INTRODUCTION
Research rationale
In recent years, "climate change" has garnered significant attention and concern globally, highlighting its critical impact on future socio-economic development Addressing climate change has become a priority for localities and nations alike, necessitating a comprehensive response strategy that includes both adaptation and mitigation efforts (Martens et al., 2009).
Vietnam is recognized as one of the most vulnerable countries globally to climate change, with recent studies highlighting an increase in disaster impacts, particularly affecting poorer and rural communities in mountainous and coastal areas Ethnic minorities residing in these peripheral regions are especially at risk, facing heightened vulnerabilities and rapid risks due to climate-related challenges.
2013; Savo et al., 2016; William et al., 2016; and Ella et al., 2017)
Water sources are crucial for human health, agricultural production, and industrial activities, particularly for ethnic minorities who rely heavily on agriculture for their livelihoods Climate change is expected to negatively impact water supplies and freshwater habitats across the globe, with varying intensity and characteristics by region Some areas may experience severe water shortages, increasing the number of people at risk and exacerbating demand Additionally, the frequency of floods and droughts is predicted to rise, leading to significant economic costs and reduced crop yields, heightening the risks of hunger and poverty.
Vietnam is a diverse nation, home to 54 ethnic groups, with the Kinh representing 85.4% of the population, totaling approximately 78.32 million people The remaining 53 ethnic minorities constitute 14.6% of the population, nearly 14 million individuals, who inhabit over 17 million hectares—more than half of Vietnam's territory These ethnic minorities are primarily located in mountainous, midland, coastal, and estuarine regions, as well as in watershed forests and river basins.
Ethnic minorities in Vietnam are dispersed across the country due to the impacts of war and immigration Those residing in urban areas tend to be more affluent compared to their rural counterparts (UNFPA, 2017) Many villages and communes are home to 3-4 different ethnic groups living in close proximity While geography significantly influences the cultural traditions and agricultural practices of these minorities, it also poses challenges in accessing essential infrastructure and public services, including health care and education (Phung Duc).
The H’mong ethnic minority, comprising 1.068 million individuals and representing 1.24% of Vietnam's total population, ranks as the fifth largest ethnic group in the country Predominantly residing at altitudes between 800 to 1500 meters, the H’mong are mainly found in 20 provinces, with over 91% concentrated in the northern mountainous regions along the Vietnam-China and Vietnam-Laos borders, stretching from Lang Son to Nghe.
An, which mainly concentrates in provinces of East and Northwest of Vietnam such as
Ha Giang, Lao Cai, Lai Chau, Son La, Yen Bai, Cao Bang, Bac Kan (UNPFA, 2011)
The H’mong people have cultivated unique terraced farming systems tailored to their local terrain, traditionally intercropping main crops like potatoes, vegetables, peanuts, sesame, and beans Their livestock primarily includes buffaloes, cows, pigs, chickens, and horses Additionally, the H'mong excel in various crafts, including knitting, forging, saddle making, wooden furniture, papermaking, and silver jewelry, catering to the needs and tastes of their community However, according to the Research Center for Human Rights in Ethnic Minorities and Mountainous Areas (2015), only 48.6% of the H'mong population is literate, resulting in limited awareness of their vulnerability and capacity to adapt to climate change.
This study examines the effects of climate change on the H’mong people in a village of Bac Kan Province, focusing on their primary income sources, recent weather changes, and the impact on natural resources and livelihoods It highlights the challenges faced in adapting to climate change and the local actions taken to mitigate its effects, as well as the community's experiences and understanding of weather prediction Utilizing focus group discussions as the primary methodology, the study facilitates open dialogue among local residents, enhancing their knowledge and capacity to adapt to changing conditions The overarching goal is to integrate indigenous knowledge into climate change adaptation and mitigation planning, ensuring that ethnic minority communities are included in global discussions on resilience to climate change.
Research’s objectives
The goal is to enhance the H’mong ethnic community's understanding of climate change and its effects on natural resources, particularly water resources Specific objectives include analyzing weather changes over the past decade in the research area, evaluating the impact of climate change on natural resources and livelihoods, assessing the adaptation and mitigation strategies employed by the H’mong people, and identifying additional challenges faced in adapting to climate change within the region.
Research questions and hypotheses
This study aims to explore the changes in weather patterns over the past decade, assess the impact of climate change on natural resources and livelihoods in the research area, and examine the measures taken by local communities to adapt to these changes Additionally, it seeks to identify the challenges faced by the H’mong ethnic group in their efforts to cope with climate change.
This research aims to test the null hypothesis that there has been no significant change in weather patterns over the past decade, that climate change has no effect on natural resources and livelihoods in the study area, that the H’mong ethnic group faces no challenges in adapting to climate change, and that local communities have not engaged in mitigation and adaptation strategies to address climate change impacts.
Significant of research
The research findings serve multiple purposes: for students, they provide secondary data to enhance understanding and interest in climate change, particularly in relation to the living conditions of ethnic minorities in Vietnam For local communities, particularly the H’mong ethnic group, the results offer valuable information to raise awareness about climate change and promote strategies for protecting water sources and adapting to environmental changes Additionally, the government can utilize this research as empirical data to inform policy decisions and develop effective solutions for the targeted research area and beyond.
