Introduction
Traditionally, the term "Background Studies" was used in foreign language education to describe the approach to culture, emphasizing that cultural learning was merely supplementary to language acquisition This perspective has shaped the experiences of many language learners, including myself, as reflected in classroom practices and textbooks However, there is a notable shift towards recognizing the significance of cultural studies and intercultural dimensions in contemporary language curricula and academic literature For instance, the English National Curriculum highlights the need to foster positive attitudes towards speakers of other languages, while the upper secondary curriculum in Nordrhein-Westfalen emphasizes that intercultural competence is a key objective in modern foreign language teaching.
Influential academic publications in Germany and internationally, including works by Alred, Byram, and Fleming (2003), Bredella, Christ, and Legutke (2001), Mountford and Wadham-Smith (2001), and Roche (2001), emphasize the crucial role of culture in foreign language education.
The significance of cultural elements in foreign language teaching (FLT) has increasingly gained prominence, prompting essential inquiries about this shift Firstly, what factors have contributed to the heightened importance of culture in FLT? Secondly, how do the activities of culture learning and the development of intercultural competence manifest in the educational process?
This chapter explores various approaches and techniques for language teachers aiming to integrate culture into their classes While definitive answers may be elusive, the focus is on preparing EFL learners to become effective intercultural communicators The goal is to help students move beyond basic English proficiency, enabling them to engage meaningfully with other languages and cultures rather than merely 'getting by' as tourists Before detailing the chapter's organization, it is essential to address some general observations and pertinent issues.
The evolving attitudes toward cultural learning are primarily influenced by political and societal developments rather than advancements in second language acquisition research, as highlighted by Buttjes and Byram.
Language teaching inherently involves political dimensions, and the integration of cultural studies serves as a key indicator of the political activities at play during any given period.
Foreign language education is deeply intertwined with the social and political contexts in which it exists, shaping its goals and methodologies based on prevailing beliefs about global development and the roles of learners This connection between politics and language education is often evident, influencing how foreign languages are taught and perceived in society.
Landeskunde was manipulated for political purposes in the pre-second world war years in
Germany serves as both a lesson and a warning in contemporary cultural education, as noted by Stern (1983) Similarly, Hirsch's (1987) concept of cultural literacy, which outlines 5,000 essential cultural items for Americans, embodies a conservative push towards a 'back to basics' approach in education This initiative clearly delineates which social and ethnic groups are considered true Americans by establishing a specific canon of cultural knowledge.
In foreign language classrooms, the approach to culture learning is heavily influenced by educators' definitions of culture Kramsch (1996) identifies two primary definitions: one from the humanities, which focuses on how social groups represent themselves through art and everyday life, and another from the social sciences, which emphasizes shared attitudes and beliefs within a community Stern (1983) notes that the humanities definition has dominated foreign language education, leading to a focus on historical and political facts rather than the integration of language and culture This has resulted in cultural studies, or Landeskunde, often lacking a meaningful connection to language learning The absence of ethnographic concepts, such as Agar's 'Languaculture' (1994), has further hindered the exploration of how culture is embedded in language, leading to a separation of cultural studies from language education in higher education (Zeuner 1999).
Cultural learning in foreign language education occurs through two main methodologies: specialized courses on 'British Life and Institutions' and the integration of cultural aspects in EFL classrooms While these courses focus on factual knowledge of the target culture's history and institutions, recent trends have shifted towards a more scientific perspective Additionally, authentic materials and textbooks in EFL classrooms showcase the everyday behaviors of the culture's members However, both approaches have faced significant criticism for their superficial and uncritical handling of cultural content.
In the context of Landeskunde, students frequently encounter factual descriptions of the target culture, where they are expected to either accept these facts without question or delve deeper to explore the underlying values and ideologies that inform them (Kastendiek).
In language classrooms, cultural materials are frequently utilized solely to enhance learners' communicative skills, with little critical reflection on the cultural content itself (Wallace, 2002) Byram points out that there is an assumption that exposure to these materials will transform learners, prompting them to reflect on their own culture and empathize with others However, the process through which this transformation occurs remains largely ambiguous.
FLT theorists often rely on comparison through juxtaposition to foster consciousness-raising and awareness, yet these concepts remain poorly defined The emphasis on 'empathy' as a foundation for effective communication is presented in an uncritical and normative manner Learners are encouraged to accept and understand others' perspectives without adopting a critical or analytical approach.
This chapter is structured into three key sections addressing the initial questions posed The first section examines the evolution of culture teaching over recent decades, highlighting the rise of intercultural approaches in language and culture learning The second section clarifies the concept of 'intercultural communicative competence,' exploring its various interpretations within foreign language education, while aiming to define my understanding of the term as outlined by Grosch and Leenan (1998) The final section focuses on the development of intercultural communicative competence in foreign language education, reviewing the influence of textbooks and traditional cultural learning materials It introduces two significant approaches—ethnography for language learners and a contemporary interpretation of Cultural Studies—that emphasize intercultural competence, demonstrating their practical applications in online scenarios, which will be further examined in the following chapters.
