INTRODUCTION
The necessary of the research
At the end of 2015, severe drought significantly affected all provinces in the Mekong Delta and parts of Central Vietnam, impacting millions, particularly in coastal areas This drought led to critical water shortages and saline intrusion, reaching up to 90 kilometers inland in the Mekong Delta (UNDP, 2016) The effects of this drought are regarded as the most severe in the region in the past century, with Kien Giang being one of the hardest-hit areas.
Ca Mau Province has experienced significant damages due to an unexpected drought and saltwater intrusion extending 20-25 km inland, raising concerns about climate change, natural disasters, and food security Climate change has led to rising sea levels, abnormal weather patterns, and increased natural hazards Additionally, it exacerbates the impacts of El Niño (ENSO), intensifying both its frequency and severity.
El Niño is a climate phenomenon characterized by fluctuating ocean temperatures in the equatorial Pacific, significantly influencing extreme weather patterns It is recognized as a primary factor driving variations in climate, leading to alterations in the frequency and intensity of floods, droughts, cyclones, severe storms, and temperature extremes.
The El Niño-induced drought has severely impacted agricultural production, exacerbating food insecurity in vulnerable communities In 2015, 11 out of 13 provinces in the Mekong River Delta experienced significant drought and salinity intrusion, affecting approximately 400,000 hectares of cropland, with 25,900 hectares left fallow By mid-April 2016, the area of rice affected by drought surged from 139,000 hectares in mid-March to 224,552 hectares A report from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development on April 15, 2016, indicated that 208,394 households were lacking freshwater for domestic use Additionally, water shortages and salinity have impacted 13,000 hectares of cash crops, 25,500 hectares of fruit trees, and 14,400 hectares of aquaculture, posing further challenges to the region's agricultural sustainability.
2 climate-related diseases and decreases in food supply, especially for the children and women (CGIAR, 2016)
Recent data indicates that the Mekong River's upstream water discharge has decreased by 900 m³/s, while water levels in the middle and downstream areas have risen by 0.1 to 1.5 meters due to tidal influences This salinity intrusion has significantly increased the salinity of water in rivers and irrigation canals, with levels reaching 4 g/l and extending up to 45-65 km in the Tien River and 55-60 km in the Hau River Consequently, the ongoing drought has led to a decline in groundwater levels and marked the most extensive salinity intrusion seen in the past 90 years.
The Ca Mau Peninsula, the southernmost point of Vietnam, is bordered by the South China Sea to the east and the Gulf of Thailand to the west, encompassing Can Tho City, Hau Giang, Soc Trang, Bac Lieu, Ca Mau, and parts of Kien Giang Province This area features a dense watershed that contributes to significant saline intrusion, necessitating proactive measures to enhance resilience for local communities, particularly vulnerable groups such as the poor, women, and residents in saline-affected regions.
Resilience refers to the capacity of human and natural systems to endure and recover from external shocks, including socioeconomic, market, and climate-related stressors This concept highlights the ability to confront various challenges and emerge stronger, demonstrating the importance of adaptability in the face of adversity.
Climate resilience involves enhancing a system's ability to endure climate-related shocks and stressors, highlighting the intersection of adaptation and resilience It represents a crucial and expanding aspect of developing system-level resilience against various challenges Essentially, climate resilience refers to a system's capacity to manage and recover from these impacts while maintaining its core components.
Overview of research in Vietnam and International scope
1.2.1 Climate change and climate change impact
Climate change is a highly debated issue globally, with its impacts evident in both remote areas and major cities Vietnam ranks among the countries most susceptible to climate change, and the Mekong Delta is identified as one of the five deltas most at risk (IPCC, 2007).
The Vietnamese Government recognizes the significant impact of climate change and has established national target programs to address this challenge, engaging various ministries and provinces Each institution has crafted action plans to tackle both immediate and long-term effects of climate change, leading to numerous research initiatives across different sectors.
In 2016, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) released a pivotal report titled "Climate Change and Sea Level Rise Scenarios for Vietnam," which outlines critical trends and information on climate change impacts This document serves as an essential resource for subsequent research due to its timely relevance By presenting various scenarios regarding sea level rise, rainfall, and temperature changes over the coming decades, the report establishes a solid foundation for future climate change assessments and response strategies across different regions in Vietnam.
In 2020, the Prime Minister issued Decision No 1055, establishing a national climate change adaptation plan for 2021-2030, with a vision extending to 2050 This decision highlights the significant impacts of climate change and underscores the Vietnamese Government's commitment to adaptive actions in vulnerable regions It emphasizes the integration of climate change adaptation into agricultural development and strongly recommends the adoption of smart agricultural practices that are resilient to climate change.
In 2018, MARD has issued Resolution No 120/NQ-CP on sustainable and climate- resilient development of the Mekong delta This document has focused on 3 main items:
- Establish agricultural production structure according to three focuses: aquatic products - fruit trees - rice in association with ecological sub-zones
- Establish an appropriate agricultural economic structure and maintain the link in the supply chain and deep participation in the global value chain
- Develop green industry with low emission and no harm to the natural ecosystem
While the three documents do not encompass all policies related to climate change and agriculture, they highlight the critical need for adaptive measures within the agricultural sector This underscores the urgent requirement to enhance agricultural resilience, particularly in vulnerable areas like the Ca Mau Peninsula, which demands focused attention.
This thesis leverages insights from prior research to analyze the Mekong Delta, a region highly susceptible to sea level rise (SLR) and saline intrusion due to climate change The escalating impact of saline intrusion on agriculture necessitates urgent and thoughtful adaptive measures Historically, various strategies such as constructing dykes and cultivating mangrove forests have been employed to combat SLR and saline intrusion However, these approaches have become increasingly ineffective as SLR intensifies (MRC, 2011) Consequently, there is a growing impetus for innovative adaptive strategies, with rice-shrimp farming emerging as a successful solution in this context.
In March 2021, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development released a regional environmental assessment report on the Mekong Delta integrated climate resilience and sustainable livelihoods project This report outlined general strategies for enhancing resilience in the Mekong Delta; however, it did not specifically address the agricultural sector, which will be the focus of this research.
1.2.2 Impact of climate change to agriculture
Climate change significantly impacts various sectors of society, particularly agriculture, which is vital to Vietnam's economy This sector is highly sensitive to environmental changes and weather fluctuations, especially as climate change becomes more frequent The consequences of climate change on agriculture include altered growing seasons, reduced crop yields, and increased vulnerability to pests and diseases.