Limitations
The study faced several limitations, including time constraints that hindered extensive interviews and data collection Additionally, the challenging road conditions to the research area resulted in prolonged travel times Accommodation and food were also issues, as the village lacked nearby homestays or hotels, necessitating assistance from local residents Furthermore, language barriers complicated communication, particularly with older villagers who had limited proficiency in Vietnamese, requiring the use of local translators and further extending the time needed for interactions.
Definitions
Climate change encompasses substantial alterations in global temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other climate indicators that unfold over decades or longer It is primarily driven by human activities that modify the composition of the atmosphere, leading to fluctuations in greenhouse gas levels over time (Thang et al., 2010).
Adaptation refers to the adjustments made in natural, social, or economic systems in response to actual or anticipated climate changes and their impacts This process aims to mitigate negative effects and seize new opportunities arising from these changes Effective adaptation involves enhancing the adaptive capacity of individuals, organizations, and institutions, as well as implementing actionable decisions to translate this capacity into practical measures (IPCC, 2001).
Mitigation refers to the process of reducing the emission of heat-trapping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere This can be achieved by lowering the sources of these emissions, such as fossil fuel combustion for energy and transportation, or by enhancing natural "sinks" like oceans, forests, and soil that absorb and store these gases The primary goal of mitigation is to stabilize greenhouse gas levels within a timeframe that allows ecosystems to adapt to climate change, ensuring food security and supporting sustainable economic growth (IPCC, 2014).
Vulnerability denotes a state of fragility and susceptibility to harm, and it has emerged as a crucial topic in the discourse surrounding adaptation and mitigation strategies within the global scientific research community (Downing et al 2005) Factors such as temperature fluctuations (Luers et al 2003), drought (Simelton et al 2009), and floods (McLeman & Smit 2006) significantly contribute to this vulnerability, highlighting the urgent need for effective responses to climate variability.
Silva and Lucio (2014) focused on the vulnerability of agricultural systems, examining how these systems respond to various socio-economic changes, including market fluctuations (Luers et al.).
2003) or changes in land use (Metzger et al 2006).
LITERATURE REVIEW
Impacts of climate change on natural resources availability
Climate change poses a significant threat to all life on Earth, impacting ecosystems, development, and the environment on a global scale Rising temperatures and sea levels can lead to floods and saltwater intrusion, jeopardizing agriculture and threatening industries and socio-economic systems In Vietnam, the average temperature has increased by approximately 0.5-0.7 °C over the past 50 years, with a notable decrease in annual precipitation in the north and an increase in the south From 1958 to 2007, the country experienced an overall reduction in rainfall by about 2 percent (MONRE, 2009) These changes have severely affected water supply availability in Vietnam, making the challenges posed by climate change critical to achieving the Millennium Development Goals and ensuring sustainable development for the nation (MONRE).
Global warming is exacerbating stress on water systems due to changes in water quantity Assessing the effects of climate change on water supply management is challenging because of the varying spatial resolutions in climate forecasts In Vietnam, there have been limited initiatives to address the potential impacts of climate change on water resource management systems.
Water resources are significantly influenced by weather conditions, particularly precipitation and temperature, as highlighted by the National Research Council (1998) Studies indicate that these factors are crucial for understanding water discharge in regions like the Zamu River basin (Wang et al 2008) It is essential to separately evaluate the impact of climate conditions on surface hydrology (Li et al 2009) The regional hydrological effects of climate change vary locally and must be acknowledged (Wang et al 2013) Recent research in Vietnam has examined changes in rainfall, temperature, and sea-level rise to assess the implications of climate change on water resources across different areas.
Quang Ngai Provincial People's Committee, Department of Natural Resources and Environment "The plan to respond to climate change in Quang Ngai province"
The 2012 climate change scenario is analyzed in this report to evaluate its impacts on various sectors in Quang Ngai province, including water resources, agriculture, forestry, biodiversity, fisheries, transportation, industry, energy, construction, public health, and tourism Additionally, the report provides actionable recommendations for local departments to effectively respond to the challenges posed by climate change.
Changes in water resources significantly impact agricultural production, as evidenced by a study on the effects of drought in Ninh Thuan (Hoan et al., 2015) The lack of irrigation water during the winter-spring season of 2014-2015 resulted in the loss of 2,079 hectares of crops, with 501 hectares suffering total loss and 1,578 hectares experiencing reduced yields Additionally, 6,100 hectares had to cease production due to insufficient irrigation, leading to an estimated total damage of 204 billion VND, comprising 32 billion VND in direct losses and 172 billion VND in indirect losses.
Impacts of climate change on livelihood and human health
Cultivation and animal husbandry are the primary livelihoods of ethnic minorities in the northern mountainous region, both of which are significantly impacted by climate change This phenomenon leads to the loss of arable land, decreased productivity, and diminished quality of agricultural products Additionally, climate change adversely affects livestock by reducing food sources, increasing disease prevalence, and causing extreme weather events that result in livestock losses and mass deaths Consequently, these climate-related challenges severely diminish the income derived from agriculture and animal husbandry, which are crucial for the livelihoods of these communities.
