INTRODUCTION
Introduction of IoT (Internet of Things)
The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a network of physical devices, such as vehicles, buildings, and instruments, that are equipped with electronics, sensors, and software, enabling them to collect and exchange data By facilitating remote sensing and control of these objects over existing network infrastructure, IoT creates opportunities for seamless integration of the physical world with computer-based systems, leading to enhanced efficiency and accuracy.
The idea of a network of smart devices dates back to 1982, when a modified Coke machine at Carnegie Mellon University became the first internet-connected appliance, capable of reporting its inventory and the temperature of its drinks British technology pioneer Kevin Ashton, born in 1968, coined the term "the Internet of Things" to describe a system that connects the physical world to the Internet through widespread sensors.
IoT can interact without human intervention Some preliminary IoT applications have been already developed in the healthcare, transportation, and automotive industries IoT
Although technologies are still in their early stages, significant advancements have been made in integrating objects with sensors on the Internet The evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT) encompasses various challenges, including infrastructure, communication methods, user interfaces, protocols, and standardization.
Concept and History of IoT
In 1999, Kevin Ashton introduced the concept of the Internet of Things (IoT), describing it as uniquely identifiable connected objects utilizing radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology While the precise definition of IoT continues to evolve, it is commonly understood as a dynamic global network infrastructure characterized by self-configuring capabilities and built on established standards and communication protocols.
The Internet of Things (IoT) encompasses a network of uniquely identifiable physical and virtual devices, equipped with intelligent interfaces that facilitate integration and information sharing Essentially, IoT represents a global interconnected system leveraging sensors, communication, networking, and information processing technologies, marking an evolution in information and communications technology (ICT) Key technologies driving IoT include wireless sensor networks (WSNs), barcodes, RFID, NFC, low-energy wireless communications, and cloud computing This next generation of the Internet allows for the identification and accessibility of physical objects online, with the core principle being the unique identification of these objects in their virtual forms Within the IoT framework, devices can exchange and process data based on predefined protocols, enhancing connectivity and functionality.
The Internet of Things (IoT), a term introduced by Kevin Ashton in 1999, refers to a network of interconnected sensors that link the physical world to the Internet.
Since the inception of the Internet of Things (IoT), numerous objects have been connected to the internet for various applications, utilizing different technologies tailored to the specific needs of each object to enhance human convenience.
In the early 1980s, the first Internet appliance was a Coke machine at Carnegie Mellon University, where programmers developed a server program to monitor the machine's inventory status By connecting to the machine over the Internet, they could check how long it had been since a storage column was unfilled, allowing them to determine if a cold drink would be available before making the trip to the vending machine.
The Internet of Things (IoT) signifies a transformative shift in computing and communications, driven by continuous advancements in key areas such as wireless sensors and nanotechnology This technological revolution is shaping the future, highlighting the importance of ongoing innovation in various fields.
The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a vast network of physical objects, devices, vehicles, and buildings equipped with electronics, software, sensors, and connectivity, enabling them to collect and share data This technology facilitates remote sensing and control, enhancing integration between the physical and digital worlds, leading to increased efficiency, accuracy, and economic advantages When combined with sensors and actuators, IoT becomes part of broader cyber-physical systems, including smart grids, smart homes, intelligent transportation, and smart cities Each device is uniquely identifiable through its computing system and can operate within the existing Internet infrastructure, with experts predicting nearly 50 billion IoT devices by 2020.
Applications of IoT
The Internet of Things (IoT) offers vast potential for developing a wide range of applications, though only a few are currently in use Examples of IoT span smart homes, wearable devices, and healthcare innovations, gradually integrating into various aspects of our daily lives In the future, we can expect intelligent applications that enhance the efficiency of homes, offices, transportation systems, hospitals, and factories IoT applications not only improve our comfort but also provide greater control, simplifying both routine work and personal tasks.
The Internet of Things (IoT) aims to enhance human life by automating essential tasks, shifting monitoring and decision-making from humans to machines A key application of IoT in healthcare is in assisted living, where sensors on health monitoring equipment gather data about patients This information is accessible online to doctors, family members, and other stakeholders, facilitating improved treatment and responsiveness Moreover, IoT devices play a crucial role in continuously monitoring patients' health.
4 current medicines and evaluate the risk of new medications in terms of allergic reactions and adverse interactions
Smart cities need to effectively monitor their water supply to guarantee sufficient access for residents and businesses Implementing Wireless Sensor Networks enables cities to accurately track their water piping systems and identify major water loss risks By utilizing sensor technology to tackle water leakage issues, cities can achieve significant savings For instance, Tokyo has reported annual savings of $170 million by proactively detecting water leakage problems.
The system enables regular reporting of pipe flow measurement data and automatically alerts users when water usage deviates from expected levels This capability allows smart cities to identify the locations of leaking pipes and prioritize repairs based on the potential reduction in water loss.
Modern electronic gadgets like microwave ovens, refrigerators, heaters, air conditioners, fans, and lights can be enhanced with actuators and sensors to improve energy efficiency and comfort These sensors can monitor external temperatures and detect room occupancy, allowing for optimized control of heating, cooling, and lighting By implementing these technologies, we can significantly reduce costs and promote energy savings.
Integrating advanced technologies such as personalized exercise profiles on gym machines can significantly improve the overall gym experience Each individual can be uniquely identified through their ID, allowing for the automatic activation of their specific fitness profile.