Sea level rise (SLR) is leading to a reduction in continental land area, which in turn is shrinking available agricultural space Additionally, SLR contributes to saline intrusion, creating unfavorable conditions for various crops and trees.
Climate change has resulted in unusual weather patterns across various regions, causing significant fluctuations in temperature These prolonged temperature changes can severely impact agricultural productivity, leading to reduced yields or even total crop failure.
Natural disasters are increasingly frequent, resulting in significant damage to crops and infrastructure Drought and saline intrusion create water shortages for irrigation, while flooding inundates low-lying areas, leading to loss of life and destruction of assets.
1.2.3 SLR and Saline intrusion impact in the 21st century
In 2011, Vietnam's Prime Minister issued Decision 2139/QĐ-TTg, outlining the National Strategy on Climate Change, which highlighted that a 1-meter rise in sea level could submerge approximately 30% of the Mekong Delta This scenario would exacerbate saline intrusion, severely impacting agriculture, the economy, and daily life The encroachment of seawater has resulted in freshwater shortages, leading to health issues, crop destruction, and infrastructure erosion.
Figure 1.1 Salinity boundary in the Mekong Delta
Adaptation: Adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities (IPCC, 2001a)
Climate change strategies can be categorized by their time preference, with adaptation methods designed for immediate implementation in urgent situations, while mitigation strategies require a longer timeline to effectively lessen climate change impacts Agriculture plays a crucial role in both adaptation and mitigation efforts.
Weather and climate changes significantly impact sensitive ecosystems, necessitating careful actions to minimize damage To adapt to saline intrusion, it is essential to implement effective strategies that address this challenge.
1) Adjust crop structure and season to suit climate change situation
Selecting the right crop for specific climate conditions is essential, as each type of crop thrives in particular weather environments Conducting thorough research on the characteristics of both the crop and the prevailing climate is crucial, especially in regions with variable weather patterns To optimize crop structure, consider implementing strategic adjustments based on these findings.
The research questions
This research evaluates the adaptive actions to saline intrusion in Ca Mau Peninsula, examines their impacts to different factors of society, and proposes further recommendations Below are research questions:
1) How important of agriculture in Ca Mau Peninsula and the impact of saline intrusion (when the saline concentration reaches 4‰) to agriculture in Ca Mau peninsula?
2) What actions have taken so far to cope with saline intrusion in Ca Mau peninsula?
3) Is agricultural transition really effective against saline intrusion? How did the agriculture transition impact/ will impact to different factors of society?
4) Which aspects should be focused to increase agricultural resilience to saline intrusion in Ca Mau peninsula?
Research objectives
This research aims to systematically address the research questions and test the previously outlined hypotheses The study is guided by four key objectives that structure the investigation.
Objective 1: Identify the current issues, risk and loss caused by saline intrusion to agriculture in Ca Mau peninsula
Objective 2: Based on the results of objective 1, the current adaptive actions will be listed out and the most representative adaptive action(s) will be chosen for next analysis
Objective 3: After choosing the most representative adaptive action(s) to saline intrusion, the further analysis will be conducted in terms of different aspects, for example: efficiency, risk and impact to environment aspect In this part, comparison with traditional method is necessary
Objective 4: When the analysis is complete, the follow-up actions will be recommended The actions should be practical, clear and detailed.
Scope of the research
The research will concentrate on the Ca Mau Peninsula, specifically targeting regions severely impacted by saline intrusion These locations are primarily situated near coastal areas and estuaries, characterized by a dense watershed with significant rivers such as the Hau and Cai Lon Rivers Consequently, a substantial portion of this area is affected by salinity intrusion.
This research focuses on the agricultural sector in Vietnam, particularly on rice, which is a vital staple crop occupying 77% of the country's total agricultural area Following rice, maize and cassava are significant crops, making up 11% and 5% of the area, respectively, alongside industrial crops like coffee, rubber, and cashew (CIAT, 2017) In the Mekong Delta, which contributes to 90% of Vietnam's rice exports, there is an urgent need for research aimed at enhancing productivity while mitigating the effects of climate change and natural disasters.
Framework of the study
Saline intrusion refers to the infiltration of saline water into freshwater aquifers, driven by both anthropogenic and natural factors Human activities such as groundwater extraction and sand mining significantly contribute to this phenomenon, while natural causes include rising sea levels and extreme drought conditions As sea levels rise, saltwater can penetrate further inland, while drought reduces the availability of freshwater, diminishing its ability to push back against saltwater intrusion.
Saline intrusion significantly affects various sectors, particularly agriculture in coastal regions This research highlights the necessity for agricultural adaptation strategies to mitigate the impacts of saline intrusion To effectively cope with these challenges, a transition in agricultural practices is essential to align with current environmental conditions and minimize potential losses Achieving a successful agricultural transition requires substantial investments in capital, technology, labor, infrastructure, and supportive policies Ultimately, these efforts aim to enhance the efficiency and resilience of agricultural systems in the face of saline intrusion.
14 transition will be evaluated by the impacts to natural environment, economic efficiency – income generated by the models and benefit to overall economy
Agricultural transition involves shifting from traditional rice monoculture to more adaptive models in response to climate change Various approaches have emerged, including intensive shrimp farming, rotational rice-shrimp farming, intercropping rice-shrimp farming, and rice-crab-shrimp farming This research focuses on the interchangeable use of agricultural transition, particularly emphasizing rotational rice-shrimp farming due to its popularity and strong adaptability to climate change.
The rotational rice-shrimp farming model is an innovative approach that involves cultivating rice during the rainy season, when freshwater is plentiful, and raising shrimp during the dry season Common shrimp species used in this system include black tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) and whiteleg shrimp (Penaeus vannamei), which thrive in brackish water In the Mekong Delta, the rainy season typically spans from April or May to October or November, followed by a dry season Unlike intercropping, which simultaneously grows rice and shrimp to boost farmer income, rotational rice-shrimp farming effectively addresses climate change and saline intrusion challenges.
Figure 1.4 Framework of the study
METHODOLOGY
Research task
This research conducts a comprehensive review of existing studies and data on climate change, focusing on its impacts and the adaptive actions taken by agriculture in response to saline intrusion The scope of the study will be determined by assessing the urgency, impact level, and significance of the issues faced in the region.
A field survey will be conducted in a targeted region to gather essential data and validate the research hypothesis Interviews will be carried out with local households and authorities Due to time constraints, the sample size will be insufficient for quantitative analysis, leading to the application of qualitative analysis for this study The research hypotheses are as follows:
1 Agriculture plays a very important role in overall economic activities as well as culture in Mekong Delta and especially Ca Mau peninsula However, recently, agriculture has been affected by both natural disaster and human activities Climate change has caused sea level rising, which bring sea water deeper into the mainland, while extreme weather phenomena happened more and more regularly, which caused drought and saline intrusion in dry season and flood in rainy season
Consequently, agriculture’s productivity has decreased a lot due to saline intrusion, lack of fresh water, heat stress, and so on
2 Among the impacts of climate change, saline intrusion is one of the most disastrous factors contributing to productivity reduction Currently, both green and grey infrastructure have been applied to reduce the intrusion of sea water However, in the long run, adaptive actions should be implemented for saline intrusion One of the most effective actions is agricultural transition like rice-shrimp farming
3 Rice-shrimp farming has proven so far as a very effective method to adapt to the current salinity level Rice will be planted in the rainy season, when fresh water is abundant and in the dry season, shrimp will be raised in the salt water Moreover, this model also helps increase income for many households who agriculture is not suitable anymore However, to reach the highest efficiency, different approaches should be made by using technology, reducing pollutant releasing to environment, ensuring output for shrimp, etc
4 To increase resilience of agriculture against saline intrusion, an inter-discipline approach should be implemented involving different stakeholders To achieve the highest efficiency, participation from different levels from governmental level to individuals should put into consideration
Qualititive method is widely used for the social analysis In this research, the two main qualititive research method are in-depth interview and survey research method
In-depth interviews are crucial for gathering nuanced insights that quantitative analysis may overlook This research will involve interviews with local experts from government sectors who possess valuable knowledge and experience in regional agricultural development Utilizing semi-structured, open-ended questions during face-to-face interviews will enable participants to share their perceptions and insights freely, without being constrained to a specific viewpoint The interviews will focus on several key areas related to agriculture in the regions.
- Current status of agriculture, production and loss in recent years
- Policy and guidance on agricultural development (current and future)
- Overall economic and social conditions
The survey research method will be utilized to gather data from households that have adopted strategies to cope with saline intrusion in recent years An individual questionnaire (Appendix A) will be developed for this purpose However, due to time and budget constraints, along with the impact of COVID-19, the sample size for quantitative analysis will be limited Consequently, the collected data will be supplemented by insights from in-depth interviews and relevant literature to provide a comprehensive analysis.
If there are any gap arisen, the consultation with local experts will be needed for confirmation
In the initial phase of analysis, relevant data will be consolidated to facilitate a comprehensive examination This stage will involve conducting various analyses from multiple perspectives, allowing for a comparison between adaptive strategies for saline intrusion and traditional methods.
After gathering and verifying information to support the existing hypothesis, a comprehensive action plan will be proposed and implemented in real-world scenarios This plan will offer practical solutions derived from current knowledge across various disciplines, ensuring the most integrated and effective outcomes.
Data and survey collection methods
This research applies methods as follows
The data analysis method primarily relies on secondary data sourced from relevant research studies, scientific journals, and various documents to acquire foundational knowledge and insights, which will inform the development of a comprehensive action plan.
The survey research method will utilize both field and online surveys to gather the most current and relevant knowledge Field surveys will involve interviews and observations in key areas, specifically targeting around 30 households in An Minh and An Bien Districts of Kien Giang Province, with 15 households surveyed in each district Researchers will directly collect valuable information from farmers regarding household income, challenges in farming, gaps in sustainable production practices, and community inputs and recommendations.
19 the number of population is not enough for quantitative analysis, the quality of survey should be prioritized The chosen households should meet the following criteria:
History of implementing rice-shrimp model should be long enough to accumulate enough knowledge and experience to answer survey’s question
The farming area must accurately represent the region, as local experts indicate that the average cultivated field per household is 1 hectare If the farming area is either too small or too large, the technology used and environmental impacts may not be representative of the entire region.
An Bien and An Minh Districts, located near the sea, have significant agricultural land use, with 84.01% in An Bien and 70.68% in An Minh Both districts have a longstanding practice of the rice-shrimp model, which is now facing challenges due to saline intrusion A field trip to these areas will provide valuable insights into the current agricultural conditions and the effects of environmental changes.
Conducting in-depth interviews with experts in the research area is essential for gathering valuable insights into the challenges faced in sustainable production These experts may include representatives from local government bodies, such as the Farmer’s Union and the Natural Resources Department, as well as leaders from communes and villages who possess a comprehensive understanding of the local context By utilizing a structured questionnaire, we can effectively collect information that will inform recommendations for improving sustainable production practices.
Data analysis methods
2.3.1 Economic benefit analysis method between traditional and transitional model
This analysis emphasizes economic factors, particularly the income and expenses associated with various farming methods By adopting an economic perspective, readers will gain a clearer understanding of farmers' annual earnings.
This study utilizes secondary data sourced from various materials, including the Yearbook of provinces in the Mekong Delta, annual reports from districts and communes in Kien Giang Province, and academic journals, to extract valuable information on rice productivity.
20 area of rice cultivation and loss due to saline intrustion in the area Based on the results of previous research, author can conduct deeper analysis related to the topic
Primary data gathered through interviews and field surveys can effectively address the data deficiency in this analysis Although the sample size from the survey is relatively small, the collected data was rigorously verified against reports from local authorities and newspapers to ensure high research quality.
2.3.2 Risk analysis method between traditional and transitional model
The IPCC AR5 defines risk as the potential for consequences when something valuable is at stake and the outcome is uncertain, highlighting the importance of various values It identifies three key components of risk: hazards, vulnerability, and exposure Risk is quantified as the probability of hazardous events multiplied by their potential impacts Climate-related risks arise from the interplay of climate hazards with the vulnerability and exposure of both human and natural systems In the Mekong Delta region, climate change presents several risks, with saline intrusion being a particularly devastating threat to agriculture in the Ca Mau peninsula.
In the Mekong Delta, farmers can typically harvest up to three crops annually However, saline intrusion poses a significant threat, potentially impacting the yield of two crops during the winter and spring seasons As a result, the assessment of rice productivity will focus on the performance of these two affected crops.
The impact of saline intrusion varies by region, with salinity concentrations decreasing as the distance from coastal areas increases This study posits that a salinity concentration of 4 g/liter can be considered an indicator of saline intrusion effects.
Figure 2.6 Illustration of the risk concepts of the IPCC WGII AR5 (IPCC, 2014)
ANALYSIS OF CURRENT ADAPTIVE ACTIONS TO SALINE
Overview of current adaptive action to saline intrusion in agricultural sector
Agriculture has evolved significantly over the past century, driven by economic development, technological advancements, and market expansion Previously focused solely on household consumption, Vietnam has now emerged as the world's second-largest rice exporter This remarkable achievement is attributed to multiple factors, with adaptation to current climate conditions being one of the most effective strategies for addressing climate change and boosting production.
Figure 3.7 The shrimp culture area by farming systems in the Mekong Delta (MD)
The rice-shrimp farming model has been a longstanding practice in the coastal regions of the Mekong Delta Since the year 2000, this integrated farming system has covered an area of 40,000 hectares, yielding an estimated shrimp production of 10,000 metric tons.
Intensive Semi-intensive Improved-extensive
Rice-shrimp Mangrove-Shrimp White-legged shrimp farms
By 2020, rice production in Vietnam reached 100,000 MT, with a cultivated area expanding to 211,900 ha, predominantly in Kiên Giang (100,000 ha), followed by Cà Mau (over 38,000 ha), Bạc Liêu (more than 57,800 ha), and Sóc Trăng (approximately 9,700 ha) This growth demonstrates the effectiveness of the rice-shrimp cultivation model, which has been successfully applied in U Minh and Thoi Binh districts of Ca Mau for nearly two decades Analyzing the economic benefits of this model indicates that it can be effectively implemented in other regions with shorter adaptation periods to mitigate potential losses.
Figure 3.8 Rice-shrimp farming area in some communes in Kien Giang Province
After consultation with Associate Proffessor Trinh Cong Van, Executive Director of The Mekong Water Technology Innovations Institute (Mekong Water Innovation) and
Mr Do Duc Tam, Project Officer of WWF-Viet Nam, they recommended that An Bien and An Minh Communes in Kien Giang Province would be the 2 regions that just
U Minh Thuong districtVinh Thuan district
24 applied rice-shrimp model for last 5 years in large scope We can compare the data in the past and present and analyze the efficiency and benefit of the models
Figure 3.9 Development zoning of the rice-shrimp farming (yellow part) in Kien Giang province Source: VIFEP (2015a)
An Minh and An Bien District in Kien Giang Province are adopting the rice-shrimp farming model on a large scale to combat the effects of saline intrusion A survey was conducted in several communes within these districts, involving local experts from the government and households that have been practicing rice-shrimp farming for the past five years The interviews aimed to gather insights on the implementation and outcomes of this sustainable agricultural approach.
- Income generated from rice-shrimp farming and traditional rice farming (in the past)
- Policies supporting rice-shrimp farming methods (financial/technical support)
- Socio-economic condition in the regions
- Environmental condition in the regions
- Risk incurred during implementing rice-shrimp farming
A literature review was conducted to prevent duplication of efforts, as previous studies have explored the same research site This study builds upon existing knowledge while expanding on other related aspects of the topic.
Truong et al (2017) highlighted the economic efficiency of shrimp farming within the rice-shrimp model in Ca Mau Province However, their research did not address the profitability of rice in this integrated farming system.
In their 2017 study, Dung et al evaluated the economic efficiency of agricultural models in An Bien District, Kien Giang Province, the same location as this research However, the details regarding their calculation methods and methodology were not provided.
Trang et al (2018) conducted a comprehensive study on the economic efficiency of rice-shrimp farming in An Bien District, Kien Giang Province, utilizing a clear methodology However, the study did not evaluate the effectiveness of this model in comparison to other farming practices regarding climate change adaptation.
This article examines the economic benefits, risks, environmental impacts, and greenhouse gas emissions of traditional agriculture compared to modern agricultural practices Additionally, it explores the effects of climate change on these new methods While contemporary agricultural techniques offer numerous advantages and are better suited to current climatic conditions, they also face significant challenges that require timely and effective solutions.
Economic benefit comparison between traditional agriculture method and
This section analyzes the economic aspects of traditional rice monoculture farming compared to transitional methods like rice-shrimp farming While various cultivation models exist, such as 2-crop rice and 1-crop fruits, this research focuses on data from 3-crop rice to optimize benefits from traditional practices Although fruit productivity can surpass that of rice, the land dedicated to fruit cultivation is limited.
26 of the earth is quite small compared to rice farming area so this research will focus only on rice production
Data were gathered from a combination of secondary sources, such as annual provincial statistical books and academic journals, as well as primary sources, including interview data This comprehensive collection enables a comparative analysis of the economic benefits across various farming scenarios The collected data is categorized into two primary items for clearer evaluation.
Income: Income from farming methods is total economic inflow gained from products when harvesting To be simple, income will be calculated by multiply unit price and total production
Expense: Expense is total economic outflow for all items incurred during farming period, expense will be separated into 3 main types:
Labor costs in agriculture, particularly in rice and shrimp farming, encompass the payments made to workers, including farmers and specialists, who manage these fields These costs are influenced by factors such as the workers' qualifications, competencies, experience, and the prevailing market supply and demand Notably, both farming methods do not necessitate highly skilled or technical knowledge, although initial involvement from specialists is essential Typically, the expenses associated with these specialists are subsidized by public funds, including government or local financial support.
Material costs encompass all expenses associated with acquiring the necessary materials for the entire production process This includes the purchase of seeds, fingerling shrimp, shrimp feed, fertilizers, medicines, and other essential supplies.
+ Overhead cost: This cost related to non-regular expense like repair cost, water, electricity, harvest cost
In 2020, during the peak of the Covid-19 pandemic, shrimp prices fell by 10-20% compared to previous years, as noted by local experts This decline is expected to slightly diminish the overall profits of the rice-shrimp farming model; however, the economic advantages of this integrated approach remain superior to those of traditional rice monoculture The following subsections will provide detailed calculations for each aspect of this analysis.
Rice monoculture typically generates income solely from the sale of rice or paddy, as additional revenue from byproducts like straw and rice hulls is negligible and often omitted from financial calculations The income from this model is determined by multiplying the production per hectare (in kilograms) by the unit price per kilogram.
Rice production is determined by aggregating the yields from three primary cultivation periods: winter-spring, winter, and summer-autumn crops Each region can tailor its planting schedule based on its unique climatic and geographical conditions.
This analysis suggests that rice monoculture may be more advantageous, supporting the hypothesis that rice-shrimp farming offers greater benefits to farmers compared to traditional methods, resulting in higher income and lower expenses.