Climate change significantly impacts human health, particularly through the effects of heatwaves Scientific evidence indicates that prolonged high temperatures can lead to a surge in heat-related illnesses, especially when extreme heat persists for more than two days Fatalities increase when nighttime temperatures remain elevated, exacerbating the risks associated with heatwaves (Koppe et al., 2004) Additionally, climate change adversely affects water sources, contributing to public health issues The proliferation of pests and diseases necessitates the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, which in turn causes water pollution and leads to health problems such as stomachaches, diarrhea, and headaches (Thao & Linh, 2017).
Climate change has been extensively researched globally and in Vietnam, with various studies focusing on its impact on water resources and social aspects across different basins These studies have provided valuable insights into changes in water resources and climate trends, aiding in the development of localized mitigation policies However, there is a lack of comprehensive assessments regarding the effects of climate change on water resources specifically in Bac Kan province, highlighting the need for more in-depth research in this area.
H’mong ethnic minority
Hmong households, working with and depending on the ecosystems around them, form culturally relevant rural livelihoods in hugely pragmatic ways (Turner,
In the northern uplands, Hmong livelihoods rely on traditional household farming methods, resulting in only one rice harvest per year due to agro-ecological conditions, unlike the lowlands where families can harvest two to three times annually Rice holds significant cultural importance for the Hmong, as achieving food security through sufficient rice production is viewed as a symbol of wealth within the community Families that can produce enough rice are perceived as prosperous, while those that cannot meet this goal are regarded as poorer.
Hmong populations have historically faced food shortages due to wars, political instability, and challenging weather conditions in the northern uplands, compounded by government land allocation and resettlement pressures (World Bank, 2009) In response to low rice yields, Hmong communities often pool resources or seek to rent or purchase additional land, which can be difficult for poorer members (Bonnin and Turner, 2012) Hmong women typically manage small gardens to provide daily food, growing fruits, vegetables, and tubers, while some families maintain livestock, including goats, chickens, and valuable buffalo However, recent extreme cold snaps have led to reduced crop and livestock survival, increasing the risk of food insecurity for many households.
Indigenous knowledge (IK) encompasses the unique expertise of a community, including its cultural customs, values, beliefs, and worldviews, as defined by Agrawal (1995) This local knowledge is institutionalized and transmitted orally across generations, facilitating local decision-making in rural areas (Osunade, 1994) As highlighted by Rautela and Karki (2015), the integration of IK in disaster risk mitigation demonstrates its significant contributions to preparedness, response, and recovery after natural disasters In Vietnam, local awareness reflects the practices of various ethnic minority communities, with this knowledge being developed, collected, and refined through societal progress, and passed down orally (Ty and Cuc, 1998).
Research indicates that the H'mong people, despite limited education and travel opportunities, possess rich indigenous knowledge that significantly benefits their communities (Son et al 2019) Their active engagement in restoration projects has enhanced local landscapes, improved soil quality, and strengthened water sources This deep connection with nature allows diverse ethnic communities in northern Vietnam to understand both the resources available to them and the environmental needs they must address Locals recognize the value of indigenous knowledge in various areas, including weather forecasting, traditional rice and corn varieties, and medicinal plants sourced from their surroundings While many villages continue to uphold these traditional practices, they have also started integrating modern farming techniques to adapt to the challenges posed by climate change.
There are also many research papers which assess the impact of climate change in the world with many different methods have been used Abbaspour and his associates
In 2009, a study utilized the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to examine the effects of climate change on water resources in Iran, calibrating the model for the period from 1980 to 2002 Similarly, research by Karambiris et al (2011) analyzed the impact of climate variability on runoff in West Africa, employing various datasets and non-stationary analysis methods Additionally, Coombes & Jones (2010) investigated the influence of climate change on tourism, focusing on visitor behavior and habitat use along the UK coast through visitor surveys In Vietnam, significant studies have addressed climate change impacts, including a report by Hau & Tan (2015) that assessed flooding in the Nhat Le River using flow and flood simulation methods, and research by Thao & Linh, which explored the correlation between climate change and community health through univariate linear regression analysis.
Recent studies have explored how ethnic minorities adapt to climate change by utilizing indigenous knowledge, employing methods such as household surveys, focus group discussions (FGDs), and interviews (Son et al., 2019) A significant amount of research has concentrated on the impacts of climate change on natural resources, production, and the health of communities in delta and coastal regions This report specifically targets the H'mong ethnic group residing in remote areas of Bac Kan province, utilizing FGDs, semi-structured interviews, and field observations to gather insights into their experiences and adaptations.
METHODOLOGY
Study area
In late June 2020, research was conducted in Khuay Day village, Binh Trung Commune, Cho Don district, Bac Kan province, a mountainous area characterized by complex topography and numerous rivers The agro-forestry sector plays a crucial role in Bac Kan's economy, contributing over one-third of the province's GDP and employing more than 70% of its workforce With a total area of 485,941 hectares, forestry land constitutes 89% of the province, and its forest coverage rate is an impressive 70.7%, the highest in Vietnam (Bac Kan Statistical Yearbook, 2013) However, the community's significant reliance on natural resources renders them particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.