The journey of food from production to refrigeration involves critical stages, including harvesting, transportation, and distribution To protect food from climatic damage, appropriate sensors play a vital role by monitoring temperature, humidity, light, and heat These sensors provide precise measurements and timely notifications, enabling effective oversight and prevention of potential spoilage.
The innovative Smart Parking sensors, installed in parking spaces, detect vehicle arrivals and departures, offering comprehensive parking management solutions that save motorists time and fuel (LIBELIUM, 2013) By providing real-time information on available parking spots, these sensors significantly alleviate congestion caused by drivers searching for parking, enhancing overall traffic flow Additionally, the system enables users to book parking spaces directly from their vehicles, contributing to reduced CO2 emissions and minimized traffic jams.
Modern vehicles, including cars, buses, and trains, equipped with sensors on roads and rails, can significantly enhance navigation and safety by providing drivers with crucial information Assisted driving technology enables users to navigate efficiently by accessing real-time data on traffic jams and incidents In an enterprise setting, integrating vehicle information with the status and type of transported goods offers valuable insights into delivery times, potential delays, and any issues that may arise during transit.
Tourist augmented maps featuring tags enable NFC-equipped smartphones to access information about various locations, seamlessly linking users to web services that offer details on hotels, restaurants, monuments, theaters, and local attractions.
Hovering your mobile phone over the tag within its reading range so that the additional information about the marker can be displayed on the screen can do this
Implementing the Internet of Things (IoT) in retail chain monitoring offers numerous benefits, including the use of RFID and NFC technologies to oversee every aspect of the supply chain, from raw material purchasing to production, transportation, storage, and sales IoT enables efficient inventory tracking in warehouses, ensuring timely stock replenishment that minimizes customer wait times This enhancement in service leads to higher customer satisfaction and ultimately boosts sales.
Overview of thesis work
This article aims to explore the Internet of Things (IoT), focusing on its essential components and the wireless communication technologies and protocols that enable various IoT applications It specifically examines Smart Home systems, highlighting the design and development of a prototype Internet-connected lighting device as a proof of concept for home automation The structure of the article includes an introduction to IoT in Chapter I, followed by a detailed analysis of IoT technologies, protocols, architectures, and challenges in Chapter II Chapter III delves into Smart Homes and their future, while Chapter IV outlines the design and construction of the prototype, including performance testing of the implemented circuit The article concludes with a summary of the findings and implications of the research.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we introduce the Internet of Things, with more focus on its meaning, definition, history, and applications
The Internet of Things (IoT) lacks a universal definition, as its interpretation varies based on perspective This technology finds applications across multiple sectors, significantly impacting areas such as home automation, healthcare, transportation, agriculture, industry, smart buildings, and urban development.
In the next chapter, we will study IoT technologies and protocols to understand how IoT works
IoT TECHNOLOGIES AND PROTOCOLS
Basic Components of IoT System
There are four major components for IoT systems and they are sensor nodes, gateways, internet servers, and the end-users, as shown in figure 5 below
Figure 3 How IoT Works - Internal Working of the Internet of Things [4]
Sensors or devices help in collecting very minute data from the surrounding environment
Sensors, often referred to as 'detectors,' play a crucial role in identifying even the smallest changes in the environment This capability enables IoT devices to gather essential data for both real-time analysis and post-processing.
Sensors are versatile devices capable of measuring a wide array of variables, including smoke, motion, and blood pressure Advanced sensors can handle complex measurements, and many IoT devices incorporate multiple sensors to gather diverse data and perform various functions For instance, smartphones integrate numerous sensors such as GPS, fingerprint scanners, cameras, tilt, and motion sensors, all within a single device.
When selecting sensors, it is crucial to consider their accuracy, reliability, operational range, resolution, and intelligence, which refers to their capability to manage noise and interference effectively Additionally, connectivity plays a significant role in ensuring seamless data transmission and integration with other systems.
IoT is a network involving devices, sensors, cloud, and actuators, and all these need to interconnect with one another to be able to decipher data and consequently perform an action
Sensors can connect to the cloud using multiple communication methods, including cellular networks, satellite networks, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, wide-area networks (WAN), and low-power wide area networks (LPWAN).
Selecting the optimal connectivity option for an IoT system is crucial, as each choice involves specific trade-offs related to power consumption, range, and bandwidth IoT gateways play a vital role in facilitating these connections.
Raw data from sensors must be processed through gateways before reaching the cloud, as these gateways translate network protocols to facilitate seamless communication among devices This makes gateways a vital communication hub, essential for the efficient management of data traffic within the network.
Gateways enhance security by safeguarding systems against unauthorized access and malicious attacks, serving as a critical security layer They protect the data transmitted through them using the latest encryption practices, ensuring secure communication.
IoT gateways play a crucial role in preprocessing sensor data before it reaches the cloud, effectively reducing the large volumes of information generated Some advanced IoT gateways possess the capability to analyze and average this data, ensuring that only the most relevant information is transmitted to the cloud for further processing.
The cloud serves as the backbone of the IoT ecosystem, efficiently connecting its components by processing, storing, and analyzing vast amounts of data in milliseconds This rapid data handling is crucial for making timely decisions, particularly in critical areas like health and safety, where low latency is essential to ensure optimal outcomes.
The primary goal of IoT solutions is to deliver and respond to real-time information, necessitating a robust system capable of managing vast data volumes due to the time-sensitive nature of IoT Cloud systems play a crucial role in this ecosystem, acting as the central hub for processing, commanding, and analyzing collected data By integrating devices, protocols, gateways, and storage, these systems enable efficient real-time data analysis.
