INTRODUCTION
Background of the Problem
Corruption has existed and constituted a serious problem since ancient civilizations It has been experienced by all societies, in both developed and developing countries (Egube, 2006, Faniel,
Corruption remains endemic in developing countries due to a lack of essential checks and balances among power centers Historically viewed as a catalyst for economic growth, recent public opinion surveys indicate a global consensus that corruption is detrimental Its social, economic, political, and psychological impacts highlight the urgent need for collective action against this pervasive issue.
The International Social Survey Program (ISSP, 2004) highlights that while there is widespread global condemnation of corruption, understanding the nuances of corruption and anti-corruption efforts requires an examination of varying perceptions In fact, perceptions of corruption may have more detrimental effects than corruption itself, as they can create a pervasive atmosphere of distrust and cynicism.
A "culture of distrust" towards certain institutions can foster a tradition of gift-giving, potentially exacerbating corruption (Anderson & Tverdova, 2003) Conversely, the African Development Bank Group (ADBG, 2003) highlights that individuals' perceptions of corruption are influenced by the social, legal, and economic frameworks of their countries, along with their daily encounters with corrupt practices.
Corruption begins in an individual's heart as thoughts, which then manifest into actions; repeated actions become habits, shaping one's character and becoming second nature (Ochulor, 2010) Over time, various activities are deemed unethical, immoral, criminal, and illegal, yet not all corrupt behaviors are legally addressed The rapid evolution of new forms of corruption often outpaces the development of relevant laws, adding to the complexity of the issue (Faniel, 2009).
Despite awareness of misconduct and corruption within organizations, many individuals refrain from reporting these incidents (ICAC, 1994) The Kilimanjaro International Transformational Consulting and Training (KITCT, 2013) highlights the need to explore factors that prevent reporting of corruption in Ethiopia It raises questions about whether individuals truly recognize corruption as illegal and emphasizes that personal perceptions of corruption can influence its persistence As Hochschild (2005:340) notes, “where you stand depends on what you see,” suggesting that one’s viewpoint is shaped by their identity This idea is further supported by the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC) (cited in Shimales, 2005:2), reinforcing the importance of understanding individual perspectives on corruption.
People are less likely to respond to corrupt or harmful activities if they do not recognize them as such Even if individuals identify certain behaviors as corrupt, they may choose not to intervene if they perceive those actions as acceptable under the circumstances.
According to survey conducted by Institute of Educational Research (IER, 2001 cited in KITCT,
Corruption has emerged as a significant issue in Ethiopia, particularly in recent years, with increasing incidence and severity A 2005 World Bank survey revealed that 40% of businesses identified corruption as one of the top three challenges facing small and microenterprises Additionally, the World Economic Forum's annual reports from 2007-2008 and 2009 ranked corruption as the fourth most problematic factor for conducting business in the country.
According to a 2013 survey by FEACC, corruption in Ethiopia's public sector is the seventh most serious issue, following the lack of access to safe drinking water The survey highlights that fraud, embezzlement, extortion, nepotism, and theft are the main forms of corruption prevalent in the country This underscores the urgent need for both government and citizen involvement to address the ongoing corruption crisis in Ethiopia.
Corruption in higher education institutions poses a significant threat to the effectiveness and efficiency of the public sector, potentially producing graduates whose inadequate skills could endanger various industries (Hallak & Poisson, 2007; Heyneman, 2007) The presence of corruption undermines the educational system's role in modeling good behavior for young adults, making it more detrimental than in other sectors due to its immoral and illegal implications This corruption not only demotivates students but also hampers education's ability to serve the public good, particularly in selecting future leaders based on fairness and impartiality (Rumayntseva, 2005) Ultimately, it contradicts the fundamental aims of education, which include fostering civic culture and promoting values such as integrity, equity, fairness, and social justice.
Waite and Allen, 2003 found that although corruption is widespread, the issue has not gained substantial attention by scholars in the field of higher institutions In the same way, Engudai
In her 2011 findings, the researcher highlighted the unethical behavior and improprieties observed among students in higher education institutions, which could significantly impact their future roles in various sectors that demand transparency and accountability Understanding students' perspectives on corruption before they enter the workforce is crucial for addressing corruption in public sectors This insight has motivated the examination of the perceptions and attitudes of prospective graduates from Adama Science and Technology University regarding corruption.
Statement of the Problem
Corruption is a significant global threat that undermines societal stability, security, and the principles of democracy, while also hindering ethical values and sustainable development This pervasive issue acts as a cancer that affects all sectors of society, impacting both developed and developing nations to varying extents.
In Ethiopia, corruption and unethical practices are pervasive across various government institutions, with public entities involved in land allocation, housing, telecommunications, electricity, loan granting, licensing, tax collection, and procurement being particularly affected Additionally, sectors such as customs and excise, finance, judiciary, police, banks, HIV/AIDS secretariat, and local administrations (woreda and kebele) also experience significant levels of corruption (Shimales, 2005; KITCT, 2013; IER, 2001).
Corruption in Ethiopia is significantly influenced by widespread misconceptions, particularly among newly recruited employees of the Custom and Revenue Authority Many enter the office with the expectation of quickly enriching themselves through illegal means, often leaving better-paying jobs to pursue corrupt practices This issue is rooted in societal perceptions and attitudes, which are especially evident among recent graduates from colleges and universities.
Corruption is often not perceived as a criminal act by the public, leading to superficial understanding of its causes, effects, and solutions (MDC, 2006) To combat this issue, the FEACC has engaged in various activities aimed at raising awareness about the dangers of corruption and conducting investigations and prosecutions Despite these efforts, corruption remains a significant challenge in the country (KITCT, 2013) Additionally, while civics and ethical education have been incorporated into the curriculum, my observations in higher education suggest that earning a degree does not necessarily prevent individuals from pursuing careers in sectors vulnerable to corruption, rather than following their true professional aspirations.
This study aims to investigate the perceptions and attitudes of university students towards corruption, specifically focusing on prospective graduates from Adama Science and Technology University Despite the critical importance of understanding the mindset of university students regarding corrupt behaviors, there appears to be a lack of existing research in this area Therefore, the research seeks to fill this gap by examining how these students perceive and respond to corruption, ultimately addressing key questions related to their attitudes and beliefs.