Table 3.1 Rice production in An Bien District
Vụ mùa (winter crop-short-term) 4,804
Vụ đông xuân (winter spring crop) 5,584
Vụ hè thu (summer autumn crop) 5,455
The unit price of rice is derived from interview results due to the absence of official documentation specifying rice prices The author conducted interviews with local authorities and farmers, comparing the findings with newspaper data, which showed low confidence but considerable alignment Notably, rice prices in rice-shrimp farming tend to be higher than those in rice monoculture, attributed to the organic nature of the former.
The transitional method of rice-shrimp farming generates additional income through shrimp production Data on shrimp yields were obtained through interviews, revealing that prices for both rice and shrimp fluctuate within a specific range due to market conditions and product quality.
The data of shrimp production was taken from interview’s result and then double checked with the market price to confirm the accuracy of the data The shrimp
Shrimp production varies based on harvest timing, with larger shrimp fetching higher prices Typically, an acre yields between 350kg to 370kg of shrimp, priced between VND 180,000 to VND 280,000, influenced by market demand and supply Consequently, the total income from a rice monoculture model ranges from VND 83,967,900 to VND 104,563,800, while rice-shrimp farming generates an income between VND 104,880,000 to VND 147,992,800 On average, income from rice-shrimp farming is 1.3 times greater than that from rice monoculture.
Table 3.2 Comparison between income from rice monoculture and rice-shrimp farming model
Interview Rice unit price (VND/kg) 5,300 – 6,600 7,500 – 7,950 Interview
Total income from rice (VND) 83,967,900 –
Shrimp production (kg/ha) 350 – 370 Interview
Shrimp price (VND/kg) 180,000 – 280,000 Interview
Grand total income (VND/ha) 83,967,900 –
According to the 2018 yearbook of Kien Giang Province, this research utilizes the average monthly income of employees in the agricultural sector as the opportunity cost for time spent on self-cultivation In An Bien District, the average land area per household is about one acre, typically managed by two individuals, usually a husband and wife, throughout the entire cultivation season for rice-shrimp farming.
The 29 farming model utilizes auto-feeding mechanisms and efficient fertilizer distribution, which can reduce labor requirements; however, this research maintains the same labor levels as traditional farming methods.
The material costs in rice-shrimp farming include seeds and shrimp fingerlings, with rice seed costs sourced from Trang et al (2018) for rice monoculture In this integrated farming model, the cost of rice seeds is reduced to one-third compared to rice monoculture, as only one rice crop is cultivated.
Overhead costs encompass expenses such as food, embankment, fertilizer, water, and electricity, which can fluctuate based on regional differences Despite this variability, these costs are generally minimal and can be assessed through interview results.
Table 3.3 Comparison between expense from rice monoculture and rice-shrimp farming model
Labor cost (VND/ month) 913,000 913,000 Yearbook
Number of required farmer 2 - 3 2 - 3 Interview
Total expense from labor cost
Material cost (VND/ha) 6,519,177 (rice) 15,000,000 (shrimp)
Overhead cost (VND/ha) 1,500,000 1,500,000 Interview
After calculating income and expense from both model, profit can be shown in Figure
10 The data of expense and income was calculated by using average value as in the previous section
Risks comparison between traditional agriculture and agricultural transition in
in terms of risk related to saline intrusion
As mentioned earlier in the Data analysis method, risk is analyzed by using the formula below:
Risk = (Probability of events or trends) × (Consequences)
Rice-Shrimp Farming Rice Monoculture
To assess the probability of saline intrusion, it is essential to determine the frequency of its occurrence over a specific timeframe Saline intrusion can be attributed to multiple factors, but during El Niño years, the associated losses tend to be significantly greater than in other years Historical data indicates that these events have a marked impact on coastal ecosystems and freshwater resources.
2010 and 2015, the agricultural loss is quite serious compared to other year (William et al., 2019) Therefore, the frequency of saline intrusion can be based on the frequency of
According to NOAA (2020), the occurance of El nino is typically once per 3 to 5 years Using average data, the probability will be 0.2 to 0.33
Consequences should be calculated by the loss of rice produciton due to saline intrusion In this case, this report assumes the scenario of 4g/litter
Research by Grattan et al (2002) indicates that rice can withstand a saline concentration of 3.4 g/liter with a survival rate of 75%, while a concentration of 4.8 g/liter reduces this rate to 50% Using a proportional method, a salinity concentration of 4 g/liter results in a survival rate of 64.2% This impact is particularly significant for winter and winter-spring crops, leading to a production loss of 3.72 tons, which accounts for 23.48% of the total production due to saline intrusion.
The estimated risk of saline intrusion ranges from 4.67% to 7.75%, indicating a potential reduction in total production by this percentage Although this figure may seem minor, an increase in saline concentration and the frequency of saline intrusion could lead to significantly greater losses over time.
Adopting climate-adaptive farming methods can significantly mitigate the risks associated with climate change A comparison between rice monoculture and rice-shrimp farming highlights differences in production risks, market vulnerabilities, and environmental impacts, illustrating the advantages of diversified agricultural practices.
Table 3.4 Comparison between risk and opportunity from rice monoculture and rice- shrimp farming model
Rice monoculture (3-crop model) Rice-shrimp farming
In case of saline intrusion, most type of rice cannot endure saline concentration over
This model can be well-adapted to saline intrusion
For demanding markets, if there is no strict production line, the product cannot enter
Therefore, there will be risk for price reduction
The product from the model is organic, thus can promote this product to other market and then can increase product value
The labor force for fertilizing, feeding and control disease is highly demanded, which will lead to risk of being prone to toxics for farmers and product
This model decreases the labor force needed by providing ample food for shrimp and fertilizer for rice, leading to reduced fertilizer usage Consequently, this reduction not only lowers the demand for human labor but also enhances safety for both farmers and their products.
Impacts of agricultural transition to natural environment
Fertilizers and pesticides are essential chemicals in traditional rice farming, but the practice of incinerating straw after each crop can lead to air pollution Research conducted in Northeast China and Ba Vi indicates that the ash produced from straw burning releases aerosols, such as PM10 and PM2.5, into the environment, potentially resulting in mental and health issues (Olga et al., 2017).
Monoculture practices can foster disease development, even with pesticide application, as their effects may be short-lived and contribute to resistance over time (FAO, 2017) Additionally, the excessive use of pesticides poses risks of food poisoning for consumers and can lead to long-term pollution of both surface and groundwater resources.
Excessive use of fertilizers, like pesticides, can negatively impact the environment Additionally, the fertilization process can be time-consuming and may pose health risks for farmers.
Rice-shrimp farming operates as a closed-loop system, minimizing the need for fertilizers and pesticides This method has been analyzed for its environmental impact, comparing two models to assess their effects on the natural ecosystem.