With their immense computing power, storage capabilities, networking options, analytics, and other service components, clouds make information effectively available for the consumers
Although cloud computing is not essential for the Internet of Things (IoT), it is often favored due to its high performance, scalability, and cost-effectiveness In contrast, edge computing is ideal for scenarios requiring significant on-premises data processing and storage Additionally, the choice between these technologies may depend on the specific needs of end-user devices and user interfaces.
The user interface serves as the accessible and controllable element of the IoT system, allowing users to manage their settings and preferences A user-friendly interface enhances interaction, making it easier for individuals to engage with the IoT ecosystem effectively.
Users can engage with smart home systems directly through their devices or remotely using smartphones, tablets, and laptops Platforms like Amazon Alexa and Google Home enable seamless communication between users and their connected devices.
In today's fast-paced world, design plays a crucial role in distinguishing IoT devices from competitors Key elements such as touch interfaces, color schemes, typography, and voice interactions significantly impact user experience While an appealing design is essential, it is equally important that the interface remains user-friendly to ensure ease of use for consumers.
IoT Architecture
The three-layer architecture is fundamental to the Internet of Things, focusing on the management of data collected by the perception layer This process involves two key aspects: data storage and analysis.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is crucial for providing tailored application-specific services to users, enabling innovative solutions in diverse areas such as smart homes, smart cities, and smart health.
Is responsible for connecting to other smart things, network devices, and servers Its features are also used for transmitting and processing sensor data; and
Is the physical layer, which has sensors for sensing and gathering information about the environment It senses some physical parameters or identifies other smart objects in the environment;
The five layers are perception, transport, processing, application, and business layers
The role of the perception and application layers is the same as the architecture with three layers.
The IoT system encompasses various components, such as applications, user privacy, and profit models, although the business layer is not addressed in this discussion.
The middleware layer, also known for its crucial role in data management, efficiently stores, analyzes, and processes vast amounts of data received from the transport layer, enabling it to handle and deliver a wide range of functionalities.
13 services to the lower layers It employs many technologies such as databases, cloud computing, and big data processing modules; and
Transfers the sensor data from the perception layer to the processing layer and vice versa through networks such as wireless, 3G, LAN, Bluetooth, RFID, and NFC
2.2.3 Service-Oriented Architecture for IoT
An essential aspect of an IoT system is the connectivity of devices within the network, bridging the gap between the physical and virtual realms The design of IoT encompasses various elements, including networking, communication, and processes, all of which play a crucial role in creating an efficient system.
When designing IoT architecture, it's essential to prioritize extensibility, scalability, and interoperability among devices The architecture must be adaptable to facilitate real-time interactions and dynamic communication between devices, as they may frequently change positions Additionally, a decentralized and heterogeneous approach is crucial for effective IoT implementation.
Figure 6 Architectural Layers of IoT [2]
The SoA treats a complex system as a set of well-defined simple objects or subsystems Those objects or subsystems can be reused and are maintained individually; therefore, the
14 software and hardware components in an IoT can be reused and upgraded efficiently Due to these advantages, SoA has been widely applied as a mainstream architecture
SoA, which consists of four layers with distinguished functionalities, provide interoperability among the devices in multiple ways They are:
• The sensing layer is integrated with all available objects (things) to sense their status;
• The network layer is the infrastructure to support the wireless or wired connections among things;
• The service layer is to create and manage services required by users or applications; and
• The interface layer consists of the interaction methods with users or applications.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is poised to create a vast interconnected network where devices are continuously linked and can be controlled remotely In the sensing layer, smart systems equipped with tags or sensors automatically detect environmental conditions and facilitate data exchange among devices Each object within the IoT ecosystem possesses a digital identity, allowing for easy tracking in the digital realm This unique identification is achieved through a universal unique identifier (UUID), a 128-bit number that distinguishes objects or entities on the Internet When evaluating the sensing layer of IoT, it is essential to consider various factors that contribute to its effectiveness and functionality.
To optimize cost, size, resource usage, and energy consumption, intelligent devices equipped with sensing technologies like RFID tags and sensor nodes are essential Given the extensive deployment of sensors in various applications, it is crucial to design these devices to minimize resource requirements and operational costs.
• Deployment: The sensing things (RFID tags, sensors, etc.) can be deployed one- time, or incrementally, or randomly depending on the requirements;
• Communication: Sensors must be communicable to make things accessible and retrievable;
• Network: The things are organized as multi-hop, mesh, or ad hoc network
The network layer in IoT is essential for connecting devices and enabling them to understand their environment It facilitates data sharing among connected devices, which is vital for effective event management and processing A robust network is necessary for devices to provide services and communicate efficiently Additionally, the network must automatically discover and map devices, assigning roles dynamically to manage and schedule their behaviors This flexibility allows devices to collaborate effectively on tasks Key challenges in the networking layer must be addressed to optimize these processes.
• Network management technologies including managing fixed, wireless, mobile networks;
• Technologies for data searching, data processing;
Information confidentiality and human privacy are paramount concerns in the Internet of Things (IoT), as it connects numerous personal devices, posing potential privacy risks While current network security technologies offer a foundation for ensuring privacy and security in IoT, further advancements are necessary to enhance protection.