1 How do prospective graduates perceive corruption?
2 What are the prospective graduates’ attitudes towards corruption?
3 What is the relationship between prospective graduates’ perceptions of corruption and demographic variables?
4 Do demographic variables of prospective graduates’ differ in perceptions of corruption?
Objectives of the Study
The study aimed to explore the perceptions and attitudes of prospective graduates from Adama Science and Technology University regarding corruption Additionally, it sought to identify specific attitudes and beliefs related to this issue among the students.
1 To assess prospective graduates’ perceptions of corruption.
2 To assess prospective graduates’ attitudes towards corruption.
3 To identify the relationship between prospective graduates’ perceptions of corruption and demographic variables.
4 To assess differences among demographic variables of prospective graduates’ in perceptions of corruption.
Significances of the Study
Fighting corruption is an ongoing effort essential for achieving sustainable development While university students are expected to play a significant role in this fight, there is limited understanding of their perceptions and attitudes towards corruption As future leaders and key contributors to both the public and private sectors, it is crucial to explore how university students view corruption to effectively engage them in anti-corruption initiatives.
This study aims to enhance our understanding of university students' perceptions and attitudes towards corruption, particularly among the prospective graduates of 2005 E.C It is crucial to explore how these students view corruption, especially in relation to their future roles in various sectors, as societal corruption may shape their perspectives Insights gained from this research will not only benefit those studying student attitudes but also contribute to efforts aimed at combating public sector corruption by empowering young citizens Additionally, the findings are expected to inform the development of a curriculum focused on anti-corruption strategies, making it more relevant and impactful for students in higher education institutions.
Examining the attitudes of prospective graduates towards corruption is essential for their future roles in various sectors and as potential community leaders, ensuring they uphold ethical standards This study aims to highlight the importance of these perspectives and their implications for fostering integrity in professional environments.
Understanding university students' perceptions and attitudes towards corruption is crucial for policymakers, curriculum developers, experts, higher education institutions, and ethics and anti-corruption commissions, as these students will become the managers and leaders of tomorrow.
This article serves as a valuable reference for understanding university students' perceptions and attitudes towards corruption, and it can also act as a foundation for future research in this important area.
Limitations
This study acknowledges inherent limitations related to the research instrument and respondent subjectivity, which may lead to responses that reflect perceptions rather than objective reality The sensitive nature of corruption could have hindered honest feedback, and respondents may lack adequate understanding of the issue Consequently, the findings may not be confidently generalizable beyond the 2005 E.C prospective graduates Additionally, the lack of prior expectation studies in the country necessitated a foundational approach for this research.
Delimitations
This study focused on the prospective graduates of Adama Science and Technology University from the regular class of 2005 E.C., as no prior research had examined this issue The researcher aimed to assess the problem of corruption and propose solutions, specifically targeting the perceptions and attitudes of these graduates, while excluding postgraduates and summer students who are already in the workforce The university was selected due to the researcher's proximity to the site, relevant experience, and resource constraints.
Operational Definitions of Key Terms
In this study, the terms are defined based on their contextual usage, ensuring clarity and coherence in interpretation.
Perception : awareness, understanding of the objects, events, and persons in our environment
(Myers, 1983) Hence, in this study, perception refers to awareness and understanding about behaviors which constitute corruption.
Attitude is a multifaceted mental state that encompasses beliefs, feelings, values, and a predisposition to act in specific ways It comprises three key components: cognitions or beliefs about a person, situation, or object; emotional reactions to that stimulus; and a tendency to behave in particular manners (Malin and Birch, 1998) Furthermore, attitude reflects an individual's predisposition towards certain objects, incorporating their beliefs, feelings, and behavioral tendencies (Myers, 1983) In this study, attitude specifically pertains to the beliefs, feelings, behavioral tendencies, and stances of prospective graduates regarding corruption.
Corruption encompasses offenses related to government or public service that violate established duties, involving the pursuit or acceptance of undue advantages for personal gain or to benefit others, as well as causing harm to individuals It includes practices such as corrupt dealings, abuse of power, maladministration, extortion, and the unauthorized disclosure of confidential information This study defines corruption as conduct perceived as corrupt by public opinion, which may not be explicitly recognized by law.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Understanding Corruption
The term "corruption" originates from the Latin verb "corruptus," meaning to break or destroy, signifying a breach of laws, duties, or moral norms Conceptually, corruption is behavior that diverges from ethics, morality, tradition, law, and civic virtue It encompasses the misuse of public resources for personal gain through covert transactions that violate established standards of conduct, the illicit acquisition of money or employment, and the use of extra-legal means by individuals or groups to exert influence over bureaucratic actions.
Corruption is commonly defined as dishonest or illegal actions by individuals in positions of authority for personal gain, often involving bribery of officials This issue is perceived as both a structural problem within political and economic systems and as a cultural or moral dilemma at the individual level As such, definitions of corruption vary, encompassing strict legal interpretations that characterize it as bribery involving public servants and the exchange of tangible resources (Jenschr, Anduig & Fjeldstad, 2003).
Theoretical Explanations of Corruption
Understanding corruption requires a comprehensive analysis through various theoretical frameworks, including public choice theory, the bad apple theory, organizational culture, and conflicting moral values These perspectives help contextualize the complexities surrounding corruption and its implications.
Public choice theory, popularized by Rose-Ackerman in 1978, posits that public officials engage in corruption when they believe the benefits outweigh the costs Klitgaard (1988) further explains that individuals will choose corruption if the potential gains, adjusted for the likelihood of being caught and the associated penalties, surpass the benefits of remaining honest This theory can be expanded by considering factors that affect cost-benefit analyses, where trust emerges as a crucial element Ultimately, the actions of corrupt officials stem from a rational and deliberate evaluation process (Collier, 2002).
The Bad Apple Theory posits that corruption primarily arises from individuals with flawed moral character, referred to as "bad apples." This theory suggests that the root cause of corrupt behavior lies in defective human character and a predisposition towards criminal activity By focusing on the moral shortcomings of officials, it implies that behavior is driven by moral values, with incorrect values being the fundamental source of corruption (Graaf, 2003).