Cho Don district spans 912 square kilometers and is home to approximately 46,000 residents as of 2004 The district's administrative center, Bang Lung town, is situated 45 kilometers west of Bac Kan town along provincial road 257, which serves as the primary transportation route in the area.
The article discusses the geographical location of Cho Don District, situated at 254, which connects north to Ba Be District and south to Dinh Hoa District in Thai Nguyên Province It highlights the diverse ethnic communities residing in the area, including the Tay, Kinh, H'Mong, Dao, Nung, and Hoa.
Figure 3.1: The map of research area
Khuay Day village, located in Binh Trung commune, Don Cho district, is home to 74 households and 337 residents, predominantly from the H’mong ethnic minority, with one household belonging to the Yao ethnic minority This village faces extreme poverty, with all surveyed households classified as poor Agriculture serves as the primary income source, with residents engaged in farming, cultivation of maize and cassava, forestry, and livestock The H’mong community originally migrated from Ha Giang due to limited arable land and harsh living conditions In the 1990s, they relocated to Bac Kan province following the division of Bac Thai province, where they received government support to establish housing and take advantage of new agricultural opportunities However, the socio-economic and geographical challenges they face make them particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.
Methods
To effectively prepare for interviews, it is crucial to gather essential information about the research area, including aspects such as the local culture, living conditions, and notable features This preparation involves planning access to select and reach interviewees, drafting a set of interview questions, establishing contact with village leaders, scheduling meetings with local residents, and organizing the logistical details of the trip.
The field data collection process involves two key steps: first, gathering information on local communities' perceptions of climate change, its effects on agriculture and health over the past decade, and identifying indigenous knowledge for climate adaptation Second, engaging local residents to assess the watersheds they utilize, allowing for direct observation and evaluation of the quality and quantity of each water source Additionally, focus group discussions will be conducted to enrich the findings.
Focus group discussions (FGDs) are a valuable qualitative tool for gaining an in-depth understanding of social issues and are particularly effective in conservation work, as they provide a cost-effective and promising alternative for participatory research (Tobias et al., 2017; Morgan, 1996) Unlike traditional interviews, FGDs emphasize the interactions among participants rather than between the interviewer and interviewees (Morgan, 1997) This structured yet expressive format allows for the collection of substantial information in a relatively short time, making FGDs an excellent method for exploring group thoughts and opinions on specific topics Typically, discussions are pre-scheduled, and moderators use outlines or guides to ensure comprehensive coverage of all relevant subjects.
Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) allow individuals to articulate their perspectives on community issues, such as socio-cultural contexts, resource utilization, and the impacts of climate change They serve as a valuable tool for collecting and analyzing indigenous knowledge systems, exemplified by the H’mong community's insights in contrast to conventional scientific understanding (Ajibade, 2003) The FGDs process involves four key stages: research design, data collection, analysis, and reporting of results (Morgan et al., 1998).
To initiate the focus group discussion process, it's essential to identify the primary aim to outline key research objectives This allows for the creation of a structured list of questions to guide the discussions In our research, we organized focus groups consisting of 4-13 participants each, lasting between 40 minutes to over an hour We formed four diverse groups, including both men and women aged 18 to 65, while also separating them by gender Each group was composed of community members from the same locality (Khuoi Vam Group, Khuoi Day center, and above the waterfall of Khuoi Day) to foster a comfortable environment and reduce potential tensions This approach was crucial as it enabled a range of responses to the questions, providing a broader perspective on how climate change impacts are perceived and experienced within the community.
Focus group discussions (FGDs) offer significant advantages for researching the H’mong ethnic people, who are typically shy and wary of strangers In a familiar group setting, they are more likely to open up and engage in conversations, fostering a more dynamic exchange compared to other research methods The flexibility of FGDs allows moderators to adapt the discussion by suggesting topics, inquiring about participants' health and lives, or asking follow-up questions, which helps participants connect with the main themes This dynamic approach not only enhances the quality of insights gathered but also captures non-verbal cues, such as body language and behaviors, providing deeper understanding for the research Additionally, semi-structured interviews complement this method by allowing for more personalized and in-depth exploration of individual experiences.
A qualitative data collection technique in which the researcher asks informants a set of predetermined but open-ended questions is a semi-structured interview (Lisa,
The open-ended nature of interview questions allows for in-depth exploration of specific topics, facilitating detailed discussions between the interviewer and interviewee (Nigel et al., 2002).
The interviews were conducted in a face-to-face, semi-structured format in Vietnamese, with detailed notes taken and audio recordings made when consent was granted by participants This approach allows for greater engagement, enabling interviewees to elaborate on their responses through prompts and suggestions It also facilitates clarification of questions, correction of misunderstandings, and the opportunity to probe deeper into responses and explore new ideas.
Following the completion of interviews with various groups, we sought guidance from local residents regarding the watersheds utilized by the community We gathered valuable information on both the quality and quantity of the water sources, complemented by photographs, handwritten notes for documentation, and GPS coordinates for mapping resources This field observation allowed us to interact with the community, deepening our understanding of their living conditions and the significance of our research.