Table 3.5 Comparison between rice monoculture and rice-shrimp farming model in terms of impact to environment
Rice monoculture (3-crop model) Rice-shrimp farming
Pollution impact to environment in case of overuse of food or fertilizer
No or very little fertilizer or food required (shrimp will eat rice straw and paddy will use shrimp dung as fertilizer)
Pesticide can pollute water (surface and underground) and surrounding destroy ecosystem
No pesticide allowed (in case of using pesticide, shrimp cannot survive)
If there is no effective solution (pesticide), diseases can still develop
Diseases are reduced because of changing environment (freshwater for rice and salt water for shrimp)
Impacts of agricultural transition to GHGs emission
Agriculture accounts for about 10-12% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and as the demand for agricultural products rises, these emissions may increase further However, there is significant potential to reduce overall GHG emissions through concerted efforts across various factors, including policy development, environmental enhancements, and increased awareness, all aimed at achieving effective mitigation strategies.
The Mekong Delta is facing significant challenges from flooding and saline intrusion, prompting the implementation of various adaptation strategies to combat climate change However, these efforts will only be sustainable if additional measures are taken to curb greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions During a field survey in Kien Giang Province, it was observed that while local residents may not fully understand terms like "sea level rise" or "GHGs," they are actively engaging in practices, such as the rice-shrimp model, that help mitigate the effects of climate change This section provides a detailed analysis of these contributions.
A comparison of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reveals that the rice-shrimp farming model produces lower emissions than the conventional two-crop farming method This suggests that the GHG emissions from the rice-shrimp model may also be less than those generated by the three-crop farming method.
Agriculture is a significant source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, primarily from rice cultivation and the use of fertilizers While other factors such as pesticides, fuel for machinery, and burning crop residues also contribute to GHG emissions, their impact is comparatively minimal This research focuses on the major contributors to GHG emissions, specifically soil, fertilizers, pesticides, and fuel used for irrigation To facilitate comparison, the emissions are expressed in terms of CO2 equivalent (kg).
Data of GHGs emission from crop soil is taken from another research studied in Philipines, GHGs emission come from rice straw management (Elmer and Masanori,
In a study conducted in 2015, researchers examined the rice-shrimp farming model in the Philippines and Vietnam, both of which share similar tropical climates and irrigated farming practices This model allocates approximately six months for shrimp farming, during which greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions primarily arise from fertilizer use in aquaculture However, since fertilizers are not utilized in this model, GHG emissions are reduced to 50%, predominantly stemming from rice cultivation, when compared to traditional rice monoculture practices.
GHGs emitted by fertilizer is calculated by the following formula inherited from Elmer and Masanori (2015):
GHG f = (EF a × AF) × 310 + (EF p × AF) where:
GHGf: GHG emission of fertilizer applied, kg CO 2 eq
EFa and EFp: emission factor of N 2 O due to N fertilizer application and that due to production of NPK fertilizers, respectively
AF: amount of fertilizer applied to rice production, kg
310: global warming potential (GWP) of N 2 O
Table 3.6 shows sources of activity data and emission factors
Table 3.6 Souces of activity data and emission fators
Sources of GHG emissions Amount of fertilizer (kg/ha/crop)
Fertilizer production, N 134.21 (1) 1.3 kg CO 2 eq./kg N (2) Fertilizer production, P 37.54 (1) 0.2 kg CO 2 eq./kg P (3) Fertilizer production, K 59.18 (1) 0.2 kg CO 2 eq./kg K (3) Fertilizer application, N 49.11 (1) 0.003 kg N 2 O-N/kg N (3)
(1) World Bank (2017) An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in Vietnam: The Crops Sector
(2) IPCC (2006) 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/
(3) Pathak, H and Wassmann, R (2007) Introducing greenhouse gas mitigation as a development objective in rice-based agriculture: I Generation of technical coefficients Agricultural Systems 94 :807-825
In the Mekong Delta region, farmers utilize approximately 7 kg of pesticides per hectare annually, resulting in an emission of about 5.5 kg of CO2 (Lal, 2004) However, it is important to note that the use of pesticides is prohibited in the rice-shrimp farming model, thereby excluding any greenhouse gas emissions associated with pesticide application in this system.
Diesel usage significantly contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly in agricultural practices A field survey conducted in Kien Giang Province revealed that the water pumping requirements for rice-shrimp farming are lower compared to traditional rice monoculture During the dry season, rice monoculture farmers rely on freshwater from reservoirs or local government sources, while rice-shrimp farmers can utilize natural water from channels, reducing both time and energy spent on pumping The complexity of water pumping needs, influenced by factors such as rainfall, evaporation, and drought, leads this research to estimate that diesel consumption for the rice-shrimp model is approximately two-thirds that of the rice monoculture model Due to insufficient representative data on diesel usage, this study references findings from another research project focused on biodiesel production and its application in agricultural practices in the Mekong Delta.
The annual diesel consumption for rice irrigation is approximately 122 liters per hectare, as reported by To et al (2016) Each liter of diesel burned generates an estimated 2.64 kg of CO2, highlighting the environmental impact of diesel usage in agricultural practices.
Table 3.7 summarizes GHGs emission of both farming methods
Table 3.7 Comparison between rice monoculture and rice-shrimp farming model in terms of GHGs emission
Estimation of greenhouse gas emission
The rice-shrimp farming method can significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions by up to 50.8% compared to traditional rice monoculture This reduction is achieved through decreased use of fertilizers, pesticides, and diesel, as well as minimizing the duration of oxygen-deprived conditions.
In addition, according to the evaluation of the farmers, this model can reduce the negative impacts on biodiversity and environment due to reducing the amount of fertilizers and pesticides
The effects of climate change are increasingly severe and unpredictable, making it essential to address the associated losses Even resilient farming systems, such as rice-shrimp farming, cannot escape the challenges posed by these changing conditions.
Impacts of climate change to agricultural transition
Sea level rise, a clear indicator of climate change, negatively affects various economic sectors While numerous adaptive strategies have been developed and shown to be effective, the increasing frequency and intensity of climate impacts heighten the potential for significant losses This article will examine the specific risks that climate change poses to rice-shrimp farming.