Police corruption, once viewed as a temporary issue to be surgically removed, is now recognized as a widespread and persistent problem (Punch, 2000) Research by Fantuzzo, Davis, and Ginsburg (1995) indicates that factors such as upbringing, peer influence, school environment, and parental attitudes significantly shape children's behavior Additionally, Gottfried, Fleming, and Gottfried (1994) highlight the critical role of social and parental attitudes in influencing how children act Consequently, fostering strong relationships between parents and children, as well as between teachers and students, is essential for promoting positive behavioral changes.
Organizational Culture Theory posits that a specific group culture influences mental states, which can subsequently lead to corrupt behavior It suggests that corruption among public officials arises not from individual character flaws but from failures within the governmental system Ultimately, this theory highlights the conditions that foster corruption, emphasizing the impact of organizational culture on ethical conduct.
The concept revolves around identifying 'facilitating factors' that, while not universally applicable to all individuals within an organization, can enhance a causal chain leading to corruption (Punch, 2000:317).
Institutions, understood as collective ways of thinking, feeling, and acting, significantly influence individual decisions and behaviors, highlighting dynamics that extend beyond personal actions This perspective diverges from methodological individualism, as noted by researchers like Klitgaard (1988) and Caiden and Dwivedi (2001) Consequently, this approach aligns with theories that conceptualize corruption as a contagious phenomenon.
Organizational culture theory posits that when an organization's culture is corrupt, individuals interacting with it face a significant risk of becoming corrupt themselves This creates a self-perpetuating cycle of corruption, although the exact causal relationships can be complex The theory often employs the metaphor of a slippery slope, suggesting that resisting corruption in such environments may be perceived as a betrayal of the group (Punch, 2000) Consequently, discussions on corruption control focus on transforming organizational culture through cultural instruments, such as changing leadership dynamics (Huberts, Kaptein et al., 2004).
Clashing Moral Values Theory differentiates between the public roles and private responsibilities of corrupt officials, highlighting the interplay between societal culture and organizational culture (Rose-Ackerman, 1999) This theory posits that societal values and norms shape individual values, which in turn affect the behavior of public servants, leading to corruption Understanding this causal relationship is crucial for addressing corruption within organizations.
In many societies, the lines between private and public roles are often blurred, leading to a culture where gift-giving and favoritism in job allocation are commonplace and accepted This lack of distinction fosters an environment where private appropriation of public resources is not viewed as unethical The "bad apple theory" suggests that individual morality can influence behavior, potentially leading to corruption, as certain values may predispose individuals to unethical actions In cultures where obligations to friends and family are paramount, officials may engage in corrupt practices, not solely for personal gain, but to uphold moral duties and loyalty to their close relationships (Rose-Ackerman, 1999).
The theory highlights the conflict between two value systems, as seen in Weber's work (1921) Micro morality focuses on our relationships within social circles, such as family and friends, emphasizing the values, norms, and moral duties that shape our daily interactions Despite being based on informal norms, these obligations are significantly stronger than those we feel towards strangers In personal relationships, moral obligations are characterized by reciprocity, where we assist friends and family with the expectation of mutual support Conversely, macro morality underscores universal principles that apply to all individuals.
The abstract nature of macro morality poses challenges for internalizing its norms, leading to societal conflicts when individuals find themselves torn between conflicting social roles Public officials are often caught between the macro moral obligation to treat all individuals equally and the micro moral duty to prioritize friends This tension is frequently viewed through an ethnocentric lens, perceiving corruption as a transitional phase for developing countries on their path to maturity Such perspectives fuel discussions on corruption control, emphasizing the importance of codes of conduct, their enforcement, and the role of ethical training in fostering integrity.
In general, attention is paid to ethics in these models (Kaptein and Wempe, 2002, Marquette,
2003) rather than rules, threats, surveillance or coercion
This study explores the perceptions and attitudes of prospective graduates at Adama Science and Technology University regarding corruption, grounded in broad-based theories such as public choice, bad apple, organizational cultures, and clashing moral values.
Approaches to the Definition of Corruption
Corruption remains a complex and elusive concept, with limited consensus on its definition despite numerous attempts over the years Historically, various perspectives have shaped its understanding, but Kurer (2005) notes that progress has been minimal since Heidenheimer's pivotal distinctions among different approaches Consequently, social sciences typically define corruption through frameworks that focus on public office, market dynamics, or public interest (Peters & Welch, 1978).
Johnston, 1986; Heidenheimer, 1990; cited in UNPAN, 2002) Similarly, Khan (1998) cited in
Faniel (2009) adds two more approaches to the list: public - opinion - centered and legalistic.
A Public - office – centered: Corruption may be viewed from many perspectives in which no two writers have the same line-up of definitional criteria, although there may be strong resemblances (Ekpo, 1979; Heidenheimer, 1990, cited in Faniel (2009) The most frequently cited public-office-centered approach; J.S Nye (1967) stated that:
Behavior that strays from the formal responsibilities of a public role due to personal interests or private gains can lead to significant ethical violations This includes actions such as bribery, where rewards are used to corrupt the judgment of trusted individuals; nepotism, which involves granting favors based on personal relationships rather than merit; and misappropriation, the illegal use of public resources for personal benefit Such practices undermine the integrity of public service and violate established ethical standards.
Nye (1968) defines corruption as behavior that strays from the established rules and formal responsibilities of a public role, characterizing it as corrupt when an official exploits their position for personal benefit This definition highlights the misuse of public office for private gain.
B Public- interest- centered: Public interest centered definition is a belief that corruption exists if the public trust or good is betrayed, whether or not a violation of legal codes occur (Dolan et.al., 1988) This approach also stresses the violation of common interest that provides direct benefits to the public officials Corruption, here, is understood as harmful to or destructive of public interest kurer, Heidenheimer (Cited in Shimales, 2005) Still, there is no consensus yet as to what constitutes public interest Furthermore, as ruling groups can manipulate legislative and legal processes, so can they represent their private benefits to be in the common, national or public interest (Williams, 1987) Therefore, this called for an alternative method of indentifying corruption, which is public opinion.
