dialects should be accurately represented in the dubbed version to maintain authenticity and enhance viewer engagement.
Translators must focus on the source dialogue while acknowledging the accompanying visual elements, as the images on screen play a crucial role in conveying the film's meaning Ignoring the visual text can lead to inevitable errors, as both visual and verbal texts contribute to the overall understanding of the narrative While visual elements can present challenges for translators, they also serve to clarify ambiguities in the dialogue, often conveying messages more effectively than words alone This synergy between visual and verbal content enhances audience comprehension of the film's message.
Lip synchronization is crucial in dubbing, as it involves aligning the performer's lip movements with the translated dialogue The quality of a translation is often assessed based on its lip-sync accuracy, particularly in close-up shots, which can pose challenges for translators However, since most films utilize long or medium shots, this generally eases the translator's task, making effective dubbing more achievable.
Lip-synchrony is a factor which affects the translation process directly Chaume (2004) underlines that:
The translator must ensure that the portrayal of realism is preserved by aligning open vowels and bilabial consonants with moments when the on-screen character clearly opens their mouth or closes their lips to produce these sounds.
When translating dialogue, it's essential to maintain a similar length and timing as the original text Additionally, some languages may lack corresponding lip movements present in the source language, requiring the translator to adapt the text creatively, showcasing their expertise in the process.
The primary goal of lip-synchronization is to create the illusion that on-screen performers are speaking the target language, ensuring the audience feels connected and engaged Proper lip-syncing is crucial, as any mismatch in lip movements can make viewers realize that the film is not authentic, which contradicts the purpose of dubbing—making it appear as a local production.
Herbst (as cited in Voigt, 2002) defines lip-synch types as:
(3) lip-synch concerning speech tempo
(4) lip-synch concerning volume and distinctness of articulation
Qualitative lip sync involves aligning the source and target languages in terms of meaning, while quantitative lip sync focuses on matching the length of utterances between the two languages Translators may adjust the dialogue by adding or omitting words to maintain the intended meaning within the time constraints In off-screen scenes, where the performer is not visible, translating the script to fit the target language and culture becomes more manageable Additionally, the speech tempo is significantly influenced by the number of syllables and phonemes present in both languages.
Content synchrony refers to the close alignment of the semantic content between the original and dubbed script versions of a film (O’Connell, 2007, p 130) It is essential for the original script to closely match the translated version, both dynamically and formally However, the process of dubbing is susceptible to censorship and manipulation, as translators are often constrained by the regulations imposed by film companies or government authorities, limiting their creative freedom.
The alignment between the original and dubbed scripts is not a primary concern for audiences, as they typically lack the expertise to assess the accuracy of the dubbed translation This covert nature of dubbing allows for greater flexibility in adaptation, simplifying the translator's role However, it also exposes the content to potential censorship and misuse.
The script of a film holds no inherent meaning without the accompanying visual and auditory elements, as the content must enhance the on-screen action Therefore, filmmaking is a multifaceted art that combines script, visuals, and sound In the process of dubbing, translators are tasked with adapting the written content while considering these additional codes to ensure a cohesive and complete transfer of meaning.
TRANSLATOR’S ATTITUDE
Translation is a complex process that goes beyond merely converting text from one language to another; it involves the translator's choices and attitudes, which are expressed through methods like omission and addition Factors influencing these decisions include the text's nature, genre, cultural context, and the characteristics of both the source and target languages.
Every translator inevitably brings a degree of personal involvement to their work, influenced by their empathy with the author and the message Unlike machines, human translators imprint their personality on translations, making it essential for them to minimize any personal bias that could conflict with the original author's intent.
A translator's attitude towards translation and the specific film significantly influences their work The strategies and approaches they choose, along with their cultural, social, ideological, and religious backgrounds, play a crucial role in shaping their decisions Additionally, the translator's mood during the translation process can also impact the final outcome.
Translation norms play a crucial role in Translation Studies, influencing the decisions of translators during the translation process While these norms significantly impact the cognitive processes of translators, their covert nature makes them difficult to identify directly As translators become more professional, they develop reflexive responses to these established norms, enhancing their translation skills.
The translator plays a crucial role in the translation process, particularly in audiovisual translation (AVT), where a deep understanding of both the source language and the specific film's context is essential To effectively convey the film's message, the translator must possess a unique set of knowledge and skills tailored to the nuances of the source material.
To effectively translate between languages, one must possess a deep understanding of both the source and target cultures, alongside knowledge of film-related terminology Essential skills include adaptation, paraphrasing, and rephrasing, complemented by a rich vocabulary in both languages Additionally, incorporating Bell’s (1991) translator model can enhance the translation process.
A skilled translator must possess a deep understanding of three key areas: first, semantic knowledge to comprehend how propositions are structured; second, syntactic knowledge to synthesize clauses that convey propositional content and analyze them for embedded meanings; and third, pragmatic knowledge to effectively realize clauses within informative texts and decompose those texts back into their constituent clauses.