The service layer enables the services and applications in IoT It is a cost-effective platform where software and hardware can be reused The services in the service layer
A universally accepted service layer is crucial for the Internet of Things (IoT), as it enables applications to efficiently locate new services and dynamically retrieve data This practical service layer comprises essential applications, application programming interfaces (APIs), and protocols that support necessary services It facilitates various service-oriented activities, including information exchange, data management, storage, and communication, ensuring seamless interaction within the network.
• Service discovery: Finding objects that can provide the required service and information effectively;
• Service composition: It enables the interaction among connected things and describes the relationships among things for enabling the desired service;
• Service APIs: They provide the interface between services required by users
In the Internet of Things (IoT), numerous devices from various users are interconnected, leading to potential compatibility challenges due to differing standards To facilitate seamless interaction among these devices, it is essential to address compatibility issues related to information exchange, communication, and event processing An effective interface mechanism is crucial for simplifying the management and interconnection of devices, operating at the application frontend or API layer.
Communication technologies of IoT
The Internet of Things (IoT) utilizes a variety of communication technologies, including well-established options like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks (2G/3G/4G) Emerging technologies, such as Thread for home automation and Whitespace TV for expansive IoT applications in urban areas, are also gaining traction The selection of a specific technology depends on various factors, including range, data requirements, security, power demands, and battery life, which are crucial for optimal performance in IoT implementations.
17 of a combination of technologies Below, are some of the major communication technologies on offer to developers.
Short-range communication technology plays a crucial role in computing and consumer products, particularly in the realm of wearable devices Its significance is expected to grow as it increasingly connects to the Internet of Things (IoT), often through smartphones.
Bluetooth Low-Energy (BLE), also known as Bluetooth Smart, is a crucial protocol for Internet of Things (IoT) applications, providing a comparable range to traditional Bluetooth while significantly reducing power consumption.
Bluetooth Smart devices utilize the Bluetooth Core Specification Version 4.0 or higher, with the latest version being 4.2, which integrates basic data rate and low-energy configurations for RF transceivers, baseband, and protocol stacks Notably, version 4.2 introduces the Internet Protocol Support Profile, enabling Bluetooth Smart sensors to connect directly to the Internet through 6LoWPAN connectivity This capability allows for the management of Bluetooth Smart 'edge' devices using existing IP infrastructure.
• Data Rates: 1Mbps (Smart/BLE)
2 IEEE802.15.4 also known as ZigBee
ZigBee is a communication protocol based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, designed for creating personal area networks using small, low-power digital radios It is commonly utilized in applications such as home automation, medical device data collection, and other low-power scenarios.
18 bandwidth needs, designed for small scale projects which need wireless connection Hence, ZigBee is a low-power, low data rate, and proximity (i.e., personal area) wireless ad hoc network
ZigBee technology is designed to offer a simpler and more cost-effective alternative to other wireless personal area networks (WPANs) like Bluetooth and general wireless networking options such as Wi-Fi It is ideal for applications requiring short-range, low-rate wireless data transfer, including wireless light switches, home energy monitors, and traffic management systems, catering to both consumer and industrial needs.
Its low power consumption limits transmission distances to 10–100 meters line-of-sight, depending on power output and environmental characteristics
ZigBee devices utilize a mesh network to transmit data over long distances, allowing communication through intermediate devices This technology is ideal for low data rate applications that prioritize long battery life and secure networking, as ZigBee networks employ 128-bit symmetric encryption for security With a defined transmission rate of 250 kbit/s, ZigBee is particularly well-suited for intermittent data transmissions from sensors or input devices.
ZigBee smart devices utilize a radio transceiver to communicate, operating on the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol within the 2.4 GHz frequency band, similar to Wi-Fi and Bluetooth However, ZigBee offers a shorter indoor range of approximately 10-20 meters, as it is designed to consume less power than Wi-Fi.
ZigBee devices are capable of sending and receiving data among themselves, utilizing a unified communication standard that ensures backward and forward compatibility They can also replicate and relay messages, allowing for the daisy chaining of smart devices connected to a central hub, even if some are beyond the direct range of that hub.
Is a wide existing infrastructure as well as offering fast data transfer and the ability to handle high quantities of data
The prevalent Wi-Fi standard in homes and businesses today is 802.11n, which delivers significant throughput of hundreds of megabits per second While this performance is adequate for file transfers, it may be overly power-hungry for various IoT applications.
• Standard: Based on 802.11n (most common usage in homes today)
• Frequencies: 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands
• Data Rates: 600 Mbps maximum, but 150-200Mbps is more typical, depending on channel frequency used and number of antennas (latest 802.11-ac standard should offer 500Mbps to 1Gbps)
IoT applications requiring long-distance operations can benefit from GSM/3G/4G cellular communication While 4G excels in transmitting large data volumes, the associated costs and power consumption may be prohibitive for some projects However, cellular communication is well-suited for sensor-based applications that transmit minimal data over the Internet, making it an ideal choice for low-bandwidth data projects.
• Standard: GSM/GPRS/EDGE (2G), UMTS/HSPA (3G), LTE (4G)
• Range: 35km max for GSM; 200km max for HSPA
• Data Rates (typical download): 35-170kps (GPRS), 120-384kbps (EDGE), 384Kbps-2Mbps (UMTS), 600kbps-10Mbps (HSPA), 3-10Mbps (LTE)
NFC technology facilitates secure two-way interactions between electronic devices, particularly smartphones, enabling users to conduct contactless payments, access digital content, and connect various devices This technology enhances the functionality of contactless card systems, allowing information exchange between devices within a proximity of 4cm or less.