C Public-opinion – centered: Public opinion definitions - which are based on socially-defined corrupt conduct, the seriousness of which may be influenced by mitigating factors not necessarily recognized in law (Johnston, 1986) Unlike the earlier definitions, which are primarily behavior –based definitions, the public opinion- centered definition emphasizes the perspectives of public opinion about the conduct of politicians, government and probity of public servants (Shimales, 2005)
Kurer (2005) highlights the challenges of defining corruption based on public opinion, noting that it often fails to provide a clear operational standard due to the lack of consensus on what constitutes corruption Scott, as referenced by Kurer, emphasizes that public views on corruption are not uniform and can change over time and across different societies This variability complicates the establishment of a universal definition of corruption, as perspectives can differ significantly even within the same community Additionally, Heidenheimer (1970), as cited in ICAC (1994), categorizes public opinion on corruption into three distinct types: "black," "grey," and "white," further illustrating the complexities surrounding the perception of corrupt behavior.
The concept of "black corruption" refers to actions that are widely condemned by both elite and mass opinion, leading to a strong desire for punishment based on principle In contrast, "gray corruption" reflects a divided stance, where some elites may seek punishment while others do not, resulting in ambiguity among the majority Meanwhile, "white corruption" indicates that most people, both elite and mass, are unlikely to actively oppose or punish corruption they perceive as acceptable This suggests that they prioritize the potential costs of enforcing stricter rules over the values at stake.
Williams (1987), as cited in Shimales (2005), argues that while measuring public attitudes accurately is challenging due to their often unsuitable and inconsistent nature, definitions rooted in public opinion lack universal applicability because laws are not uniformly enforced across different regions In contrast, Faniel (2009) contends that public opinion surveys remain the most practical method for operationalizing and measuring corruption.
D Market – Centered: Market- centered definitions are expressed by exchange relationship between those who hold public power that enables them to decide on scarce resources of the state on the one hand and those individuals and firms who are willing to pay in order to acquire that scarce resource against the law, on the other Corruption as ’’maximizing unit’’ as special type of stock in trade by which public officials maximize pecuniary gains according to the supply and demand that in the market place of their official domains (Gibbons,1985, ICAC,
1994) Heidenheimer cited in Shimales, (2005:17) offers a classic definition of a market-centered approach:
A corrupt civil servant views their public office as a business venture, aiming to maximize personal income This transforms the office into a 'maximizing unit,' where the potential earnings are influenced by market conditions and the individual's ability to identify optimal profit points along the public's demand curve.
While this approach has its merits, it fails to account for the non-monetary benefits of corruption, such as prestige and political support Additionally, the demand for official services tends to be inelastic and highly individualized, particularly in instances of cronyism, often surpassing the available supply (Johnston, 1998, cited in Faniel, 2009).
E Legalistic: Legal definitions - which assume behavior is corrupt when it violates some standard or rule of behavior, set down by a political system (Peters & Welch, 1978) Besides, Scott(1972) cited in Khan (1998) suggested that, looking at corruption purely in terms of legal criteria in view of the problems inherent in determining rules and norms which govern public interest, behavior and authority However, the criticism leveled against this approach is similar to that leveled against the public office approach.
The ICAC Act 1988, particularly sections 8 and 9, provides a comprehensive legal definition of 'corrupt conduct,' encompassing actions by non-officials that can compromise the honest and impartial execution of official duties This definition includes breaches of public trust and the misuse of official information, highlighting activities such as bribery, tax evasion, and election fraud that can hinder official functions Furthermore, it specifies that corrupt conduct must be serious enough to constitute a criminal or disciplinary offense or warrant dismissal In summary, as outlined in the ICAC report, corrupt conduct is characterized by the dishonest or biased exercise of official functions by a public official.
The legal definition of corruption is not exhaustive and does not clearly delineate all offenses, resulting in ambiguity regarding what constitutes corruption Public and legal interpretations of corruption are not fixed and can evolve over time (Shimales, 2005) For instance, in Ethiopia, the legal framework addressing corruption is outlined in the Anti-Corruption Special Procedure and Rules of Evidence Proclamation, which illustrates the complexities surrounding the definition of corruption.
Types of Corruption
Corruption can be classified into various typologies based on its origin, motive, magnitude, pervasiveness, resource usage, and direction According to Amundsen and Collier (1999), corruption is primarily divided into two categories: Petty and Grand Additionally, Shah & Schater (2004) introduce a third category known as state capture, further expanding the understanding of corruption's complexity.
A Petty corruption (administrative/ bureaucratic corruption); this type of corruption practiced by those who simply execute government policies and are underpaid civil servants who depend on small kickbacks or commission that are usually demanded by junior officers in the public sector from the public in exchange for official services to be rendered Bureaucratic corruption takes place in the public administration, at the implementation and of politics, where the public meets with public officials (Porta & Vanncci, 1999).
B Grand corruption (political corruption); it is the behavior of high-level government (elected officials), including politicians, taking bribes to reward contracts; paying bribes to influence elections; using their position to provide patronage It is practiced by those public officials who have power to decide on significant economic and political issues (Moody- Stuart, 1996) Grand corruption distorts competition by denying the public access to the competitive marketplace; it induces wrong decisions resulting in wrong projects, wrong prices, wrong contractors, dumping un-needed goods, substandard delivery to recoup overpricing, promotes corruption at lower levels and erodes public confidence in leaders (Bansal, 2004 cited in Faniel, 2009).
State capture, also known as influence peddling, refers to the collusion between private agents and public officials, resulting in the private sector dominating state institutions such as the legislature, executive, and judiciary (Shah & Schacter, 2004) In contemporary society, this influence has escalated to a point where it affects both the general populace and the intellectually elite, a phenomenon termed "Mind-Capture" (Bansal, 2004) Furthermore, corruption can be classified based on its widespread nature and impact, highlighting the urgent need for awareness and intervention.