Salinity intrusion significantly impacts agricultural and aquacultural production, necessitating a multifaceted approach to manage saline concentrations in fields During rice cultivation, it is essential to isolate seawater from rice paddies, as current saline-resistant rice varieties can only thrive at a maximum concentration of 4 g/liter, while coastal areas often experience levels around 10 g/liter This discrepancy highlights the need for regular monitoring and prompt action to mitigate potential losses in rice production In shrimp farming, particularly for black tiger shrimp, maintaining a stable salinity environment is crucial, especially during the first two months of growth, with an optimal salinity range of 10-25‰ Deviations from this range can disrupt growth and increase mortality rates, making salinity control vital for successful shrimp farming in coastal regions.
The Mekong Delta's riverbed erosion is intensifying saltwater intrusion, particularly in its complex hydrological system This region can be categorized into two distinct areas: the inner delta, characterized by fluvial processes, and the outer delta, influenced by marine factors The inner delta is notably low-lying, making it more susceptible to these environmental challenges.
The Mekong Delta, with an average elevation of approximately 0.8 meters above sea level, is highly susceptible to climate change and rising sea levels Its outer delta features coastal deposits, mangrove swamps, beach ridges, sand dunes, and tidal flats, which are essential for natural flood benefits like land fertilization and pest control (Minderhoud et al., 2019) To combat the impacts of sea level rise, a combination of green and grey infrastructure has emerged as the most effective adaptation strategy, helping to mitigate coastal erosion and reduce saline pollution in agriculture (Oanh et al., 2020) However, the long-term investment required for such infrastructure poses challenges, leaving farmers in coastal areas vulnerable to unexpected saline intrusion, necessitating proactive responses from both local and national authorities.
Land subsidence, exacerbated by groundwater extraction and reduced sediment deposition in floodplains, increases the delta's vulnerability to drought, flooding, coastal erosion, and saline intrusion While not directly caused by climate change, land subsidence can amplify its effects The construction of hydropower dams and sediment extraction for construction have diminished sediment transport to the delta by approximately 77% from 1992 to 2014 Additionally, excessive sand mining, illegal activities, and a lack of awareness have led to extraction rates that exceed the Mekong River's replenishment capacity This has resulted in severe consequences, particularly along the Hau and Tien rivers, exposing millions to riverbank erosion, saltwater intrusion, and heightened tidal amplitudes Furthermore, pests and diseases pose a potential threat to the rice-shrimp model, although recent interviews indicate no significant disease outbreaks in the past five years.
In Bac Lieu Province, the rice-shrimp farming model has experienced a decline in production, despite environmental treatments aimed at reducing diseases A study by GEF and UNDP highlights several contributing factors to this issue, including the use of unqualified larvae, polluted water, and a lack of experience among farmers While the connection between climate change and pest outbreaks is not definitively established, it is suggested that there may be an increase in the range and frequency of insect pests and diseases, necessitating enhanced pest control efforts in the rice-shrimp farming system (Skendži´c et al., 2021).
Climate change significantly impacts rice and shrimp production by causing abnormal climatic events, including an increase in hot days and nights across urban areas in Asia This rise in temperatures leads to higher evaporation rates from soil and accelerated transpiration in plants, resulting in moisture stress Additionally, elevated air temperatures can speed up the decomposition of soil organic matter, negatively affecting soil fertility High night-time temperatures particularly harm rice crops, while warmer conditions promote the proliferation of pests, diseases, and weeds, often outpacing the adaptability of rice Furthermore, heat stress adversely affects shrimp farming by reducing oxygen solubility and increasing shrimp demand, leading to intensified hypoxic stress.
Overall discussion: SWOT analysis of rice-shrimp model
A SWOT analysis highlights the advantages of the rice-shrimp model compared to traditional rice monoculture, emphasizing key factors that contribute to its success.
The first component of SWOT analysis is the strength, which emphasizes what are the advantages of the models compared with others As previously discussed, this model
The adoption of organic farming practices can significantly enhance benefits for farmers while effectively adapting to climate change and minimizing environmental harm This model has demonstrated its advantages when compared to traditional rice monoculture farming methods.
While this model has proven to be highly adaptable to recent climate change, its reliance on environmental and climatic conditions remains significant Consequently, it is essential to implement close monitoring of environmental factors and maintain an updated forecasting system to mitigate potential losses from unforeseen events.
The rice-shrimp model, known for its exceptional characteristics, can be effectively studied and implemented in regions with comparable climate, soil conditions, and saline intrusion challenges Additionally, promoting the products derived from this model in international markets will significantly enhance the economic value for farmers.
The sustainability of the rice-shrimp model faces threats from both direct and indirect factors Farmers may undermine this model by shifting to intensive shrimp farming for higher economic returns, which can lead to the year-round influx of seawater into fields, particularly during the rainy season, adversely affecting both the model's integrity and the surrounding environment Additionally, indirect threats arise from unpredictable climate changes that necessitate careful monitoring, as well as fluctuations in market conditions, highlighting the need for support from government and corporate sectors to stabilize product output.
Well-adaptive to climate change
Vulnerable to abrupt change in weather
Climate-adaptive model for saline intrusion in other regions
Product export to other international markets
Increase in abnormal climate condition (heat stress, irregular rain, drought)
Trend to move to intensive shrimp farming
Figure 3.11 SWOT analysis of rice-shrimp model
PROPOSAL OF RECOMMENDATIONS TO INCREASE RESILIENCE
Recommendation to increase agricultural resilience against saline intrustion
4.1.1 Overall recommendations to increase agricultural resilience against saline intrustion
The "Triple Bottom Line" Framework emphasizes three key components essential for sustainable development: people, profit, and planet This model highlights the importance of human labor and environmental impact alongside economic efficiency in achieving successful project outcomes To enhance long-term resilience, it is crucial to prioritize and invest in all three elements.
Figure 4.1 Triple bottom line framework
The introduction and promotion of the rice-shrimp farming model in the Mekong Delta can significantly enhance economic efficiency for farmers This innovative approach not only boosts resilience against saline intrusion but also increases farmers' income while mitigating risks associated with climate change.
43 effective mitigation method to reduce GHGs emission, thus can contribute to decrease the adverse impact of climate change However, none of the interviewed household in
An Minh and An Bien districts received financial support for implementing agricultural models, primarily focused on infrastructure like irrigation and dyke systems However, funding for climate change adaptation and environmental protection initiatives remains limited Data from Kien Giang and Ca Mau provinces corroborate these findings, highlighting low spending allocations and suggesting the need for increased budgets for future agricultural activities While the rice-shrimp model produces high-quality organic products, their market value is often underestimated, making it essential to promote their market value and minimize losses.
Rice-shrimp farming models offer environmental benefits and play a role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions However, some households overlook these advantages in favor of more economically lucrative alternatives The sustainability of these models relies on the integration of all three components of the Framework; missing even one can compromise overall sustainability Therefore, specific recommendations are outlined to address these issues.
The success of this model hinges on the active participation of local communities, which have received technical training from specialists employed by the local government To promote long-term commitment to environmental protection and agricultural sustainability, it is increasingly crucial to address inequality and empower vulnerable groups, particularly women.
Although not explicitly included in the Triple Bottom Line Framework, infrastructure plays a crucial role in development Recent years have seen the construction of various infrastructures aimed at mitigating disaster impacts and modernizing agricultural facilities Continuous improvement in these areas is essential to achieve optimal performance efficiency.
4.1.2 Increase financial resource to cope with saline intrusion
Currently, financial resources to respond to climate change in Vietnam are from the following sources (MOC, 2020):
Fiscal policy to mobilize fund for climate change
Fund from corporate sectors and individuals
Between 2013 and 2018, government spending on environmental protection hovered around 1%, with expectations for future increases (MOF, 2018) Given the rising frequency of natural disasters and pollution, prioritizing this funding is essential to minimize damage and loss Additionally, investment in technology should be enhanced, as it plays a crucial role in forecasting, treatment, and bolstering adaptive capacity in the face of natural hazards However, an analysis of budget allocations in two provinces of the Ca Mau peninsula reveals that expenditures on both environmental protection and technology remain alarmingly low, at less than 1%.
Interviews with experts and local residents from An Minh and An Bien districts reveal a lack of financial support schemes for farmers adopting the rice-shrimp model Despite hopes for favorable loans from banks or government entities, no such assistance is currently available However, farmers do benefit from technical training provided by specialists engaged by local authorities.
Figure 4.2 Provincial spending in Ca Mau Province
Figure 4.3 Provincial spending in Kien Giang Province
Figures 13 and 14 illustrate that investment in environmental protection and science and technology is often overlooked, while expenditures on administrative management appear to be excessive Consequently, the provincial budget allocation needs to be reevaluated to prioritize sustainable initiatives.
Spending for science and technology development 0.5% 0.5% 0.7% 0.7% 0.3% 0.2%
Spending for environment protection 0.7% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% Spending for administrative management 14.7% 16.3% 14.9% 15.1% 12.8% 11.6%
Expenditure on science and technology 0.05% 0.04% 0.19% 0.14%
46 budget should be restructured so that farmers can receive more support from higher level, especially in times of difficulties due to climate change
4.1.2.2 Fiscal policy to mobilize fund for climate change
The Law on Environmental Protection Tax in Vietnam, which came into effect on January 1, 2012, has been instrumental in achieving key objectives over its nine years of implementation This legislation has significantly contributed to the state budget by enhancing revenue sources and ensuring adequate funding for government expenditures.
According to Table 4.1, revenue from the environmental protection tax has experienced consistent annual growth, increasing more than fourfold from 2012 to 2016, the first year of the law's implementation This growth has also positively impacted the total state budget revenue, which reached 4.27% in 2016 Overall, the revenue from the environmental protection tax has shown significant growth over the years.
Table 4.1 The status of collection of the environmental protection tax in the period of
4 Total collected environmental protection tax
However, the environmental protection tax still has some setbacks that needed to be reformed to increase revenue for the budget and create a source of spending for climate change response
The newly implemented environmental protection tax targets specific items, including gasoline, coal, plastic bags, and chemicals However, this group represents only a fraction of the numerous goods and products that contribute to environmental pollution during their production processes.
To enhance tax revenue and promote environmental sustainability, it is essential to update the list of taxable items, including computers, phones, batteries, and cleaning chemicals, while also raising consumer awareness about the harmful effects of these products (MOF, 2021) Additionally, increasing the tax rate could more accurately account for the social costs associated with environmental pollution.
Vietnam has introduced an environmental protection fee on emissions as part of its Law on Environmental Protection Tax This fee is imposed on the discharge of polluting gases and is calculated based on the volume of pollutants released into the environment By implementing this fee, Vietnam aims to incorporate environmental protection costs into product pricing, adhering to the principle of "polluters pay."
In the 2015 Paris Agreement, 195 countries committed to capping the rise in global temperatures to no more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C Developed nations pledged financial support to assist developing countries in transitioning to renewable energy sources and enhancing their resilience to natural disasters.
Limitation of the research and future work
This research analyzes the current agricultural situation in the Ca Mau peninsula, particularly examining the effects of saline intrusion on agricultural production and exploring strategies to enhance farmers' resilience Despite numerous studies on this region, there remains a significant gap in comprehensive agricultural research, primarily due to the extensive scope of the area.
The 55 Peninsula encompasses a vast area characterized by diverse farming methods and varying natural conditions, leading to time-consuming and sometimes inconsistent data collection across regions Consequently, the research relies on data collected 2-3 years prior To address this, the author employed various methods to update the past data and compared it with current information gathered from newspapers and interviews, when available.
Given the extensive scope of the research and time constraints, the field survey focused on the most representative characteristics of the region The provinces of An Bien and An Minh in Kien Giang were selected due to their recent transition from traditional to climate-adaptive models, a change that has occurred over the past five years Insights gained from this field survey were carefully analyzed to provide recommendations for other regions with similar characteristics.
While the study site is representative of many locations, it does not encompass all areas For regions with varying farming practices or natural conditions, secondary data analysis will be utilized and documented for future research.
Recent losses in the rice-shrimp model can be attributed to both anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic factors, despite its inherent adaptability Key anthropogenic issues include the use of unqualified fingerlings, water pollution, and insufficient experience and investment (GEF, 2017) While potential losses related to climate change have been identified, particularly in sub-chapter 3.6, there is a lack of comprehensive data concerning losses in the Ca Mau peninsula This gap necessitates further research to determine the precise causes and develop effective solutions for the future.
The rice-shrimp farming model has emerged as an effective strategy to combat saline intrusion and other adverse effects of climate change, particularly in areas experiencing both rainy and dry seasons However, as sea level rise intensifies and the duration of saline intrusion lengthens, this model may no longer suffice due to insufficient freshwater availability for rice cultivation Therefore, it is essential to explore and develop alternative farming methods to ensure sustainable agriculture in the face of these challenges.
Rice-shrimp farming is a sustainable agricultural practice that can be effectively implemented in regions with similar natural conditions and geographical features While currently prevalent in the coastal areas of Vietnam's Mekong Delta, this innovative farming method has the potential for adaptation in various other regions both within the country and globally.