Long Range (LoRa) is a spread spectrum modulation technique based on chirp spread spectrum (CSS) technology This low-power, long-range wireless platform utilizes radio frequency technology and has emerged as a key solution for Internet of Things (IoT) networks globally.
LoRa devices and the open LoRa-WAN protocol are key enablers of smart IoT applications that address critical global challenges, including energy management, pollution control, and disaster prevention With hundreds of documented use cases, these technologies are transforming smart cities, homes, agriculture, metering, and supply chain logistics, enhancing infrastructure efficiency and promoting sustainable resource management.
LoRa devices are ideal for IoT applications due to their long-range capabilities, low power consumption, and secure data transmission This technology can be deployed across public, private, or hybrid networks, offering a superior range compared to traditional cellular networks.
LoRa Technology can easily plug into existing infrastructure and enables low-cost battery-operated IoT applications
Application Protocols in IoT
IoT requires different protocols to address a full range of activities, such as protocols for sensor data collection, communication protocols, etc Various working groups, such as
In 2025, prominent organizations such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), EPC-global, and the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) initiated efforts to develop standardized support protocols for the Internet of Things (IoT).
In an IoT-based waste management solution, not all protocols are necessary; however, the most commonly used ones are highlighted These protocols are categorized by their primary functions, including application, service discovery, and network infrastructure layers.
At the application layer, protocols facilitate end-user communication and are often embedded in middleware solutions for the Internet of Things (IoT) These end-user applications can identify systems, enabling direct communication with lower layers of the protocol stack, including web servers that play a crucial role in system integration and inter-application communication.
COAP (Constrained Application Protocol) is an application layer protocol designed for Internet of Things (IoT) systems, leveraging Representational State Transfer (REST) principles over HTTP Unlike REST, which operates over HTTP, COAP utilizes User Datagram Protocol (UDP), making it a lighter and more suitable option for IoT applications This adaptation allows COAP to effectively manage low power consumption and maintain functionality in environments with noise and packet loss, while still enabling direct data transfer between clients and servers.
Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT)
MQTT is a publishing and signing transport protocol based on a TCP/IP server-client structure developed for the connection between embedded applications and middleware
MQTT employs one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many routing mechanisms, making it an ideal choice for IoT systems due to its flexibility and ease of deployment With a compact 2-byte header, MQTT is well-suited for resource-constrained devices, effectively addressing challenges such as low bandwidth, battery limitations, and untrusted connections, all critical for meeting IoT requirements.
Extensible Messaging Presence Protocol (XMPP)
XMPP is a versatile instant messaging protocol that operates independently of the operating system, enabling chat, voice and video calls, and telepresence It offers robust features such as authentication, access control, privacy measures, and encryption, while also ensuring interoperability with other protocols Utilizing XML for text-based communication, XMPP can experience system overload, which is effectively mitigated through XML stream compression using EXI technology.
Advanced Massage Queuing Protocol (AMQP)
AMPQ is an open standard protocol designed for IoT connections in message-oriented environments, featuring a publishing and signing structure It ensures reliable communication through delivery guarantees, but it necessitates a dependable transport protocol like TCP Additionally, AMPQ is inherently interoperable with other protocols, facilitating communication through message transfers and queues, and utilizes a SWAP mechanism to effectively route messages to the correct queues.
DDS, or Data Distribution Service, is a subscription and publishing protocol designed for real-time machine-to-machine (M2M) communications Unlike AMPQ and MQTT, DDS operates on a decentralized architecture, eliminating the need for a broker It employs multicast for reliable traffic delivery and offers outstanding Quality of Service (QoS) with support for 23 queues, encompassing various communication parameters, including security, urgency, priority, durability, and reliability.
Due to a large number of devices connected and given the need to ensure the proper functioning of the applications developed for IoT based systems, a resource management
An effective mechanism is crucial for comprehensive technology coverage, necessitating a system capable of automatically discovering resources and registering services Key protocols that fulfill these requirements include the Domain Name System (DNS), multicast (mDNS), and DNS Service Discovery (DNS-SD) Ongoing research is focused on adapting lighter versions of these protocols for the Internet of Things (IoT) environment.
Multicast DNS (mDNS) is a versatile protocol that leverages the DNS namespace locally, making it an ideal choice for Internet devices as it eliminates the need for manual configuration or device administration It operates effectively without infrastructure and can function even during failures When a client queries a name, it sends multicast messages to request the Internet Protocol (IP) address associated with that name from all domain nodes, prompting all devices on the network to update their caches with the provided address.
DNS Service Discovery (DNS-SD)
The DNS-based discovery service (DNS-SD) facilitates service delivery for clients using mDNS, allowing users to easily discover services through standard DNS messages without the need for naming configuration Utilizing the UDP transport protocol, DNS packets are sent to a multicast address The process begins by locating the IP address of the host, followed by a multicast pairing function that includes essential connection details, such as the IP/Port pair of connected hosts, ensuring consistent instance names and enhancing reliability.
Infrastructure protocols facilitate communication between diverse devices and networks, enabling connectivity across various systems that may utilize different data types and span significant distances Consequently, the Internet serves as a vital link among these components.
Challenges of IoT
The Internet of Things (IoT) faces significant challenges primarily centered around security and privacy concerns Additionally, interoperability, the absence of standardized protocols, legal and regulatory hurdles, rights-related issues, and the complexities of the emerging IoT economy contribute to these challenges Addressing these developmental issues is crucial for the successful advancement of IoT technology.