Corruption can be categorized into three main forms: incidental, institutional, and systemic Incidental corruption involves isolated acts of malfeasance by individual politicians or public officials, typically at a small scale, and while it may not have significant macro-economic consequences, it leads to profound public alienation and is challenging to address (Riley, 1998) Institutional corruption, on the other hand, is systematic and affects specific sectors or institutions, such as the police service, with substantial developmental impacts and implications for government revenues and trade; it requires comprehensive reform efforts rather than isolated responses (Riley, 1998) Lastly, systemic corruption permeates society, becoming an accepted means of conducting everyday transactions, influencing behavior across all levels of the political and socio-economic spectrum, and is characterized by its entrenched, monopolistic, and organized nature (Faniel, 2009).
Manifestations of Corruption
Corruption manifests in various forms across different countries, often making it challenging to differentiate between them due to their overlapping nature As noted by Amundsen (1999), the primary types of corruption include bribery, embezzlement, fraud, extortion, favoritism, and shirking.
Bribery refers to the corrupt exchange of money or favors intended to influence officials to act against regulations This practice encompasses various terms such as kickbacks, gratuities, and facilitation payments, all highlighting the corruption involved in transactions with public officials and private employees By engaging in bribery, corporations can expedite processes within government bureaucracies, secure political favors, evade taxes, and bypass environmental regulations This unethical behavior allows businesses to gain protected markets, monopolies, and access to significant state contracts and projects, ultimately undermining fair competition and governance.
Embezzlement refers to the misappropriation of public funds by individuals entrusted with the management of these resources, typically public officials who are meant to protect state property This act is characterized as the theft of public assets, distinguishing it from other forms of corruption since it does not involve a transactional element The consequences of embezzlement are particularly harmful, as it deprives the general public of essential resources without directly stealing from individual citizens, leaving them without legal recourse for recovery.
Embezzlement often involves the large-scale misappropriation of public assets by those in power, who exploit their political positions for personal gain and that of their ruling families This form of corruption and abuse of power can thrive in isolated institutional and moral environments, often detached from public accountability In highly corrupt nations, embezzlement becomes a key mechanism for the ruling elite to extract resources, sometimes overshadowing even bribery as a means of financial gain (Amundsen, 1999).
Fraud is an economic crime characterized by deception, involving state agencies and representatives in illegal activities such as counterfeit operations and organized crime According to Bayart et al (1997), dirty trick politics encompass the illicit importation of toxic waste, excessive printing of national currency to pay civil servants and military personnel, and coercing private firms into providing unpaid loans and services Serious fraud occurs when politicians and state agents not only overlook economic crimes for personal gain but also actively participate in them.
Extortion is a type of corruption that involves the coercive extraction of money or resources, either from society to the state or vice versa This process can be seen as a 'redistributive' extraction that occurs through violence or threats When corruption is characterized as extraction from below, it involves individuals or businesses pressuring state officials and agencies for unfair advantages, privileges, or favorable legal outcomes (Amundesen, 1999).
Blackmailing and extortion represent corrupt practices where money is forcibly obtained by those in power, offering little in return to the victims While extortion is often associated with organized crime syndicates that exploit insecurity and intimidate individuals, businesses, and officials, it can also manifest from state authorities In this context, the state, along with its security forces and paramilitary groups, engages in extortion through veiled threats, taxes, and fees, effectively functioning as a powerful entity that preys on its citizens (Faniel, 2009).
Favoritism is a form of corruption characterized by the biased distribution of state resources, often resulting from the abuse of power It reflects the inherent human tendency to favor friends, family, and trusted individuals Moreover, state officials and politicians, who control access to these resources, frequently exhibit favoritism by granting preferential treatment to select individuals (Amundsen, 1999).
Shirking is a prevalent issue in the public sectors of many developing and transitional countries, where public officials frequently arrive late, leave early, or are often absent from work altogether Some individuals may have acquired their positions without any intention of fulfilling their job responsibilities, with the complicity of those who hired them In certain instances, these workers hold other jobs, rendering their government positions mere supplementary income funded by taxpayers.
Causes and Predisposing Factors of Corruption
Corruption is widely acknowledged in literature to stem from various causes, though its complex and multifaceted nature means that the list of causes is never exhaustive These causes can be broadly categorized into several groups, allowing for an understanding of why individuals engage in corrupt practices through the lenses of economic, political, and social structures (Bamidele, 1999).
Corruption is influenced by a range of political factors, including the concentration of power, increased discretion in decision-making processes, lack of transparency, inadequate accountability, deinstitutionalization, weak regulatory controls, and overall poor governance (Kaminski, cited in Faniel, 2009).
A Monopoly, more discretion, less transparency and weak accountability
Economists, as noted by Cartier-Bresson (2000), identify the delegation of power as a primary cause of corruption, stemming from the discretionary use of authority and the monopolistic positions held by public agents When power and decision-making are concentrated among a few individuals, it fosters an environment ripe for corruption Riley (1998) further highlights that corruption is prevalent in societies characterized by significant discretion among public officials, limited accountability, and a lack of transparency in government operations.
In fact, the very essence of corruption as depicted by klitgaard (cited in Robinson, 1998) is
Corruption can be understood through the equation: Corruption = (Monopoly + Discretion) - (Accountability + Integrity + Transparency) This concept, highlighted by Doig (1998) and supported by the UNDP (2004), emphasizes that a lack of accountability and transparency, combined with unchecked discretion, creates an environment ripe for corruption Furthermore, Eiras (2003) and Hassen (2004) argue that convoluted regulations and weak rule of law contribute to a culture of corruption and informality in both public and private sectors.
B Deinstitutionalization, weak control and bad governance
Corruption arises not only from scarcity but also from the failure of enforcement due to organizational weaknesses Many governments lack the strength necessary to effectively implement policies and control unethical behavior, resulting in political leniency and inadequate auditing mechanisms that foster corruption.
Good governance establishes essential constraints on the actions of elected and public officials, supported by a robust system of checks and balances within the political and administrative framework When these safeguards are weak or nonexistent, the risk of corruption significantly increases.
A Scarcity (demand- supply dynamics or interaction)
Scarcity of resources, whether natural or artificial, drives individuals to compete for a larger share and seek preferential treatment from those in control Limited resources, such as permits and licenses, often lead to bribery and patronage (Rose-Ackerman, 1999) When basic economic needs are unmet, individuals may resort to corrupt practices in their pursuit of an improved quality of life.