Interviews were transcribed and translated from Vietnamese to English, followed by a manual coding process for content analysis This approach revealed certain responses emerging more frequently, prompting the development of a coding frame to highlight the most relevant answers to open-ended questions To minimize bias in the coding process, all interview notes underwent multiple reviews by the team Additionally, Excel was utilized to quantify the responses and calculate percentage results for specific questions.
RESULTS
General information
During fieldwork, participant observation fostered a friendly rapport with respondents, facilitating open discussions on sensitive topics and providing valuable insights into daily behaviors and expectations This method enhanced the interview process by allowing for deeper explanations of observations Additionally, participant observation enabled firsthand witnessing of the effects of climate change on sustainable development and the adaptive practices of the H’mong ethnic community.
A total of 30 participants were involved in the focus group discussions (FGDs), organized into four diverse groups consisting of community members aged 18 to 65 Group 1 included five men, Group 2 featured eight individuals split between men and women, Group 3 was the largest with thirteen participants of both genders, and Group 4 consisted solely of four women.
Table 4.1 Social-economic background of respondents
Table 4.1 indicates that 20% of the discussion participants were men, who contributed more comments than women, likely due to the latter's shyness and limited Vietnamese language skills The majority of participants were aged 18-45, a demographic directly impacted by climate change Most had low education levels, with many having only attended primary school, as their parents were too poor to afford further education Consequently, they worked in the fields from a young age, with some only achieving basic literacy The village faces a significant challenge, with a poverty rate of 100%.
Figure 4.1 illustrates the primary income sources of respondents, highlighting the significance of this inquiry in understanding the livelihoods of the Hmong community The data reveals that agriculture is the predominant source of income for local residents.
In the village, families primarily cultivate rice, both upland and wet varieties, while some grow corn for self-sufficiency Many households also grow cassava for sale, although it fetches a low price of 500-600 VND/kg Livestock ownership is limited, with most families raising chickens for consumption, while a few keep pigs and buffaloes for domestic use and plowing Key sources of income include the cultivation of trees such as acacia, magnolia, and ficus religiosa, which take six to seven years to mature and can yield 80-100 million VND per hectare Each household typically manages between one to six hectares of land, balancing crop production and forestry Additionally, a small number of families earn income through hired labor, performing tasks such as field clearing, tree care, and herbicide application.
Figure 4.1: Income sources of H’mong people in the village
Changes in climate over the past 10 years
Over the past decade, community members have observed significant changes in weather patterns, with 91% reporting increased frequency of droughts and a general rise in temperatures Participants noted a decrease in wind breezes, making summers more unbearable, and highlighted the unpredictability of rainfall and sunshine, with extended dry spells followed by unusual month-long rains Winters have become shorter, with temperature variations making it challenging to cultivate rice and maize, as over 70% of interviewees indicated Additionally, strong winds occur 1-2 times per year, impacting 60% of respondents, while more than 80% noted that increased droughts correlate with reduced rainfall Although heavy rains occasionally lead to landslides affecting local infrastructure, around 40% of respondents mentioned that floods rarely disrupt agricultural production.
Table 4.2: The experience of climate change over the past 10 years
Climate changes experienced Frequency Percentage
Increasing drought Frequently (every year) 91
Impacts of climate change on water resources
4.3.1 The status of water sources
In this village, there are 17 water sources utilized for daily domestic needs, including cooking, drinking, and washing, as well as for irrigation These sources comprise small streams from the mountains, self-dug water holes, wells, and self-dug wells, distributed across the Khuoi Vam group, Khuoi Dun group, Khuoi Day Center, and Above Waterfall group.
Figure 4.2: The location of all water points in Khuay Day Commune
The map was developed using various coordinate points to provide a comprehensive overview of water sources These sources, primarily originating from mountainous regions, are dispersed throughout the area, particularly near forests adjacent to residential zones and agricultural fields, ensuring easy access to drinking and irrigation water for local communities Additionally, other water sources are located in the village center.
Many people rely on untested water sources for their daily needs, as the water they use has not undergone purification Previously, a government-supported clean water system served the entire village, but a flood destroyed the water tap infrastructure, and no repairs were made Consequently, residents were forced to seek alternative sources of water.
Figure 4.3: The water source for household activities
The H’mong community in this area primarily relies on mountain streams for their water supply, accounting for 94% of their usage In contrast, wells and self-dug holes contribute minimally, with only 3% and 4% respectively Notably, one well serves the local primary school for teachers' daily needs, while another is utilized by the village grocer; both wells are approximately 7-8 meters deep Additionally, three households have self-dug holes, which are about 1 meter deep and located near fields and streams, where they use pumps to access water.
The H'mong people rely heavily on agriculture, making irrigation water crucial for their income and living standards As illustrated in figure 4.1, rainwater constitutes 98% of their irrigation source, primarily supporting upland and field rice during the dry season Additionally, 66% of households utilize water from streams, but this resource is limited to fields in close proximity, as many families cannot afford water pumps to access higher areas.