The challenges of IoT are well described in table 1 below:
Lack of resources to train future generations about secure IoT design
Lack of informed decisions over cost-benefit analysis of IoT
Lack of standards and metrics to identify the security in IoT devices
Lack of optimally controlled role in IoT device communication models to prevent the threat of hijacking and cyber-attacks
No sufficient information on maintainability and upgradeability issues This is based on the expected life of IoT devices in a network
Could IoT security is achieved with shard collaborations
IoT device or software developing without security
Limited implications for replacing the old and undesirable devices
Privacy concerns Fairness in data collection and use
Wide-ranging privacy expectations Privacy by design
Lack of strict rules against data collection and use
Lack of multi-party models that enable transparency, expression, and enforcement
Lack of privacy protection models for IoT and inability to recognize the privacy expectations of users Limited resources to develop IoT devices integrating with trained privacy principles
Lack of protection against the data collected by IoT devices
Interoperability issues Proprietary ecosystem& consumer wish
Lack of closed ecosystem concept in data collection format and reuse as per user choice Individual security keys and protocols could be implemented
Limitations to the technical resources and investments
Schedule risk Technical risk Device behaving badly Legal system
The potential to surpass interoperability standards is hindered by a lack of awareness regarding technical design risk protocols and the absence of documented best design practices Additionally, the establishment of standard legal systems is crucial for ensuring the compatibility of IoT devices.
Lack of standard configurations for interfacing a large number of IoT devices
IoT standards issue The proliferation of standards efforts Less efforts in developing standards and protocols
Data protection & cross border flow
Aid to Law enforcement & public safety
Device liability Device proliferation as per legal actions
Less developments in data sharing and trust policies, laws, and regulation
Lack of laws on using the IoT data in a discriminatory way
Lack of laws on the IoT data for user to fight against the crime
Laws against the liability issues of IoT devices Confederation of complex liability during IoT device operation
Investments Limited investments in IoT research and developmental activities both in developed and developing countries
Technical and industrial developments Policy and regulatory co-ordination
More burden or pressure on the internet and communications infrastructure across the globe Limited activities in strengthening the internet and communication infrastructure
Limited study to evaluate the technical and economic benefits of IoT in emerging economic countries Less awareness of the policy plans with the continuation of the growth of IoT
Chapter 2 explores the essential technologies and protocols that facilitate communication and information transmission over the internet Understanding these technologies is crucial for designing effective IoT architecture, as it encompasses various factors, including networking, communication, business models, processes, and security By aligning the right technologies with our specific needs, we can effectively achieve our objectives.
IoT IN SMART HOME
Smart Home
A smart home refers to a modern living space equipped with appliances, lighting, and electronic devices that can be remotely controlled by homeowners, typically through a mobile app These smart devices can work together seamlessly, allowing for communication and automation among various systems within the home.
Smart home systems are classified into six main categories: energy management and climate control, security and access control, lighting and appliance management, home appliances, audio-visual and entertainment, and healthcare and assisted living systems.
Traditional smart home systems often rely on wired connections, leading to high installation costs and limited scalability due to cable constraints In contrast, utilizing wireless communication technologies for smart home applications eliminates the need for cables, significantly reduces installation expenses, and enhances system scalability.
There are some main features of the smart home, as follows:
Understanding the interaction between users and power grid companies is essential for managing electricity consumption effectively By obtaining information on electricity usage and pricing, users can develop informed consumption plans that promote efficient energy use This approach not only fosters a culture of energy conservation within households but also emphasizes the importance of environmental protection.
• Enhance the comfort, safety, convenience, and interactivity of home life, and optimize people's lifestyle,
• Monitor and interact with the home through telephone, mobile phone, and remote network, discover the abnormal and timely processing
Realizes the real-time meter reading and security service of the water meter, electric energy meter, and gas meter, which provide more convenient conditions for the high- quality service
Figure 8 Example of Smart Home [11]
Benefits and Challenges of Smart Home
• Providing peace of mind to homeowners, allowing them to monitor their homes remotely, countering dangers such as a forgotten coffee maker left on or a front door left unlocked;
• Provides monitoring that can help seniors to remain at home comfortably and safely, rather than moving to a nursing home or requiring 24/7 home care;
Enhance user convenience by allowing personalized settings, such as programming the garage door to open, lights to illuminate, the fireplace to ignite, and favorite music to play upon arrival.
A smart home system enhances consumer efficiency by optimizing energy use; for instance, it can learn homeowners' schedules to ensure that air conditioning cools the house just before they arrive Similarly, smart irrigation systems water lawns only when necessary, delivering the precise amount of water required, thereby conserving resources and reducing waste.
Home automation enhances the efficiency of energy, water, and other resources, leading to significant savings for consumers and conservation of natural resources Despite these benefits, the adoption of home automation systems has faced challenges in becoming mainstream, largely due to their technical complexity.
One challenge of smart homes is their perceived complexity, which can deter individuals who struggle with technology or abandon it at the first sign of trouble To address this issue, smart home manufacturers and partnerships are focused on simplifying systems and enhancing the user experience, ensuring that smart home technology is accessible and beneficial for users of all skill levels.
For home automation systems to be truly effective, devices must be interoperable regardless of manufacturer and use the same protocol or, at least, complementary ones
The home automation market is still emerging, lacking a definitive gold standard Nevertheless, industry alliances are collaborating with manufacturers and protocols to promote interoperability and enhance the user experience.