Research indicates a strong correlation between income levels and corruption, with higher incomes typically associated with lower corruption rates (Transparency International, cited in Amundsen, 1999) While the relationship does not imply causation, it suggests a circular interaction where corruption contributes to poverty, and poor living conditions foster corruption Additionally, low salaries and living standards can lead to diminished morale and self-esteem, which may rationalize corrupt behavior (Gould and Amaro-Reyes, 1983).
Corruption often arises in environments where monopolies exist over goods and services, particularly in developing countries where governments heavily intervene in economic activities This extensive control and non-market allocation of resources create fertile ground for corrupt practices The concentration of political and economic power significantly contributes to political and administrative corruption, especially in many African nations (Khan, 1998).
Eiras (2003) highlights that the decline of economic freedom leads to a larger informal economy, which in turn promotes corruption This relationship indicates that as economic liberties diminish, corruption becomes more prevalent Cultural norms and practices, including kinship loyalty, significantly influence public perceptions of government and bureaucratic institutions, affecting the behavior of administrators Additionally, organizational factors such as structural arrangements, decision-making processes, personnel management, and accountability systems further contribute to this dynamic (Gould & Amaro-Reyes, 1983; Marquette, 2010).
Human greed is a significant factor in corrupt behavior, as noted by Sứreide (2002), and Caiden et al (2001) emphasize that corruption has been a persistent aspect of human behavior throughout history They argue that in more disciplined societies, individuals consciously choose between right and wrong actions Additionally, social exchanges such as clientelism, nepotism, and various forms of favoritism represent different manifestations of corruption within social contexts.
There are cultural explanations for to why corruption occurs, as many plausible theories on corruption have been derived from the moral and cultural characteristics of societies (Amundsen,
Research on corruption highlights various factors, including societal values, cultural norms, and organizational influences (Ekpo, 1979; Marquette, 2003) Some scholars argue that strong kinship and ethnic ties contribute significantly to corrupt practices, viewing corruption as an extension of traditional gift-giving customs In certain cultures, proverbs perpetuate corrupt behavior; for instance, an Ethiopian saying suggests that those who do not exploit their power will regret it later, while a South African saying encourages seizing opportunities for personal gain This reflects a broader tendency for individuals to exploit their positions of authority for personal advantage (Faniel, 2009:74).
To effectively formulate and implement anti-corruption measures, it is essential to understand both the nature of corruption and the conditions that foster it Research indicates that various factors can influence corrupt tendencies, including the availability of natural resources, cultural and ethnic dynamics, gender norms, levels of uncertainty, religious beliefs, social inequities, the quality of public institutions, government size, developmental status, market regulation, the overall market system, and prevailing economic conditions.
Research indicates that corruption is significantly shaped by cultural attitudes, paradigms, and values ingrained in specific populations (Mauro 1997, cited in Van Der Merwe, 2011; Marquette, 2010) Additionally, numerous studies highlight that men are more prone to engage in corrupt behavior (Lambsdorff).
In 1999, it was suggested that corruption could serve as a means to mitigate uncertainty The ICAC (1994) discovered varying levels of agreement among respondents regarding the desirability of different corrupt behaviors Additionally, ICAC (1993) found that opinions among respondents were divided on whether certain scenarios were harmful or not.
Consequences of Corruption
The ongoing debate regarding the consequences of corruption raises the question of its potential benefits to society While some argue that corruption is predominantly harmful, others suggest it can have beneficial effects, depending on various circumstances (Robinson, 1998).
Corruption to be a means of aiding the economy, particularly in the case of cumbersome regulations, excessive bureaucracy or market restrictions “greases the wheels’’ (Lambsdorff,
Klitgaard (1998) highlighted that corruption can yield benefits from specific acts rather than from widespread systemic corruption According to UNPAN (2002), corruption was often seen as an effective, and at times necessary, business strategy in developing countries, where firms could gain a competitive edge by engaging in corrupt practices.
Corruption can sometimes have positive effects by streamlining state bureaucracy, facilitating private entrepreneurship, and boosting business activities In certain Southeast Asian countries, despite the presence of systemic corruption, economic growth rates have remained robust and consistently high over the years.
Corruption, as noted by Robinson (1998), stands as a significant barrier to development, comparable to ignorance and environmental degradation At its core, corruption distorts decision-making processes, leading to choices that prioritize the private interests of office holders and their associates over the public good This distortion can result in far-reaching economic, political, and social consequences.
Corruption significantly undermines investment and hinders economic growth by eroding investor confidence When decisions are influenced by corrupt practices instead of clear and transparent regulations, potential investors are deterred Corrupt officials often demand bribes from entrepreneurs before allowing businesses to commence or later request a share of their profits, which diminishes the motivation for both domestic and foreign investments.
In 1978, it was argued that corruption does not necessarily expedite processes but can instead lead to administrative delays as corrupt officials seek to increase their bribes Supporting this view, Kaufmann (as cited in Tanaka, 2001:158) suggested that while corruption may initially serve as a lubricant for bureaucratic efficiency, acting as 'oil' in the short term, it ultimately functions as 'sand' in the long run by raising transaction costs and resulting in inefficient economic outcomes.
Corruption leads to a concentration of wealth among a few, resulting in distorted consumption patterns and a shift of talented individuals from productive activities to rent-seeking behaviors (Bansal, 2004; Mauro, 1998) This shift adversely impacts national growth rates as public officials prioritize personal gains over optimal decision-making, often awarding contracts based on bribery rather than value (Tanzi & Davoodi, 1998) Additionally, corruption influences career choices, pushing skilled youth towards bureaucratic roles for rent extraction instead of scientific professions (Sứreide, 2002) The prevalence of rent-seeking behaviors inflates costs, as companies raise prices to cover bribes, and leads to misallocated public spending, favoring unproductive projects over essential services like health and education (Osborne, 1997) Moreover, corruption undermines procurement laws, prompting inefficient regulations that serve to enrich public officials (Tanzi, cited in Sứreide, 2002) Ultimately, such practices result in inferior investments, decreased government revenues, and deteriorating infrastructure, which collectively hinder economic growth and increase operational costs for both public and private sectors (Tanzi & Davoodi, 1998).
Corruption has led to the downfall of numerous government leaders and the collapse of political parties, as widespread social discontent erodes their power This rampant corruption destabilizes nations, causing citizens to lose trust in their leaders, which in turn undermines the legitimacy of governmental policies and authority (Rose-Ackerman, 1999).
Corruption significantly impedes both economic development and the establishment of democratic institutions, as highlighted by Robinson (1998) It undermines the provision of essential public goods and services, while also imposing unjust costs on citizens This erodes the legitimacy of governments striving for public support, ultimately fostering an environment of insecurity.
Powerful groups often manipulate regulations for their own gain, as noted by Kaufmann (2004) According to Amundsen (1999), many corrupt African leaders and businesses lack confidence in their national economies, leading them to transfer their legally and illegally acquired wealth to foreign banks or invest abroad, or to indulge in lavish consumption domestically This behavior erodes social and political stability, exacerbating insecurity for the impoverished population (Hassan, 2004).
Corruption poses a significant threat to society, often resulting in loss of life as unscrupulous officials prioritize personal gain Research indicates that corrupt governments allocate fewer resources to education and healthcare, favoring public investments that facilitate easier rent extraction This distortion in government spending leads to prioritizing projects that enable large, unmonitored bribes, such as infrastructure and high-tech defense systems, over essential services like textbooks and teacher salaries.
Corruption also raises the operating cost of infrastructure services, and reduces the quality of services and access to them, especially for the poor (Transparency International, 2005) Gould
The accumulation of wealth in one area inevitably leads to increased misery and suffering in another, as highlighted by the stark contrast between prosperity and the resulting toil, ignorance, and degradation This perspective is echoed by Anger (2004), who references UN Secretary General Kofi Annan's assertion in 2003, emphasizing the dire consequences of wealth disparity.
Corruption is a pervasive issue that significantly undermines democracy, the rule of law, and human rights, while distorting markets and degrading quality of life Its detrimental effects are particularly pronounced in developing countries, where it disproportionately impacts the poor by diverting essential funds for development, hindering government services, and exacerbating inequality Furthermore, corruption discourages foreign aid and investment, serving as a critical barrier to economic growth and poverty alleviation.
Overview of Corruption in Ethiopia
For centuries, Ethiopia was governed by small elites who controlled the nation's resources, leading to deep-rooted corruption as taxes collected from the populace primarily benefited regional lords (Paulos, 2000) However, there were also early signs of anti-corruption efforts, such as those initiated by Emperor Theodor, who recognized the issue and established the office of the 'tear watcher' to address complaints and promote accountability (Korajian, 2003).
During Menilik's reign, ministers were appointed based on loyalty rather than salary, leading to a rise in corruption as public power increased This aligns with Lord Acton's famous assertion that "power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely." Over time, what was once a sign of respect transformed into a means of livelihood, with covert practices evolving into openly accepted behaviors.
Corruption has permeated all levels of society, from low-level officials to high-ranking authorities, making it nearly impossible to conduct everyday business without encountering it Misadministration, excessive taxation, and widespread corruption have become prevalent issues (Korajian 2003) In response, the Penal Code of 1957 was enacted to address these challenges While it may not provide a universally accepted definition of corruption as understood today, it does include various legal provisions aimed at combating corrupt practices.
The Derge regime in Ethiopia was a centrally controlled government rooted in communist ideology, which, as Bamidele (1996) notes, challenged the established norms and ethics within Ethiopian society, leading to a decline in morality, particularly in the civil service This era was marked by rampant corruption within the Ethiopian bureaucracy and the dominance of parastatal firms, such as the Agricultural Marketing Corporations, which contributed to significant economic failure (Korajian 2003) In response to these issues, the regime introduced the Special Penal Code (SPC) in November 1974 to combat corruption and unethical behavior, later replacing it with the Revised Special Penal Code Proclamation No 214/81.
Since the EPRDF-led government took power in 1991, corruption has significantly hindered societal transformation in Ethiopia The first Corruption Survey revealed the alarming extent of corruption under the current regime, identifying it as one of the country's most pressing issues Key factors contributing to this pervasive corruption include a lack of transparency and accountability in public administration, an inefficient legal system, limited civil society engagement in anti-corruption efforts, and the absence of a robust agency to coordinate these activities.
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) has prioritized ethics in government through the establishment of the Civil Service Reform Program (CSRP), aiming to enhance federalism and governance as part of its reform initiatives To ensure a comprehensive approach to ethical reform, six key projects have been implemented under the Ethics Sub-Program, including the development of a legislative framework and codes of practice, the establishment of a central ethics body in government, and the strengthening of the capacities of police, prosecutors, and the judiciary.
Strengthening the capacity of mass media; v) Development of education on ethics in government, and VI) corruption survey (Shimales, 2005).
Since 2001, the government has implemented various measures to combat corruption, including commissioning the nation's first corruption perception survey to gain insights into the issue and identify effective solutions Additionally, in May 2001, the government established the Federal Ethics Commission to further address corruption challenges.
Anti-Corruption Commission (FEACC) with a mandate to expand ethics and anti-corruption education, prevent corruption, and to investigate and prosecute alleged corruption offences
(KITCT, 2013) The objectives of the FEACC are: promoting ethics through education;
Prevention of corruption through reviews of working procedures and systems; and, Investigation and prosecution of suspected corruption cases.
Proclamation No 433/2005 and Regulation No 144/2008 outline the functions and responsibilities of the FEACC, ensuring it can effectively fulfill its mission Additionally, the government has adopted a strict zero tolerance policy against corruption.
The FEACC employs both preventive and curative strategies to combat corruption in the country Its preventive measures include establishing anticorruption offices, conducting studies of public institutions' procedures, recommending improvements for identified weaknesses, and providing ethics education Additionally, the Commission focuses on investigating and prosecuting suspected corruption cases as part of its curative efforts.