Table 4.3: The water source for irrigation
Water sources Percentage water in the ravine (for wet rice) 87
4.3.2 Effect of Climate change on water resources
During the rainy season, mountain streams typically provide sufficient water for daily use; however, in drought periods, water becomes scarce for irrigation, necessitating careful usage Households may need to dig wells deeper than one meter and utilize pumps to access water Additionally, water availability varies based on location and the specific stream, with waterfalls often experiencing significant shortages, particularly in November and December.
In the Khuoi Vam group, three water points sourced from mountain streams provide clean water for daily domestic use, including drinking, cooking, and washing The first water point, historically surrounded by natural forests, ensured a clean supply for all families; however, deforestation for plantations and the use of herbicides have led to water contamination Fortunately, the other two water sources remain clean and abundant, largely unaffected by local production activities.
The Khuoi Dun group relies on three mountain streams for their household water needs However, the first source has a reduced water level, necessitating careful conservation The second water point, sheltered by primary forests, provides clean water unaffected by human activities In contrast, the third source suffers from contamination due to herbicides and deforestation practices, rendering it unsanitary for use.
The Khuoi Day center relies on two mountain stream sources for water, one of which is insufficient for the daily needs of four households, prompting the Protestant Association to assist in constructing a water storage tank The second stream serves irrigation purposes and remains largely unaffected by human activity Additionally, there are three self-dug water holes, each supplying one household, but they are only 2-3 meters deep and lack the capacity for well drilling, while streams are too distant The water quality is compromised due to contamination from nearby herbicides and pesticides used in paddy fields One household has a private well, 8 meters deep, equipped with a pump that meets its daily water needs Furthermore, the government has provided a well, complete with a pump and water tank, to support the water requirements of teachers and students in local elementary and preschool facilities.
The Waterfall Group features four mountain stream water sources, with two designated for irrigation that remain largely unaffected by human activity, according to villagers' observations The other two sources serve domestic needs; one remains pristine while the other has experienced significant changes Once supplying water to 40 households, this latter source now only serves 14 due to declining water levels, leading to a complete absence of fish where they once thrived.
Climate change is causing rising temperatures, drought, and reduced rainfall, leading to a decline in water availability for domestic use and irrigation Additionally, altered weather patterns from climate change have resulted in the proliferation of unusual pests and diseases, prompting increased pesticide use in agriculture These chemicals ultimately contaminate the soil and affect water quality Moreover, extensive deforestation, particularly of upstream trees due to slash-and-burn practices by ethnic minorities, further exacerbates water conservation issues and contributes to the overall decrease in water resources.
Effect of climate change on production
In mountainous areas, drought, floods, and cold spells are common climate risks, with drought identified as the most pressing issue by 86.7% of respondents in recent discussions Out of 30 participants, 26 indicated that their production is significantly impacted by drought and water scarcity, which adversely affects their daily lives and production schedules Additionally, rising temperatures have reduced working hours, leading to decreased income, while excessive heat has resulted in various negative consequences for the community.
Prolonged periods of drought severely impact upland rice crops, leading to significant yield losses; typically, farmers expect 20-25 bags per crop, but this can drop to just 6-7 bags when conditions are unfavorable Additionally, wet rice suffers from excessive sun exposure after transplanting, resulting in poor growth, with yields often falling to 1-2 bags per rod instead of the usual 3-4 bags This dire situation contributes to local hunger, as cassava also fails to thrive in overly dry soil, leading to stunted growth Furthermore, extended heatwaves threaten newly planted acacia and magnolia trees, as the topsoil becomes excessively dry, reaching depths of 15-20 cm.
Sudden cold snaps have led to significant livestock losses, particularly among chicks under 5 grams, prompting many households to reduce their farm stock Heavy rainfall poses a threat as it can trigger landslides and devastate crops, especially rice during the flowering stage, resulting in total loss Additionally, heavy rain can uproot cassava plants, a vital dietary staple and source of income for the community Strong winds further exacerbate the situation by toppling trees, including magnolia and acacia Climate change has also increased the prevalence of pests and diseases, necessitating frequent pesticide applications in rice fields, while magnolia leaves and acacia roots are being damaged by worms Pigs are succumbing to various diseases, and goats in one household have shown respiratory issues attributed to changing weather patterns, leading to fatalities due to delayed medical intervention Utilizing focus group discussions to gather detailed, location-specific information on climate change impacts can help identify adaptation strategies for affected communities.
Local people adapt to climate change
During our focus group discussions, we discovered that women in the area are often denied access to education, while many men have only received basic literacy training Consequently, there is a significant lack of indigenous knowledge regarding climate change adaptation Alarmingly, 70% of participants reported having no strategies to cope with extreme climate changes, leading to a resigned acceptance of their situation Additionally, there is a noticeable absence of water retention systems to mitigate the impacts of drought, despite the community's increasing need for drought resilience.
Table 4.4: The way that local people are adapting to climate change
They accept with resignation; no water pump when drought happened; no water retention system; no change suitable varieties
Bring economic benefits, while helping to retain water and reduce heat in the summer
If the rain came late, they could plow soon and wait for rain
To prevent pests and diseases in fields previously affected by crop issues, it is essential to spray before transplanting Even in fields where no symptoms of pests or diseases have been observed after 15 days of transplanting, a preventive spray is still recommended.
To enhance agricultural resilience, farmers are focusing on planting more trees in upstream and hilly areas to improve water retention and regulate temperatures In instances of delayed rainfall, they pre-plow fields to capture water effectively Additionally, proactive measures such as spraying crops before signs of pests and diseases appear have been adopted; this includes treating fields previously affected by pests before replanting and spraying even healthy fields 15 days post-transplanting as a precaution Some farmers are also experimenting with different rice varieties to adapt to changing weather conditions, although success in achieving higher yields remains elusive.
Table 4.5: Using indigenous knowledge as an indicator for the weather change
If the dragonfly flies high, it will be sunny, and if it flies low it will rain
Observing ants climbing the pillars of your house may indicate impending rain, while spotting them crossing the road or entering homes suggests heavy rainfall could occur within two to three days.
If crabs from the stream are seen crawling on the road and hills, it will be a big storm
If the sound of frogs croaking in the afternoon can be heard, it will be rain at night
Through focus group discussions, we discovered that local residents rely on observations of nature and animal behavior to predict weather changes, rather than scientific methods For instance, they believe that high-flying dragonflies indicate sunny weather, while ants entering homes signal impending rain Additionally, crabs moving to higher ground suggest a forthcoming storm, and frog calls in the afternoon predict evening rain Participants noted a significant gap in indigenous weather education for children, as both adults and schools do not provide this knowledge, highlighting the need for improved educational resources in the community.
The other challenges for adapting to climate change
The focus group revealed significant reactions to local government actions concerning climate change adaptation Community members clearly understand their needs and desires, and they are prepared to communicate these effectively to government officials, given the opportunity, which has yet to be provided.
Table 4.6: The other challenges to adapt to climate change and suggestion of local people
Challenges Status Local people desire
Mountain road; bumpy; when it rains, it is very difficult to travel
People lack the capital to invest in economic development
There is no training and knowledge about farming, climate change and adaptation
Access to information is limited because mobile networks are week, and a few households have televisions
The water is untreated, no clean and not abundance
People want to have state investment funds to build concrete roads for people to easily travel and exchange goods
Having government assistance to set up an irrigation system
They want to get training to improve their knowledge
The information from authorities is quicker and more accurate
They want to have clean water system and new water pumps for the whole village
During the focus group discussion, participants highlighted the urgent need for government assistance, particularly in improving road conditions, which they identified as a significant barrier to adapting to climate change The existing roads are difficult and bumpy, hindering their ability to transport crops like rice, maize, and cassava to market, especially during adverse weather They expressed a desire to diversify their agricultural practices to better cope with extreme weather, but lack the necessary funding and investment for irrigation systems Additionally, many community members leave school early, resulting in a lack of knowledge and skills related to modern farming techniques and climate adaptation Participants emphasized the need for training and support, as well as improved access to external information, which is currently limited in their remote area They are eager to learn and implement effective strategies if given the appropriate assistance.
The challenges faced by the community highlight their urgent need for support from state agencies Primarily, they emphasize the necessity for government assistance in constructing a new road to facilitate better transportation and trade Additionally, there is a strong demand for improved knowledge sharing and the establishment of clean water and irrigation systems to benefit both household needs and agricultural practices.
The village faces a critical shortage of clean drinking water, highlighting the urgent need for new water pumps and a centralized waste treatment system to address pollution Participants in a recent focus group emphasized that collaboration between the government and citizens could significantly enhance public health and safety Additionally, they pointed out the necessity for more arable land, as the current allocation per household is insufficient for growing crops for daily consumption and cultivating plants for income.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Discussion
Research indicates that the H’Mong people's livelihood activities in Bac Kan are limited in diversity, with agricultural production remaining the primary source of income Non-agricultural activities are minimal, highlighting the H’Mong households' strategic choice to focus on crop development, leveraging the region's favorable climate and soil conditions.
In 2019, cultivation emerged as the primary agricultural activity, significantly influencing household income in the Northern Mountainous Region of Vietnam Wet rice cultivation, predominantly practiced by local households near water bodies, relies on traditional methods and small, naturally irrigated fields using local rice varieties This practice yields only one crop during the rainy season and primarily serves self-sufficiency rather than generating substantial income The livelihoods of these communities are heavily dependent on natural conditions, making them particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, as evidenced by recent floods, extreme cold spells, and droughts Additionally, rural populations face compounded challenges such as food insecurity, limited access to government services, and environmental degradation, further exacerbating their vulnerability to climate extremes.
Over the past decade, research has highlighted significant weather-related events, with respondents noting that the increased severity, frequency, and duration of droughts, floods, and cold spells have severely impacted their livelihoods Notably, the Bac Kan Meteorology and Hydrology Department reported a rise in average temperatures from 21.9°C to 22.7°C over the last 50 years, underscoring the critical importance of climate change in the region.
Source: Bac Kan Meteorology and Hydrology Department (2013)
Figure 5.1: Temperature variation of Bac Kan Province over the last 50 years
Extreme and prolonged drought significantly harms animal health and plant growth, leading to an increase in pests and diseases, such as black stink bugs and leaf roll worms The adverse effects of cold snaps and prolonged cold periods result in high mortality rates among plants and animals, disrupting the crop calendar Erratic rainfall and sunlight contribute to the deterioration of crops like maize and rice, while also creating favorable conditions for disease outbreaks As a result, local communities report a rise in pests and diseases, which diminishes crop productivity and directly impacts their income Additionally, the necessity to apply pesticides more frequently leads to environmental pollution and poses risks to human health.
The mountainous regions, despite their vastness and lower population compared to eastern areas, heavily rely on natural and biological resources, particularly forests However, for over 35 years, these forests have faced severe degradation, disrupting the ecosystem and leading to significant issues such as erosion, floods, droughts, and landslides, which have severely impacted local communities The challenges are particularly acute for ethnic groups in remote areas, with many of the nation's poorest communes located in these mountainous regions (Quy, 2002) Economic hardships force residents to depend on untreated natural water sources from the mountains, leading to water scarcity during droughts and posing serious health risks (Wu et al., 1999) Health problems reported in the area include stomachaches, headaches, and instances of cancer, with approximately 190 million people falling ill and 60,000 fatalities attributed to water pollution and related diseases annually (Tao & Xin, 2014).
In focus group discussions (FGDs), men outnumbered women in participation and demonstrated greater confidence and understanding in responding to questions, while women appeared more timid and had less comprehension of Vietnamese This reflects the cultural norm among the H'mong people, where men serve as the primary decision-makers in the family Research indicates that gender inequality persists in Vietnam, particularly affecting ethnic women in remote areas, highlighting the critical need for women's empowerment in these communities.
In a 2018 study, it was revealed that a significant 76.7% of participants in group discussions had not progressed beyond primary school The 1989 census highlighted alarming literacy rates among ethnic groups, with the H'mong at 89.8%, Gia Rai at 79.45%, Dao at 65.71%, and Muong at 18.28% unable to read or write Notably, the illiteracy rate among women in these communities is higher than that of men, resulting in a lack of knowledge and experience necessary for adapting to climate change.
Water resources in the area primarily rely on mountain streams, with no alternative backup sources available, making the community vulnerable to changes in weather The absence of a reservoir and water treatment system exacerbates this issue Additionally, water distribution is uneven, as households are scattered across various ravines, forcing residents to transport water from distant streams This leads to significant expenses for water pipes and results in leaks during transportation, further reducing the already limited water supply, particularly during the rainy season.
The findings from the focus group discussions indicate that the ethnic communities in the study area lack effective climate change adaptation strategies, with many residents suffering from its impacts While some individuals express a desire to implement changes, they have yet to identify suitable measures In Quang Tri province, initiatives have been launched to restructure crops on rice paddies, focusing on drought-resistant varieties for the summer-autumn season Green beans and hybrid maize have been selected as key crops for long-term agricultural adaptation, with approximately 90% of surveyed households making the switch These crops demonstrate strong drought tolerance, align well with local environmental conditions, and offer significant economic benefits.
In their 2020 research, Huynh Văn Chuong and colleagues examined the adaptive strategies of the Xo Dang ethnic minority community in Quang Nam province, focusing on agricultural cooperation models that respond to climate change Their findings highlight several key adaptive activities implemented by the community to enhance resilience against environmental challenges.
Table 5.1: Climate change adaptation activities in agricultural production of farm households in Quang Nam province ( Chuong et al, 2020)
No Adaptation activities activity description
-For local rice: Plant earlier to harvest earlier avoid heavy rain and heavy storms
-For wet rice: Shorten planting time by transplanting, not sowing seeds
-Acacia: using 2 forms of planting acacia gourd and acacia seed depending on the season and geographical location
-Rice: Previously planted two crops, but this year was too drought, so only one crop was grown Using
Xi 23 wet rice varieties with high drought tolerance and short cultivation time
-Terraced farming -Use indigenous varieties such as the drought- tolerant upland rice variety Pe Tru, moldy banana variety, or cassava H34
- Model of intercropping between acacia and local
The study area requires increased government support to develop effective adaptations, as residents encounter significant challenges including inadequate funding for essential infrastructure such as roads, clean water systems, irrigation, and waste treatment facilities Additionally, access to social information is limited, highlighting the need for the state to focus on enhancing knowledge and resources for ethnic minorities in remote regions.
Conclusion
Climate change is adversely affecting water resources and the livelihoods of the H'mong ethnic minorities in Binh Trung commune, Cho Don district, Bac Kan province The primary impact observed is a rise in temperature, which has limited local water sources and disrupted the main income sources for residents Although the community is aware of climate and weather changes and is attempting to adapt, their efforts have not yet yielded the desired results They face numerous challenges, including inadequate infrastructure, economic constraints, low educational levels, and limited access to information and clean water To mitigate these impacts, it is essential to encourage learning from successful climate change adaptation models in other regions However, this study does not delve deeply into local customs and agricultural practices that influence climate change, indicating the need for further research Additionally, it is crucial for government involvement to increase in order to effectively reduce the risks of natural disasters and support the adaptation efforts of ethnic minorities.
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