Smart Home Technologies
Smart home technology encompasses digital devices and systems designed to enhance our daily lives by making them simpler, faster, and more efficient From checking the contents of our fridge while shopping to remotely boiling the kettle, these innovations transform the way we interact with our homes.
37 your duvet, smart home technology means devices and appliances can speak to each other, so we can control them all under one roof
There are many smart home technologies available in the market, and the users are left to select their choice of the best technology according to their needs a) Z-Wave
Z- Wave is the most widely used technology in home automation systems and by far the most widely accepted technology It offers good network reliability and stability Z-Wave is one of the oldest available home automation protocols The best feature of Z-Wave devices is their cross-compatibility among different branded systems Each Z-Wave device has a unique network ID and each network has a unique identification thus making the system secure Z-Wave is a mesh protocol, and thus the devices can talk to one another
Z-Wave operates at different frequencies depending on the region, with 908.42 MHz in the US and 868.42 MHz in Europe It boasts a signal range of up to 30 meters, which can be extended by utilizing devices as repeaters This process, known as hopping, allows the signal to gain an additional 30 meters as it passes through each device, with a maximum of four devices permitted for this extension However, exceeding four devices will result in the termination of the signal, a phenomenon referred to as Hop Kill.
ZigBee is an IEEE 802.15 standard designed for home automation, similar to Bluetooth and Wi-Fi Its appeal lies in low power consumption and open specifications, making it suitable for battery-operated devices As a mesh protocol, ZigBee allows devices to communicate and function as repeaters However, despite its advantages, ZigBee has not captured a significant market share due to device incompatibility among various vendors.
X10 is one of the oldest home automation standards still in use today, with around 10 million devices reported in the US It offers the flexibility of using both wired power lines and wireless radio communication methods However, a significant drawback is that it transmits messages one command at a time, which can lead to decoding issues and lost commands when multiple signals are sent concurrently Despite this limitation, X10 remains a cost-effective option with a wide range of available devices.
INSTEON is a cutting-edge technology designed to integrate power line systems with wireless communication, serving as a replacement for the X10 standard It uniquely connects sensors and switches to the Internet through both power line and radiofrequency methods, making it one of the few technologies that utilize dual communication channels One of INSTEON's key advantages is its partial compatibility with existing X10 devices; although INSTEON and X10 commands differ, the INSTEON driver chipset can respond to X10 messages, enabling communication between the two systems Data transmission occurs at a frequency of 1131.65 kHz for power line devices and 904 MHz for wireless devices To enhance interoperability among INSTEON devices across various platforms, an alliance has been established, akin to the Z-Wave alliance, involving numerous product development organizations and several Fortune 500 companies.
EnOcean technology is revolutionizing home automation by enabling zero energy consumption through energy harvesting Its standout feature is the ability of EnOcean devices to operate without batteries while still facilitating wireless communication This innovation is made possible through the use of micro energy converters and ultra-low-power electronics Initially, EnOcean devices utilized piezoelectric generators, but these have since been replaced by more efficient electromagnetic energy sources, allowing for self-sustaining operation.
EnOcean sensors, operating on the less crowded 315 MHz band, require minimal maintenance and experience minimal radio interference As reported by the EnOcean Alliance, these sensors have been installed in over 250,000 buildings, showcasing significant growth, albeit still less than X10.
3.3.1 Comparison between Smart Home Transmission Technologies
Table 2.Comparison of Smart Home Transmission Technologies [8]
Max Transmission Speed/Operati on Range
It is a proprietary standard intended exclusively for remote control applications in residential and business areas;
This protocol works at 868 MHz in Europe and 908 MHz ISM band in the USA;
It has typically 30 30 m indoor; Proprietary Yes Medium
Z-Wave min door range, which extends up to
Mesh networking is employed in Z-Wave, essentially meaning an unlimited range;
The main advantages of this technology come from simple command structure, freedom from household interference, low- bandwidth control medium, and IP support
It is a wireless mesh network that proved to be very efficient
It offers a low data rate for Personal area networks (PANs);
It can be used broadly in device control, reliable messaging, home and building automation, consumer electronics, remote monitoring, health care, and many other areas
Low cost, low power usage, a high number of nodes
EnOcean It is an innovative energy harvesting wireless technology with the smallest
Medium Energy management and highly efficient
43 amount of energy from their environment;
It consists of wireless technology components for self- powered wireless control, signaling, and monitoring of systems
It is on the 868.3 or 315 MHz frequency
It uses wireless standards optimized for solutions with ultra-low power consumption
Examples of smart home applications
Nearly every aspect of life where technology has entered the domestic space (lightbulbs, dishwashers, and so on) has seen the introduction of a smart home alternative:
• Smart TVs connect to the internet to access content through applications, such as on-demand video and music Some smart TVs also include voice or gesture recognition
Smart lighting systems, like Philips Hue, offer remote control and customization features while detecting room occupancy to adjust lighting accordingly Additionally, these smart bulbs can self-regulate based on the availability of daylight, enhancing energy efficiency and user convenience.
Smart thermostats like Nest from Nest Labs Inc feature built-in Wi-Fi, enabling users to schedule, monitor, and control their home temperatures remotely These innovative devices adapt to homeowners' habits, automatically adjusting settings for optimal comfort and energy efficiency Additionally, smart thermostats provide energy usage reports and send reminders for filter changes, enhancing overall home management.
Smart locks and garage-door openers offer users the ability to control access for visitors, allowing them to grant or deny entry effortlessly Additionally, smart locks enhance convenience by detecting when residents approach, automatically unlocking the doors for them.