The FEACC has opened a branch office in Dire Dawa and supported eight regional states in establishing their own Anti-Corruption Commissions Emphasizing ethical education, the Commission informs citizens about the detrimental effects of corruption on national development and encourages their active participation in fostering a corruption-free society In July 2009, the Commission launched the National Anti-Corruption Coalition (NACC) to unite key stakeholders in the collective fight against corruption.
The Office of the Federal Auditor-General (OFAG), the Institution of the Ombudsman, and the legislature play crucial oversight roles in combating corruption alongside the Federal Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission (FEACC) Established in 2000 and operational since June 2004, the Institution of the Ombudsman aims to protect the public from administrative malpractice and ensure good governance by investigating complaints against federal and state executive bodies, including ministries and agencies Additionally, the legislature has created a robust legal framework for anti-corruption efforts and has ratified several international and regional treaties, including the African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption, since 2000.
Corruption, the UN Convention against Corruption, and UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (ibid).
Strategies of Combating Corruption
Until the 1990s, discussing corruption in international forums was largely considered taboo; however, the recognition of corruption as a significant barrier to democracy, human rights, and governance has shifted this perspective As a result, anti-corruption initiatives have gained prominence on national and international policy agendas, leading to stronger coalitions and legal frameworks The World Bank's Economic Development Institute (EDI) focuses on combating corruption by fostering integrity and enhancing public service delivery To implement this strategy, the EDI is involved in creating a national integrity system that encompasses awareness-raising, institution-building, prevention, and prosecution.
2.9.1 Social Empowerment and Capacity Building
Social empowerment is a long-term anti-corruption strategy that helps to build social and legal values and strengthen civil society to vitally interact with the state (Johnston, 1998, Marquette,
In order to effectively combat corruption, it is crucial for citizens to be well-informed about their rights and feel empowered to voice their concerns without fear of retaliation Engaging the public in anti-corruption initiatives is vital, as they possess unique insights into the challenges they face Successful anti-corruption efforts require broad public participation and strong political commitment from leadership Additionally, mobilizing the private sector and enhancing civil society through public education, civic awareness, and capacity-building programs are essential components in the fight against corruption.
Public awareness programs should be implemented from primary schools to politicians to effectively combat corruption (O’Keefe, 2000) Educating children at home and in schools is crucial for creating a societal norm where corruption is not tolerated Establishing permanent anti-corruption initiatives within government and fostering a motivated civil society are essential to dismantling corruption (Doig & Riley, 1998; Marquette, 2003) Additionally, public blacklisting serves as a deterrent against engaging in corrupt activities (O’Keefe, 2000).
Corruption is a pervasive issue, as highlighted by Klitgaard (1997), who emphasizes the need for effective mechanisms to combat it Porta & Vannucci (1999) argue that harsh punishments can deter corrupt officials, but Mbaku (1996) warns that if corrupt practices yield greater rewards than legitimate avenues, rent-seeking behavior will thrive Johnston (1998) expresses concern that without systemic changes, corrupt systems may revert to previous states, and even extreme measures like the death penalty have proven ineffective in countries such as Vietnam and China Ultimately, without the rule of law, the judiciary and police cannot reliably enforce laws to prevent corruption.
To minimize corruption, systemic reform is essential, as highlighted by Bailey (2000) Key strategies include fostering competition and establishing competitive bureaucratic jurisdictions, alongside demystifying government processes Protecting whistleblowers and creating a meritocratic civil service are vital, as is developing an integrity system through an independent prosecuting agency Strengthening an impartial judiciary and empowering the Auditor-General to oversee government finances are crucial steps Additionally, implementing an ombudsman to investigate maladministration, instituting an elected legislature, and ensuring a free media are all important measures to effectively combat corruption (Gould & Amaro-Reyes, 1983).
Political reforms can effectively address corruption if implemented genuinely, rather than as tools for political suppression, as noted by Robinson (1998) Boone (2001) emphasizes that corruption stems from both structural conditions and personal choices, highlighting the need for anti-corruption strategies to focus on the motivations of corrupt individuals A solely punitive approach through the criminal justice system, without considering prevention and human development, is ineffective Bailey (2000) points out that while low salaries contribute to corruption, simply raising salaries is not a comprehensive solution, as it may lead to new corrupt practices Therefore, salary adjustments should be part of a broader strategy for public sector reform aimed at combating corruption.
2.9.4 Good Governance: Promoting Transparency and Accountability
Good governance, characterized by open political and economic competition, a vibrant civil society, and the protection of civil liberties and property rights, can significantly reduce corruption While enhancing governance may not completely eliminate corruption, addressing and dismantling poor governance is essential, as it creates an environment that fosters corrupt practices.
Corruption often evolves as those involved adapt their tactics to counter anti-corruption efforts, making it increasingly challenging for law enforcement to address the issue through traditional means In environments where corruption is pervasive, law enforcement agencies may inadvertently become safe havens for corrupt officials Therefore, implementing preventative measures is crucial; this includes advocating for legislation that fosters a culture of integrity and educating younger generations on responsible citizenship, both of which are essential in the fight against corruption.
To effectively combat corruption, it is essential to integrate ethical theory into various anti-corruption initiatives This approach emphasizes the need to incorporate an ethical dimension alongside existing strategies By identifying positive behavioral habits that foster a moral climate and recognizing negative behaviors that contribute to corruption, comprehensive training aimed at promoting ethical goals becomes crucial for shaping behavior.
2.9.6 International Coalition Building and Networking
Collaboration with international anti-corruption agencies is essential for effectively tracing assets that have been illicitly transferred from a country By sharing best practices, resources, and regional databases, national anti-corruption initiatives can significantly improve their effectiveness Additionally, international partners play a crucial role in enhancing local capacities through the introduction of ICT facilities and promoting institutional reforms, thereby fostering global and regional cooperation to combat corruption.
Corruption is a global issue that requires international or regional cooperation to effectively combat it, especially in areas with limited resources and infrastructure (Park, 2000) Recognizing that no entity operates in isolation, it is essential to address corruption within the context of interconnected legal and illegal cross-border relationships Coordinating anti-corruption efforts on an international scale not only reduces duplication of initiatives but also enhances the effectiveness and sustainability of these efforts (Tamesis, 1998).