The Developing Role of Culture
Approaches in the Post-War Period
Prior to World War II, scholars such as Buttjes (1991), Kramer (2000a), Lessard-Clouston (1997), and Stern (1983) highlighted the limited role of sociocultural aspects in foreign language education The focus during this period was primarily on linguistics and literary criticism, relegating both language practice and cultural context to a secondary status Language learning was largely viewed as a means to access significant literary works from foreign cultures, with the expectation that students would gain cultural insights through their readings.
However, in the run-up to the second world war, the German version of Cultural Studies was manipulated in order to achieve more sinister objectives Landeskunde, or
Kulturkunde, a concept utilized by German authorities, aimed to highlight the distinct national characters and mindsets of Germany compared to its adversaries, France and Britain This understanding was intended to reveal each nation's strengths and weaknesses, ultimately benefiting the German national cause According to Kramer, the focus of Kulturkunde was less about comprehending foreign cultures and more about reinforcing the German identity among learners (2000a: 325).
In the post-war years, educators and textbook publishers in Germany shifted their focus in foreign language education back to literature and essential aspects of human life, in response to the Nazis' misuse of Kulturkunde.
American influence and political efforts aimed at fostering closer ties between France and Germany through European integration have led to a significant impact on the subject, emphasizing the importance of democracy, intercultural understanding, and the promotion of positive representations of foreign cultures.
In the post-war United States, the Humanities' traditional view of culture as "intellectual refinement" and "artistic endeavour" began to shift towards an anthropological perspective that defines culture as a society's way of life Influential works by sociologists and anthropologists like Malinowski and Whorf heightened awareness among language educators regarding the intricate relationship between language, culture, and society Although the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which suggested that language shapes thought and perception, was deemed too radical by some, the significant connections between language and culture, including the cultural connotations of words, were recognized by scholars such as Nostrand and Seelye.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the focus on the anthropological approach to culture and language learning had minimal impact on foreign language education This was largely due to the dominance of structuralism and behaviorism in Europe and the United States, which dismissed cultural context as irrelevant to language acquisition Consequently, audiolingualism emerged, prioritizing technological advancements like tape recorders and language laboratories, while concentrating on language structure rather than its sociocultural context.
According to Stern (1983), a significant challenge in adopting an anthropological approach to culture and language learning is the lack of clarity in developing such methodology If culture encompasses all aspects of life, as defined anthropologically, it becomes impractical to address it effectively in the classroom Theorists have attempted to tackle this issue by proposing organized, limited topics for culture learning For instance, Brooks (1960) suggested over 50 topics, but these faced criticism for being inconclusive and heavily biased towards North American perspectives Similarly, Nostrand (1974) introduced an 'emergent model' comprising four sub-systems: culture, society, ecology, and the individual, which he adapted with relative success for classroom use.
• Culture: dominant values, habits of thought, and assumptions; its verifiable knowledge, art forms, language, paralanguage, and kinesics
Society encompasses various social institutions and the organization of interpersonal and group relations, including family, religion, economic structures, political systems, and education It is shaped by social norms and stratification, which influence interactions and hierarchies within communities Additionally, society experiences conflicts that arise from differing interests, and it relies on mechanisms for conflict resolution to maintain harmony and cohesion among its members.
• Ecology: attitudes towards nature, exploitation of nature, technology, travel and transportation etc
• The Individual: 'What a person does with the shared patterns: conforming, rebelling, exploiting, innovating' etc (Adapted from Nostrand 1974: 276)
The model offers a broad perspective on various themes, yet Stern raises concerns about its applicability in real language classrooms Critics, including Paige, Jorstad, Siaya, Klein, and Colby (2000), argue that it emphasizes "surface level behavior" while neglecting "underlying value orientations" and the "variability of behavior" within target cultural communities This gap in practical models for culture learning, coupled with a scarcity of teaching materials linking language and culture and providing sociocultural insights into modern Western societies, has led to anthropological approaches influencing theory more than practice in foreign language education.
The 1980's and the Rise of Communicative Competence
In the 1980s, the influence of culture on foreign language education was characterized by two contrasting approaches One prominent method involved educators applying a cognitive interpretation of Cultural Studies, as outlined by Risager.
The monocultural approach, known in Germany as Landeskunde, focused on transmitting factual information about a target culture's political institutions, history, and high culture This approach operated under the belief that there was a singular essence of the target culture that could be conveyed to learners Despite its popularity, it faced criticism for overlooking the diversity within national cultures, neglecting the relationship between home and target cultures, and separating language from culture Academically, Landeskunde was not recognized as a distinct discipline, as it was often viewed as a collection of unrelated themes lacking scientific analytical methods.
Communicative language teaching and second language acquisition (SLA) research have effectively linked language and culture learning as interconnected processes SLA research recognizes culture as a crucial factor influencing the success of language learning Notably, scholars like Stern have contributed to this understanding in both American and German contexts.
In 1991, Buttjes highlighted that while the communicative approach recognized the sociocultural aspects of language learning, it primarily concentrated on roles and behaviors, often overlooking the learners' sociocultural backgrounds Consequently, culture was treated as just one of several factors necessary for attaining communicative competence.
Byram, Morgan, and colleagues (1994) examined the influence of culture on communicative competence in second language acquisition, noting that culture is often viewed as a support to linguistic proficiency Gardner and Lambert's motivation model (1972) revealed that learners' social and cultural backgrounds significantly affect their attitudes towards language learning, impacting both bilingual proficiency and non-linguistic outcomes such as self-concept and cultural values Similarly, Schumann's acculturation model (1978) emphasized that successful language learning is closely tied to the learner's adaptation to the target culture, asserting that the extent of acculturation is influenced by the 'social distance' between the learner's home culture and the target culture.
In the 1980s, communicative language teaching emerged, shifting the focus of foreign language education from traditional grammatical approaches to a more functional and communicative methodology This approach aimed to enhance learners' skills in real-life communicative situations, drawing on the foundational work of influential linguists like Hymes (1972), Canale and Swain (1980), and Van Ek.
The communicative approach, established in 1976, emphasizes the importance of communicative competence, which is the ability to use and interpret language appropriately during interactions within various social contexts This concept builds upon Chomsky's notion of linguistic competence by focusing on the sociocultural and interactive dimensions of language learning Canale and Swain (1980) argued that adopting a communicative approach would facilitate a more natural integration of language and culture Van Ek's model of communicative ability (1986) further highlighted the significance of sociocultural factors by introducing components such as sociolinguistic competence, sociocultural competence, and social competence, alongside linguistic, discourse, and strategic competences.
Despite the growing emphasis on sociocultural elements in language education, critics argue that communicative language teaching (CLT) often overlooks the sociocultural dimension of communicative competence Paulston (1974) highlighted that CLT primarily focuses on referential meaning, neglecting the social implications of language Buttjes (1991) contends that CLT disregards learners' cultural backgrounds and fails to recognize the acquisition of communicative competence as a cultural adaptation process Instead, teachers often rely on role-plays and video observations to teach pragmatic strategies and appropriate speech functions in real-life contexts Roberts et al (2001) conclude that while CLT has made significant strides in acknowledging the social contexts of language use, it still falls short in integrating sociocultural factors effectively.
The interpretation of language has become somewhat limited and prescriptive, focusing primarily on correct usage rather than encompassing the broader social and cultural practices that are integral to a community's language (Roberts et al., 2001: 26).
The communicative methodologies of the 1970s and 1980s often overlooked learners' cultural backgrounds, driven by a belief that English should function as a global language or Lingua franca, detached from its cultural roots This perspective viewed English as a "neutral vehicle of communication" (Anderson, 2003), suggesting that cultural context was unnecessary since students would use English in diverse, non-English speaking environments As a result, the English Language Teaching (ELT) industry shifted EFL textbooks from British and American contexts to more international settings, focusing on neutral topics like travel and the future, which avoided cultural sensitivities and aimed to appeal to a broader audience.
The decline of cultural components in language teaching during the late 1980s was significantly influenced by political factors Influential writers like Brumfit, Phillipson, and Prodromou prompted English language educators to critically assess the implications of their teaching practices Phillipson's research raised concerns about English language teaching potentially serving as a subtle form of linguistic and cultural imperialism, leading educators to question whether their methods were more about assimilating learners rather than empowering them Consequently, in an effort to avoid imposing their cultural values on students, many English teachers, as noted by Pulverness, opted to exclude cultural content from their curricula entirely.
In an era where Britain's global political influence has diminished, educators may find comfort in approaching English solely as a language system, free from complex cultural implications In English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms, cultural knowledge has typically been secondary to language acquisition, often learned incidentally rather than as a primary focus.
The decline of cultural content in communicative language teaching shifted the focus from preparing learners to read in a foreign language to merely functioning as tourists, emphasizing practical skills like buying bus tickets and ordering food This superficial approach has faced criticism for trivializing language learning and diminishing student motivation, leading Pennycook to describe it as the "empty babble of the communicative language class." Bredella and Christ argue that this method fosters a false assumption that speakers from different cultures inherently understand each other, discouraging learners from seeking clarification and deeper cultural insights To address these issues, many experts advocate for a return to culturally specific content that emphasizes the diverse interpretations of language and enhances cross-cultural understanding.
Despite significant criticism of communicative methodology, the 1980s witnessed a notable increase in research focused on culture learning in language education Stern's influential 1983 publication highlighted the importance of culture in language teaching, alongside other key works by Seelye (1984), Damen (1987), and Valdes (1990) in the EFL and ESL fields Byram, Morgan, and their colleagues (1994) explored various culture-specific communication aspects, such as silence, volume levels, turn-taking, and the impact of differing cultural schemata on interactions Nevertheless, they noted that cultural learning was rarely regarded as an equal partner to language learning, with only a few texts recognizing its value as an independent activity.
Recent literature on culture learning has shown a critical stance towards the interpretation of the communicative competence approach, rather than the foundational ideas of Canale, Swain, and Van Ek This narrow interpretation has been attributed to both political and didactic factors Additionally, there has been growing criticism from educators regarding the reliance on the native speaker as the benchmark for language learners' success This topic will be explored further in the next section.
The Native and the Intercultural Speaker
Confusing a language learner with a native speaker is often seen as the highest compliment However, scholars like Byram (1997a), Kramsch (1998), House (2000), and Judd (1999) challenge the notion that models of communicative competence, which prioritize native speaker proficiency, are appropriate goals for language learners Byram (1997a: 8) emphasizes that earlier work on communicative competence by Canale and Swain (1980) and Van Ek (1986) was founded on Hymes' principles, raising concerns about the realism and desirability of such benchmarks for learners.
In 1972, Chomsky's concept of 'competence' was expanded, emphasizing communication among native speakers Byram (1997) argues that this has led to language learners being urged to emulate first language speakers, often overlooking the importance of their own social identities and cultural competence Van Ek's model of communicative ability highlights linguistic and sociolinguistic competences as heavily influenced by the native speaker ideal, suggesting that learners should communicate "in accordance with the rules of the language concerned" (Van Ek, 1986).
Learners should master the communication rules used by native speakers to enhance their sociocultural competence According to Byram, as defined by Van Ek, this competence relies on understanding the norms and contexts in which native speakers utilize the language.
Byram identifies two major issues with the concept of the native speaker as the ideal for language learners Firstly, establishing this standard sets an unrealistic goal for learners, as few bilingual individuals attain equal proficiency in both languages across linguistic, sociolinguistic, and sociocultural dimensions Secondly, he argues that demanding learners to reach native speaker proficiency in a second language necessitates them to conform to an unattainable benchmark.
Individuals may experience a "linguistically schizophrenic" state, where they switch between languages and cultures as needed, which can lead to the psychological effects of culture shock (Byram 1997a: 11) Byram and Fleming (1998) further elaborate on this concept, highlighting the challenges learners face in navigating these cultural transitions.
Learners should not be expected to fully identify with another culture or deny their own identity; however, traditional linguistic education has often aimed for this outcome Historically, the ideal language learner has been perceived as one who closely resembles a native speaker in grammar and vocabulary, allowing them to communicate on an equal level with natives (Byram and Fleming 1998: 8).
Kramsch (1998) emphasizes the sociological and political implications surrounding the concept of the "native speaker," highlighting that membership in this group is not solely determined by birth, education, or social community affiliation She argues that being born in a country does not guarantee native speaker status, as many individuals, such as Glaswegians or children of Chinese immigrants in the U.S., may not acquire the standard dialect Furthermore, she contends that education alone does not suffice for native speaker recognition, which requires acknowledgment from the relevant speech community Ultimately, Kramsch posits that the term "native speaker" is more about social and political identity than linguistic proficiency, suggesting that the rise of English as a lingua franca and the acceptance of diverse dialects have rendered the concept an "outdated myth."
Thomas (1983) distinguishes between pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic competence in language use Pragmalinguistic competence involves applying the correct pragmatic force to utterances, while sociopragmatic competence focuses on using language according to social norms in specific contexts He argues that learners should develop native-like pragmalinguistic competence by mastering the strategies and linguistic forms that native speakers use for speech acts Additionally, learners should have the autonomy to decide whether to adopt the same social judgments as native speakers regarding the appropriate use of these strategies, considering factors such as imposition, cost/benefit, social distance, and relative rights and obligations.
104) which may be attributed to them
Kramsch highlights the challenges faced by contemporary speakers of indigenous American languages, such as Karuk, in adapting their language use to fit modern American society Unlike their elders, who utilized the language within a tightly-knit tribal community, today's speakers must incorporate speech acts like compliments, expressions of gratitude, and invitations to navigate social interactions effectively As a result, the sociopragmatic application of Karuk has evolved, reflecting a significant shift from the traditional usage of past native speakers.
In today's diverse society, Kramsch advocates for replacing the traditional norm of the native speaker with that of the 'intercultural speaker.' This new standard emphasizes the ability to adapt to various standards of appropriateness rather than mere fluency in a language's standard form, enabling effective communication across different cultures (1998: 27).
In her paper "How to remain a non-native speaker," House (2000) critiques the unrealistic standard of native speaker proficiency in second language acquisition (SLA) research, echoing concerns raised by Byram and Kramsch She argues that deviations from this standard are often wrongly viewed as deficiencies in learners House's review of interlanguage pragmatics literature reveals that many studies incorrectly assume that differences between learners' interlanguage and the target language lead to miscommunication and pragmatic failure She challenges this oversimplification, citing research by Legenhausen (1991) and Burt (1990), which shows that learners frequently engage in code-switching between their first language (L1) and the second language (L2) not due to a lack of proficiency, but to connect with peers and maintain their dual identities as both competent language learners and sociable classmates.
To address the misconceptions surrounding language alternations in L2 learners, it is essential to recognize non-native speakers as effective communicators who possess intricate communicative objectives and employ diverse strategies to achieve these aims.
House argues for replacing the native speaker norm of pragmatic competence with that of the 'stable' bilingual, who utilizes pragmatic behaviors from both languages for effective communication She cites research on Japanese-English bilinguals, who demonstrate less backchanneling than Japanese monolinguals but more than their American-English counterparts In her conclusion, House emphasizes that it is unrealistic to expect language learners, inherently bilingual, to achieve the same pragmatic competence as monolingual natives She aligns with Kramsch (1998) and Phillipson (1992) in asserting that language learners may resist adopting the pragmatic norms of another culture, as doing so could compromise their own social and cultural identities, suggesting that such norms should not be imposed.
Bredella (1999) highlights the delicate balance between preserving one's cultural identity and the potential ethnocentrism that may arise from resisting foreign languages He argues that a refusal to learn a new language can signify a rejection of other cultures and an unwillingness to engage across cultural divides Mukherjee (1990) supports this view, suggesting that strict adherence to one’s own culture and language may hinder immigrant minorities from achieving social mobility A viable solution proposed by Judd and Kramsch advocates for teaching pragmalinguistic strategies that enable effective communication in the target language while respecting learners' cultural identities In contrast, House presents a more radical approach, proposing that foreign languages, particularly English as a global lingua franca, should be taught primarily as tools for communication rather than as symbols of cultural identity.
English language learners should develop essential communicative skills to effectively engage with diverse speakers in various contexts They need to be confident in understanding non-native speakers, successfully executing their intended linguistic actions, and overcoming the potential diminishment of their identity often caused by limited expressive abilities in a second language.
Intercultural Communicative Competence
The Affective Domain: Attitudes and General Education
The approaches to fostering attitudes in learners have evolved significantly with the integration of intercultural perspectives in language education Historically, Cultural Studies focused on cultivating positive attitudes towards the target culture, under the assumption that such positivity would motivate learners to acquire the foreign language However, recent literature challenges this traditional view, suggesting a need for a more nuanced understanding of cultural attitudes in language learning.
1.3.1.1 The Role of Positive Attitudes
Research in second language acquisition (SLA) during the 1970s and 1980s emphasized the impact of language learners' attitudes towards the target culture on their success in learning the language Notably, the work of Gardner and Lambert (1972) and Gardner (1985) highlighted that positive attitudes towards the target culture significantly enhance learners' motivation to acquire the language They argued that a genuine desire to understand and connect with members of the target culture fosters an integrative orientation towards language learning Additionally, Gardner indicated that these positive attitudes contribute not only to language proficiency but also to valuable non-linguistic outcomes, such as favorable perceptions of the cultural community, a broader appreciation for diverse cultures, and an interest in further language studies.
In the context of English-speaking learners of French in Canada, Gardner's research emphasizes the importance of intercultural contact, such as visits and exchanges, in fostering positive attitudes towards language learning He concluded that actively engaging with the target culture and using the language during these interactions leads to significant improvements in learners' attitudes, particularly towards the community they are studying.
The quality and nature of contact are crucial for fostering positive attitudes towards the target culture To cultivate favorable attitudes, learners must have consistent opportunities to engage with members of the target community, ensuring that these interactions are enjoyable and meaningful.
Byram et al (1994) highlight that teachers commonly embrace the goal of fostering positive attitudes in learners, viewing it as inherently beneficial This perspective remains prevalent in the language teaching profession, as evidenced by Brown's recent textbook for trainee teachers, which reinforces the belief in the importance of cultivating positive learner attitudes.
Positive attitudes significantly enhance second language learning, while negative attitudes can diminish motivation and hinder proficiency due to reduced input and interaction Teachers must recognize that students possess both positive and negative attitudes, but these negative perceptions can often be transformed through real-life interactions with individuals from diverse cultures.
Language learning is increasingly recognized as a means to foster positive attitudes towards target cultures, a principle reflected in the curricula of several European nations For instance, Risager highlights that the National Curriculum for England and Wales explicitly aims to cultivate positive perceptions of speakers of other languages (Risager 1998: 245).
Recent studies by Keller (1991) and Coleman (1998) have explored the impact of studying abroad on language students' stereotypes and attitudes Coleman's research on British and Irish students in the Erasmus programme found that extended stays abroad often reinforced existing stereotypes rather than diminishing them Alarmingly, up to 30% of participants returned home with more negative attitudes than they had prior to their departure, undermining the primary goals of exchange programs Coleman attributed these unexpected findings to insufficient pre-departure preparation and advocated for the implementation of pre-residence courses at home universities to enhance students' awareness of their stereotypes and their origins.
Intercultural approaches to language learning have shifted the focus on the attitudes required from learners Unlike traditional methods that emphasized adopting positive views of the target culture and its people, these new approaches recognize the complexity of cultural interactions Byram highlights the rationale behind this change, underscoring the need for a more nuanced understanding of cultural perspectives in language education.
Successful intercultural interaction requires more than just positive attitudes; it necessitates curiosity and openness Individuals must be willing to suspend their disbelief and judgment regarding others' meanings, beliefs, and behaviors to foster mutual understanding.
Bennett (1993) highlights the limitations of recognizing cultural differences while downplaying them to emphasize the universality of human behavior He argues that the belief that "deep down we all are the same" is insufficient for addressing cultural differences While some cultural characteristics may overlap, Bennett insists that this similarity does not address the core challenges of intercultural communication.
The attitudes of universalism overlook the culturally specific social contexts that shape physical behavior within distinct worldviews This oversight can lead to the mistaken belief that understanding the universal aspects of behavior is enough to comprehend diverse individuals However, since human behavior is always situated within a social context, individuals are likely to unconsciously interpret observed behaviors through the lens of their own cultural perspectives.
Bennett emphasizes that genuine intercultural sensitivity arises when learners recognize that others' behaviors are influenced by specific cultural contexts, necessitating an understanding from within that framework rather than through their own cultural lens This concept will be revisited later in the section focusing on intercultural understanding.
Modern intercultural competence and Cultural Studies prioritize understanding and embracing differences rather than merely promoting a positive view of other cultures Doye's recommendations exemplify this approach, advocating for openness to new experiences, tolerance for diverse perspectives, and a readiness to engage in dialogue with individuals from different cultural backgrounds (Doye 1989: 129).
Byram (1997a) highlights the challenges of setting measurable learning objectives for attitudes in language and culture education, arguing that such restrictions can hinder effective intercultural learning He emphasizes that key attitudes essential for intercultural communicative competence include curiosity, openness, and a willingness to suspend disbelief about other cultures while reflecting on one's own beliefs.
The Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
The significance of knowledge in learning language and culture is often overshadowed by debates on affective aims, yet clarity on its requirements remains elusive Susan Bassnett highlights this uncertainty, noting the lack of consensus on the type of knowledge necessary for understanding another culture Historically, many approaches have emphasized factual knowledge about the target culture; however, critics like Moore argue that these methods are flawed They focus too much on superficial behaviors rather than the underlying values, overlook the diversity within cultural communities, and fail to recognize the interplay between language and culture in shaping meaning.
Recent literature indicates a shift away from emphasizing cultural knowledge in favor of affective issues and skills essential for effective intercultural communication This change has led to factual knowledge being viewed as less important, often referred to as "the ugly step-sister" of Bloom's three domains Consequently, the focus has shifted from identifying the specific factual knowledge language learners require to promoting the development of skills and attitudes that enable them to acquire knowledge independently As Dlaska (2000) notes, culture learning prioritizes skill development over providing a comprehensive understanding of a culture.
Baron (2002) emphasizes the importance of incorporating factual cultural information in foreign language classrooms to enhance learners' intercultural communicative competence However, Roche (2001) highlights the complexities involved in selecting appropriate cultural content, noting that topics must be engaging yet not overly emotional to maintain lesson focus He warns against the tendency to prioritize universal themes that often reflect a Western bias, potentially overlooking significant cultural perspectives from non-Western contexts Additionally, Roche's study at the University of Columbia reveals that many current topics in textbooks, such as environmental issues and AIDS, may not resonate with students, suggesting the need for a more thoughtful approach to selecting culturally relevant content.
Byram et al (1994) emphasize the importance of providing learners with essential background information, arguing that it is a misconception to believe they can thrive without it They propose a detailed list of analytical categories that encompass the necessary cultural knowledge for effective learning.
Social identity encompasses various social groups within a nation-state that contribute to identities beyond national affiliation These groups include social class, regional identity, ethnic minorities, and professional identities, highlighting the intricate nature of individual social identities and the diverse fabric of national society.
• Social interaction: conventions of verbal and non-verbal behaviour in social interaction at differing levels of familiarity, as outsider and insider within social groups;
Belief and behavior encompass the habitual actions and norms of a social group, whether at a national or sub-national level, reflecting the moral and religious values inherent in these practices Additionally, everyday routines that may not be viewed as crucial identifiers of the group's identity also play a significant role in shaping collective behavior.
Socio-political institutions are essential components of the state, embodying the values and meanings that define both the government and its citizens These institutions create a framework for everyday life within national and sub-national groups, encompassing vital services such as healthcare, law and order, social security, and local governance.
Socialization throughout the life cycle is shaped by various institutions, including families, schools, employment, religion, and military service, each playing a crucial role in individual development Ceremonies marking life stages reflect diverse practices across social groups, highlighting the significance of cultural traditions Additionally, national auto-stereotypes influence societal expectations and shared interpretations, further enriching the complexity of socialization experiences.
National history encompasses significant periods and events, both historical and contemporary, that shape a nation's identity These moments are not only impactful in reality but are also perceived as vital by its members, contributing to a collective understanding of what defines their nation.
Geographical factors within national boundaries significantly shape citizens' perceptions of their country, influencing their identity and cultural understanding Additionally, there are essential pieces of information, while known to members, may not hold significance for them, yet are crucial for outsiders engaging in intercultural communication It's important to note that national boundaries and their changes are integral components of a nation's history.