Dubbing translators play a crucial role in adapting dialogue to match the lip movements of performers, requiring a unique set of skills and knowledge They often modify the translated text by rearranging words, selecting more suitable synonyms, or altering sentence length to ensure synchronization with the visuals Techniques such as sentence inversion, exemplified by Turkish dubbing actor Ferdi Tayfur, may also be employed However, these adjustments can sometimes compromise the quality of the translation.
The institution hiring the translator requires that both the source language and audience expectations are fulfilled The translator's responsibilities differ based on the type of text, such as film, and they often face pressure from both institutional demands and audience expectations throughout the translation process.
The "translation initiator," which refers to the institution or firm assigning the translation task, plays a crucial role in the translation process by imposing specific conditions that the translator must follow Additionally, the expectations and characteristics of the target audience, including their educational level and age group, significantly influence the translator's approach and decisions.
Culture is a multifaceted concept that encompasses a wide range of elements E B Tylor defines culture as a complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morals, customs, and the habits acquired by individuals within society Raymond Williams expands on this by stating that culture encompasses the organization of production, family structures, and the institutions that shape social relationships and communication among members of society Margaret Mead also contributes to this understanding by highlighting the various aspects of culture that influence human behavior and social interaction.
“culture is the learned behavior of a society or a subgroup” The following definition may be a comprehensive one as well:
Culture encompasses the collective knowledge, experiences, beliefs, values, attitudes, and meanings developed by a group over generations It includes social hierarchies, religious practices, concepts of time, roles within society, spatial relationships, and material possessions This accumulation of cultural elements arises from both individual and group efforts, shaping the identity and worldview of the community.
Culture has a central place in AVT as in other translation types and it is impossible for a researcher to study film translation in isolation from the cultural contexts (Delabastita, 1990)
In films, cultural elements are expressed through visual and verbal channels, requiring translators to identify, interpret, and analyze these elements effectively A successful translation demands that the translator be both bilingual and bicultural to accurately convey the source culture into the target culture However, achieving a complete transfer of cultural elements can often be challenging, regardless of the translator's expertise.
In written translation, it is relatively straightforward to convey cultural elements to the target culture However, in a multimedia context that combines verbal and visual channels, the transfer of these cultural elements becomes a significant challenge for translators.
37 verbal channel but the visual channel remains untouched In other words, translated verbal channel may not correspond to untouched visual channel
In written translation, paralinguistic features such as body language, gestures, facial expressions, tone, and pitch of voice are conveyed through text, while films visually present these elements This discrepancy poses a challenge for translators, as paralinguistic features from the source culture may lack direct equivalents in the target culture or may be expressed through different forms of body language.
CHALLENGES OF DUBBING 5.1 CULTURAL ELEMENTS
HUMOROUS ELEMENTS
Dictionary of Media and Communications (“Humor,” 2009) defines humor as
Humor is the state of producing or perceiving something as funny, often accompanied by laughter According to the Oxford Dictionary of English, it is defined as the quality of being amusing or comic, particularly as expressed in literature or speech.
Translating humor in audiovisual translation (AVT) poses significant challenges for translators, as it requires a high level of skill This difficulty arises primarily from the reliance on wordplay, puns, and language nuances, which often come with accompanying visual elements.
Humor varies significantly across different cultures and even within the same community When translating humorous content, it is essential for the translator to consider the text's nature, as well as the cultural contexts of both the source and target languages The translator's primary task is to identify the humorous elements and adapt them effectively to ensure they retain their comedic impact in the target language.
Martinez-Sierra (2006) organizes humorous elements into eight different groups:
1 Community-and-Institutions Elements refer to cultural or intertextual features that are rooted and tied to a specific culture
2 Community-Sense-of-Humor Elements, the topics of which appear to be more popular in certain communities than in others, an idea that does not imply any cultural specificity, but rather a preference
3 Linguistic Elements are based on linguistic features They may be explicit or implicit, spoken or written
4 Visual Elements comprise a differentiation between the humor produced by what we can see on the screen and those elements that in fact constitute a visually coded version of a linguistic element
5 Graphic Elements: This type includes the humor derived from a written message inserted in a screen picture
6 Paralinguistic Elements This group includes the non-verbal qualities of a voice, such as the intonation, the rhythm, the tone, the timbre, the resonance, etc., which are associated with expressions of emotions such as screams, sighs, or laughter
7 Non-Marked (Humorous) Elements represent miscellaneous instances that are not easily categorized as one of the other categories but are, nevertheless, humorous They may have either an acoustic or a visual form, and can be either explicit or implicit
8 Sound Elements They are sounds that by themselves or in combination with others may be humorous They are explicitly and acoustically found in the soundtrack and the special effects when these contribute to the humor (pp 290-291)
Audiovisual translation aims to evoke a similar response in the target audience as the original text does in its source culture (Chaume, 2004a) Nida (2000) identifies two types of equivalence in translation: formal and dynamic Formal equivalence focuses on maintaining the original message's form and content, while dynamic equivalence seeks to produce the closest natural equivalent effect for the target audience Ideally, translators strive for dynamic equivalence; however, when this is not feasible, they may resort to formal equivalence Addressing cultural gaps that lack direct formal equivalence may require dynamic equivalence to effectively recreate the source text's impact on the target audience.
LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS
Humorous elements in audiovisual translation (AVT) primarily rely on linguistic features, including auditory, formal, stylistic, and figurative aspects This reliance presents a significant challenge for translators, as each language possesses unique linguistic characteristics that can complicate the translation process.
Delabastita (1996) suggests the following definition of wordplay:
Wordplay refers to the creative manipulation of language, where the structural characteristics of words and phrases are utilized to create a meaningful interaction between multiple linguistic forms that may appear similar yet convey distinct meanings.
And he (1996) divides the wordplay or punning into the following categories:
homonymy (identical sounds and spelling)
homophony (identical sounds but different spellings)
homography (different sounds but identical spelling)
paronymy (there are slight differences in both spelling and sound) (p
Delabastita (1996) offers the following translation methods of puns or wordplays:
A pun is a form of wordplay where a source-text pun is translated into a target-language pun This translation can vary significantly from the original, differing in formal structure, semantic meaning, or lexical function.
PUN to NON-PUN involves transforming a pun into a phrase that conveys its meaning without using wordplay This can be achieved by either preserving both interpretations of the pun in a straightforward manner or by choosing one interpretation while omitting the other In some cases, the translation may alter both elements of the pun significantly, resulting in a loss of their original form.
Puns can be effectively substituted with various wordplay-related rhetorical devices, such as repetition, alliteration, irony, or paradox, to maintain the original impact of the pun By employing these techniques, writers can create engaging and memorable content that resonates with readers while enhancing the overall meaning This approach not only preserves the playful essence of the pun but also enriches the text's linguistic texture, making it both enjoyable and thought-provoking Ultimately, the strategic use of these rhetorical devices can elevate the writing and captivate the audience's attention.
PUN→ ZERO: the portion of text containing the pun is simply omitted
PUN ST = PUN TT: the translator reproduces the source-text pun and possibly its immediate environment in its original formulation, i.e without actually ‘translating’ it
In translation, a non-pun can be transformed into a pun when the translator intentionally introduces wordplay in sections where the original text lacks it This approach serves to compensate for puns that may have been lost in other parts of the source text or for various other reasons.
ZERO→ PUN: totally new textual material is added, which contains wordplay and which has no apparent precedent or justification in the source text except as a compensatory device
Editorial techniques include the use of explanatory footnotes or endnotes, comments in translator's forewords, and the anthological presentation of various complementary solutions to address a single source-text issue.
In film, every element, including camera angles and shot types, contributes to the overall meaning of wordplay, necessitating that translators focus intently on visual, auditory, verbal, and non-verbal cues While a translator may find ways to convey wordplay, challenges arise when the verbal text is intrinsically linked to the visual elements on screen As noted by Onaran (1978), “it is out of the question that cinema, a visual language, can be translated visually” (p 86).
Dubbing translators face more constraints than literary translators when addressing translation challenges, as they cannot include explanatory notes Unlike literary translators, who can replace unfunny jokes with alternatives, dubbing translators are limited by the need for verbal jokes to align with the on-screen visuals Altering a joke in audiovisual translation can lead to a loss of intended humor and create a visual mismatch, making it crucial for dubbing translators to adhere closely to the original content.
Swear words are prevalent in American films, but translators often need to soften them due to societal norms and censorship The influence of cultural expectations compels translators to replace strong profanity with milder alternatives While swearing exists in every culture, its expression varies significantly; some cultures use explicit language, while others are more implicit This variation necessitates careful consideration by translators when adapting dialogue for different audiences.
Dialect refers to a specific variation of a language that is characterized by distinct words, grammar, and pronunciation, often associated with a particular region (regional dialect) or social class (sociolect).
The way people communicate reveals significant insights into their geographical background and social status However, in the process of dubbing, these nuances are often overlooked, resulting in a reliance on standard language When translators attempt to convey dialects in the target language, they face the challenge of finding equivalent expressions, often leading them to default to standard language Consequently, the rich diversity of dialects is frequently lost in translation.
Every individual has a unique way of speaking that includes specific vocabulary, pronunciation, and syntactic structures, which distinguishes them from others Capturing these idiosyncrasies is crucial for viewers to fully appreciate films However, translators often resort to standard language, which may hinder the authentic representation of these distinctive speech patterns.
Songs play a crucial role in films, serving specific purposes that align with the plot Their selection is intentional and meaningful, making it essential for translators to consider their relevance when translating film content.
Low (2006) discusses different types of song translating according to the function that the translation is intended for and distinguishes five main functions that a song translation may have:
1 To be sung in the target language
2 To be spoken as an introduction to the original song
3 To be read in a recital program or a CD insert
4 To be studied by the singer preparing to perform the song in the source language
5 To be displayed as surtitles while the song or opera is being performed, or as subtitles on a videoed performance (p 512)
Translating lyrics into singable texts presents a unique challenge for translators, as they must navigate the constraints of existing music, including its rhythms and note values, which are essential to maintain the integrity of the song.
Low (2006) talks about the strategies that the translator could employ: