Theorising Slang
This chapter on youth language will examine sociolinguistic theories, starting with various definitions of slang as a non-standard language variety It will address the concepts of power and prestige in language use, highlighting how adherence to or rejection of linguistic norms can reflect an individual's societal position The chapter will conclude by exploring the terms commonly used to describe slang, providing a foundation for understanding its formation and usage among marginalized youth By establishing these concepts, the thesis will facilitate a deeper engagement with the slang in the banlieue texts, both in their original language and in English translation.
Slang in English is often defined by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) as a highly colloquial language that is considered below standard educated speech, consisting of either new words or existing words used in a special sense This definition highlights the informality associated with slang and introduces the concept of register It also emphasizes the novelty aspect, indicating that slang can either involve new lexicon or unconventional usage of familiar terms Additionally, the term "educated" in relation to standard language suggests that speakers of standard varieties may often perceive the use of non-standard language as indicative of a lack of education.
For definitions of the word argot available in French, we can turn to the
The Grand Robert de la langue française and the Trésor de la langue française provide insightful definitions of "argot," emphasizing its historical context as a secretive language used by miscreants to obscure communication from outsiders The Grand Robert outlines three key definitions, highlighting argot's role in fostering group identity and cohesion among specific professions or communities Similarly, the Trésor distinguishes between the origins of argot as a tool for communication among criminals and its contemporary use by underground groups and ex-offenders Both dictionaries underscore argot's evolution as a language that not only signifies belonging to a particular social or professional group but also serves to differentiate its speakers from the broader population.
1 All English translations of citations originally in French that I include in French in the footnotes are my own unless otherwise specified
Argot is a specialized language initially used by criminals to ensure discretion in their communications, featuring either a unique vocabulary or techniques that modify commonly known words It also refers to the specific jargon associated with various professions or groups, such as Parisian argot, boulevard argot, military argot, and the slang of schools, sports, masons, typographers, and seminarists, including the argot of the École polytechnique Essentially, argot serves as a conventional and secretive mode of communication within distinct communities.
3 “A Autrefois L'ensemble des gueux, bohémiens, mendiants professionnels, voleurs
The term refers to a conventional language used by marginalized groups such as beggars and gypsies, specifically a dialect associated with criminals like vagabonds, thieves, and murderers Today, this language is primarily spoken within the underworld, including organized crime and former convicts.
Specialized language or vocabulary, known as jargon, develops within specific social or professional groups, allowing individuals to showcase their membership and differentiate themselves from the general population Examples include Parisian slang, school jargon, and terminology from finance and journalism Examining the evolution of these terms reveals how their usage has transformed over time, highlighting the dynamic nature of language within various communities.
This thesis explores the similarities between the French term "argot" and the English term "slang," treating them as synonymous This approach facilitates a focused discussion on how this type of language serves various functions, allowing speakers to express opposition to social, political, religious, and moral taboos propagated by established forms of language, as noted by Jean-Pierre Goudaillier.
Goudaillier (2002) highlights that all languages possess an evolving "slangy dimension," which serves as a means for speakers to conceal and code their communication He provides historical examples of how different groups have utilized slang for various purposes, particularly noting how 15th-century criminals fostered a sense of "brotherhood" through their shared language, as exemplified in the ballads of François Villon This use of slang enables groups to communicate discreetly, ensuring their exchanges remain indecipherable to external authorities, especially when organizing dissident movements.
Denise Franỗois-Geiger, a colleague of Goudaillier, explores the history of slang, noting that the term "argot" emerged in the 17th century in French, replacing earlier terms like "jargon" and "jobelin." Initially, "argot" referred to the community of criminals and beggars, eventually evolving to describe their secretive language, which was designed to be incomprehensible to outsiders (1975, pp 24-25).
Every language has a slang dimension, reflecting the social, political, religious, and moral taboos and prohibitions present in any human society These elements are communicated through the legitimate forms of language, highlighting the intricate relationship between language and societal norms.
Every language inherently possesses a slang register that evolves continuously, serving as a tool for creating strategies of circumvention and sometimes even encryption or masking The characteristics and functions of urban youth language reflect this dynamic, as historical usage of slang by various groups to prevent external understanding remains a vital aspect of contemporary communication.
Interestingly, Franỗois-Geiger stresses in her considerations of the history and use of argot that there is not one unique argot but many argots
The differentiation between general slang, accessible to most language speakers, and specific, coded slang used by restricted groups highlights the dual role of slang in fostering inclusion and exclusion This concept will be revisited in the context of urban youth language, emphasizing the importance of understanding the nuances between subgroup-specific slang and the broader slang utilized by larger communities.
To conclude the discussion on definitions of slang, I would like to refer to the definition proposed collectively by a group of scholars in the book Global
English Slang: Methodologies and Perspectives in which a number of writers explore the traits and usage of different slangs from around the world These scholars state that:
Slang refers to informal language that is often perceived as new or unconventional, challenging established social and linguistic norms It can also reflect shared values and play a significant role in shaping personal or group identity.
The pursuit of consensus in discussions about slang highlights its role in expressing themes of alterity, belonging, and identity through its informal and novel characteristics Analyzing slang, or argot, reveals that it is fundamentally a form of non-standard language, prompting a deeper investigation into the concept of "standard" language This exploration includes understanding how slang differentiates itself from other non-standard forms of communication To effectively discuss the distinctions between standard and non-standard language, it is essential to first consider these categories within a sociolinguistic framework.
The theoretical framework of sociolinguistics, according to Franỗoise Gadet, considers languages in terms of their instability and their internal heterogeneity (1997, p 3) Since, as Sali A Tagliamonte reminds us in her book
Variationist sociolinguistics posits that "speakers make choices when they speak and alternate among these choices" (2012, p 3) This field provides insights into the various factors that influence language choices, such as the time and place of communication, a speaker's social background, and their activities These influences can be categorized into distinct linguistic varieties that represent the shared ways of speaking within specific groups (Gadet 1997, p 7).