• National cultural heritage: cultural artefacts perceived to be emblems and embodiments of national culture from the past and the present…
Stereotypes play a significant role in shaping national identity, as seen in the distinct perceptions of what defines German and English identities These notions are influenced by both historical and contemporary factors, leading to a rich tapestry of cultural symbols and stereotypes Famous monuments and notable figures serve as key representations of these national identities, highlighting the similarities and differences between German and English cultural constructs Understanding these elements is essential for a deeper appreciation of the complexities surrounding national identity.
Byram emphasizes the importance of incorporating the knowledge and perceptions of the target group, or the 'insider perspective,' into the content of cultural categories This means that the significant aspects of a nation’s geography and history should reflect what is deemed important by its members rather than external interpretations by geographers and historians For instance, the relevance an English person places on the Battle of Hastings is more valuable for EFL learners than a historian’s analysis of the event.
This model addresses key weaknesses found in previous culture learning frameworks, specifically the emphasis on superficial behavior, the disconnection between language and culture, and the oversight of diversity within national cultures (Moore 1991) The 'social interaction' section emphasizes the crucial relationship between culture and language, reflecting in both verbal and non-verbal behaviors and varying registers Additionally, the 'socio-political institutions' section goes beyond mere factual information about the political workings of the target culture, highlighting the underlying values and meanings that these institutions represent (Byram et al 1994: 51) Lastly, the 'social identity and social groups' category underscores the importance of recognizing the variety and differences within national cultures, including social, ethnic, and regional distinctions.
In today's educational landscape, the connection between language and culture has gained significant attention among writers and educators Rather than viewing culture merely as background knowledge for literature, there is a growing focus on its impact on intercultural communication The concept of "languaculture," introduced by anthropologist Michael Agar, effectively encapsulates this relationship, emphasizing the intertwined nature of language and cultural understanding.
Language and culture are inherently intertwined, each influencing and shaping the other The term "languaculture" highlights this essential connection, reminding us that understanding one requires an appreciation of the other This relationship underscores the importance of recognizing how cultural nuances are embedded in language.
The Skills Domain
Intercultural communicative competence is composed of knowledge, attitudes, and affective learning, with intercultural understanding being the most crucial aspect To achieve this understanding and gain knowledge about foreign cultures, learners must develop specific skills that differ from those of native speakers, as intercultural interactions vary significantly from communication within the same culture These skills resemble those used by ethnographers to study social and cultural practices from an insider's perspective However, many writers remain vague about the exact skills involved, with definitions of intercultural competence often focusing on interaction without providing a clear description of the necessary communicative skills.
Intercultural competence refers to an individual's ability to respond appropriately and adaptively when engaging with the behaviors, attitudes, and expectations of people from different cultures This competence encompasses a recognition of cultural differences and the skills necessary to navigate the challenges that arise from these differences.
The author highlights the importance of appropriate behavior in intercultural interactions and the ability to address cross-cultural communication challenges; however, the specific skills required for such behavior remain unclear This lack of clarity is a prevalent issue in the reviewed literature, where intercultural communicative competence is often described in vague terms that hinder practical application in educational settings For instance, Paige et al (2000) use broad and ambiguous labels like "culture learning strategies" in their conceptual model of culture learning, further complicating the understanding of essential skills.
Intercultural perspective-taking skills, transcultural competence, and intercultural communicative competence are key concepts in understanding cross-cultural interactions (Piage et al 2000: 5) However, the article does not clarify the meanings of these terms, which can be interpreted in various ways This lack of definition raises questions about the effectiveness of using broad terms in discussing intercultural communication.
"transcultural competence" and "intercultural communicative competence", which have been shown elsewhere (Byram 1997a; Meyer 1990) to include a mixture of attitudes, knowledge and skills can actually be described merely as skills
Erdmenger's examination of foreign-language-based Landeskunde encompasses a focus on skills, yet it falls short by not addressing those specifically tied to intercultural communication Instead, the author emphasizes the four linguistic skills—reading, writing, speaking, and listening—while highlighting their culturally specific semantic and pragmatic dimensions For instance, Erdmenger illustrates the socio-pragmatic differences in phrases like "Open the window," "Open the window, please," and "Could you open the window?" (Erdmenger 1996: 44) By overlooking the skills essential for intercultural communication, the author fails to recognize the importance of fostering learners' autonomy in language acquisition and their ability to navigate new information encountered both in and outside of language and Cultural Studies classes.
Effective intercultural communication requires learners to develop specific skills, primarily by understanding the cultural perspectives of their conversation partners Once these differing cultural viewpoints are recognized, it is essential to negotiate meaning and foster a relationship built on trust and respect.
Neuner (2000) highlights essential skills for intercultural learning, emphasizing the importance of training learners in strategies for gathering information, listening, and observing to understand foreign perspectives He asserts that learners should also develop skills for negotiating meaning and comprehending the contexts, norms, and values behind words Similarly, Zeuner (1999) stresses the necessity for learners to ask 'search questions' to uncover foreign understandings of products and practices, further enhancing their intercultural competence.
Byram's model of intercultural competence outlines two essential skill sets: interpreting and relating, and discovery and interaction The first set focuses on the ability to recognize underlying values and perspectives in various documents or events, while the second emphasizes acquiring new information about the target culture and successfully interacting with its members Byram proposes specific objectives for each skill set, highlighting their importance in fostering effective intercultural communication.
Skills of interpreting and relating: Ability to interpret a document or event from another culture, to explain it and relate it to documents from one's own
• Identify ethnocentric perspectives in a document of event and explain their origins;
• Identify areas of misunderstanding and dysfunction in an interaction and explain them in terms of each of the cultural systems present;
• Mediate between conflicting interpretations of phenomena
The skills of discovery and interaction involve the ability to gain insights into different cultures and their practices, as well as the capacity to effectively apply knowledge, attitudes, and skills during real-time communication and interactions.
• Elicit from an interlocutor the concepts and values of a document or events and to develop an explanatory system susceptible of application to other phenomena;
• Identify significant reference within and across cultures and elicit their significance and connotations;
• Identify similar and dissimilar processes of interaction, verbal and non-verbal, and negotiate an appropriate use of them in specific circumstances;
To effectively engage with individuals from diverse countries and cultures, it is essential to utilize a suitable blend of knowledge, skills, and attitudes in real-time interactions This approach should consider both the level of familiarity one has with the other culture and the degree of differences between one's own cultural background and that of the interlocutor.
• Identify contemporary and past relationships between one's own and the other culture and country;
• Identify and make use of public and private institutions which facilitate contact with other countries and cultures;
• Use in real-time knowledge, skills and attitudes for mediation between interlocutors of one's own and a foreign culture (Byram 1997a: 52/53)
Intercultural skills are the active application of intercultural understanding to engage with different cultures This understanding involves recognizing and adjusting one's own perspective based on exposure to other cultural viewpoints Learners utilize interpreting and relating skills to clarify misunderstandings by considering each cultural system involved and seeking compromises between differing interpretations Additionally, discovery and interaction skills enable individuals to elicit concepts and values from others, facilitating meaningful negotiations between diverse worldviews.
Byram and other scholars emphasize the importance of intercultural competence in navigating cultural differences during intercultural interactions Byram highlights the role of these skills in identifying diverse cultural perspectives and mediating between them, although the specific outcomes of such mediation remain unclear In a subsequent work, he posits that recognizing the influence of different cultural systems on interpretations and misunderstandings can effectively address communication breakdowns He asserts that an intercultural speaker can identify and clarify underlying assumptions in statements to minimize dysfunction Importantly, Byram does not advocate for one perspective to dominate or correct another; rather, he promotes the idea that intercultural competence enables individuals to acknowledge, understand, and respect varying viewpoints.
English native speakers often feel annoyed or intimidated by the German phrase "I have a question," which typically precedes requests for information This statement may come across as demanding to English speakers, but in German, "Ich habe eine Frage" serves as a polite indicator of an impending request An intercultural communicator equipped with the right cultural knowledge and understanding can recognize this different perspective, leading to a more positive interpretation of German communication styles.
While Byram's approach to intercultural communication has its supporters, Savignon and Sysoyev (2002) present an alternative perspective through their concept of 'sociocultural strategies.' They define these strategies as techniques for fostering international dialogue and maintaining peaceful interactions, which closely aligns with the intercultural skills identified by other scholars However, Savignon and Sysoyev diverge from Byram and Kramsch by advocating for specific tactics to navigate cultural differences, such as redirecting discussions to neutral topics and concealing personal viewpoints to prevent conflict This approach emphasizes the importance of managing potential clashes in cultural perspectives through strategic communication.
An effective approach to intercultural communication goes beyond merely avoiding conflict; it involves learners actively negotiating diverse perspectives By recognizing various interpretations and engaging in 'meta-talk', individuals can foster a deeper interest and tolerance for cultural differences, ultimately enhancing their intercultural competence.
On the other hand, training learners how to avoid misunderstanding and dysfunction in intercultural interaction will achieve nothing but offering an illusion that cultural difference do not exist.
Central Characteristics of Intercultural Learning
This chapter provides an overview of language-culture learning development and highlights the emergence of an intercultural approach based on the intercultural speaker model It explores various interpretations of intercultural learning and identifies key tendencies and principles among the diverse aims and objectives presented in the literature In summary, the essential elements of intercultural learning are outlined.
• Language learning cannot be separated from culture learning as language manifests many of the social actions of a society and expresses the values and beliefs which underlie these actions
While cultures are often associated with nations, there is a growing recognition of the diversity within cultures and the multiple identities each individual embodies.
Cultural learning in social studies emphasizes the shared attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of a community, as defined by Kramsch (1996), rather than the humanities' focus on history, literature, and social institutions While these traditional aspects remain relevant, the priority lies in understanding their meaning and significance within the target culture, rather than merely examining the products and practices themselves.
Intercultural learning aims to facilitate successful interactions and relationship-building with individuals from different cultures while fostering an understanding of their perspectives This interactive process encompasses the development of essential skills, attitudes, cultural awareness, and knowledge, enabling individuals to navigate diverse cultural landscapes effectively.
Exploring another culture encourages learners to adopt a critical perspective on their own, fostering an awareness that cultural behaviors cannot be universally interpreted.