Smart security cameras enable homeowners to keep an eye on their properties while away or on vacation Equipped with advanced motion sensors, these systems can distinguish between residents, visitors, pets, and potential intruders, alerting authorities if any suspicious activity is detected.
• Pet care can be automated with connected feeders Houseplants and lawns can be watered by way of connected timers
• Kitchen appliances of all sorts are available, including smart coffee makers that can brew a fresh cup automatically at a programmed time; smart refrigerators that
Keep track of expiration dates, create shopping lists, and develop recipes using ingredients you already have Utilize slow cookers and toasters for convenient meal preparation, while in the laundry room, rely on washing machines and dryers for efficient laundry management.
Household monitoring systems can detect electrical surges and automatically shut off appliances, as well as identify water leaks or freezing pipes to prevent basement flooding.
How smart homes work/smart home implementation
A smart home is an integrated network of devices and appliances that work together seamlessly, controlled by a central hub known as a smart home controller This hardware acts as the core of the smart home system, enabling the sensing, processing, and wireless communication of data By consolidating various applications into one user-friendly smart home app, homeowners can remotely manage their entire smart home ecosystem with ease.
Some smart home systems can be created from scratch, for example, using a Raspberry
A prototyping board, such as a Raspberry Pi, can be utilized for home automation projects Alternatively, bundled smart home kits, also referred to as smart home platforms, are available for purchase and include all the essential components needed to kickstart your home automation journey.
In smart home systems, events can be categorized as timed or triggered Timed events occur at specific clock times, such as lowering the blinds at 6:00 p.m In contrast, triggered events rely on actions within the system, like unlocking the smart lock and turning on the lights when the owner's smartphone is near the door.
Machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) are revolutionizing smart home systems by enabling home automation applications to adapt to their surroundings Voice-activated devices like Amazon Echo and Google Home feature virtual assistants that learn from residents' preferences and behaviors, personalizing the smart home experience.
Smart buildings
Not all smart buildings qualify as smart homes, despite both being equipped with advanced technologies Various types of structures, including commercial, industrial, and residential buildings such as offices, skyscrapers, and multi-tenant residences, are increasingly adopting IoT solutions These technologies enhance building efficiency, lower energy expenses, minimize environmental impact, bolster security, and elevate occupant satisfaction.
Many of the same smart technologies used in the smart home are deployed in smart buildings, including lighting, energy, heating, and air conditioning, and security and building access systems
Smart buildings utilize sensors to monitor room occupancy, enabling significant energy cost reductions By automatically adjusting temperature settings—cooling a full conference room or reducing heat when the office is empty—these systems optimize energy efficiency and enhance comfort for occupants.
Smart buildings have the capability to connect with the smart grid, enabling seamless communication between building components and the electric grid This advanced technology facilitates efficient energy distribution, proactive maintenance management, and quicker responses to power outages.
Beyond these benefits, smart buildings can provide building owners and managers the benefit of predictive maintenance Janitors, for example, can refill restroom supplies
46 when usage sensors monitor the soap or paper towel dispensers are low Or maintenance and failures can be predicted on building refrigeration, elevators, and lighting systems.
Analyses of Smart Home products in Energy saving
Smart home products have existed since the 1980s, but their market penetration was hindered by limited microprocessor power, poor interfaces, and high costs Recently, however, advancements in information and communication technology, particularly through the development of smart grids, have enhanced these products, offering households improved control and information regarding their energy usage.
The rollout of smart meters has led to the creation of innovative products that offer users insights into their home's energy consumption, utilizing data from smart meters or specialized sensors However, these feedback tools often have limited connectivity options and are primarily distributed to consumers through utility companies.
At the turn of the century, advancements in technology led to the emergence of new communication standards and the formation of early "domotics" consortia, primarily focused on automation rather than energy management This shift facilitated the introduction of connected thermostats, like Nest and Ecobee, which featured network connectivity, remote smartphone access, and advanced control capabilities Their popularity surged, prompting most thermostat manufacturers to include at least one connected model in their product lines This trend paved the way for a variety of other smart energy products, including smart lighting, smart plugs, and smart appliances.
By 2015, trade shows and stores were flooded by hundreds of products produced by traditional manufacturers and new start-ups
Early attempts of classifying smart energy home products were proposed by La Marche et al [17] and [19] However, in recent years the market has seen much transition, with
The rapid emergence of new products with enhanced functionalities has led to the discontinuation of previously popular devices As software plays an increasingly vital role in defining device features, the growing number of products has highlighted low interoperability as a significant challenge In response, various companies have begun offering software solutions and hubs to connect multiple devices on a unified platform Recent efforts to classify these technologies and examine their capabilities reflect the dynamic nature of the market, showcasing the diverse hardware and software options available to create a smart energy home.
Figure 10 Classification of smart home products [22]
Smart home devices are often pointed out as practical, affordable, and energy-saving additions to our home
Smart homes, equipped with innovations like smart light bulbs and virtual assistants, offer a practical environment for monitoring and enhancing our daily lives This concept, once abstract, has become a reality thanks to leading tech brands such as Apple, Google, Microsoft, Samsung, and Amazon.
In 48, we began offering a range of smart gadgets designed for the entire home, including washing machines and speakers Smart home technology, such as sensor-controlled lights, can significantly reduce energy costs and lower utility bills.
Sensors are widely utilized in various applications, including opening doors, controlling lighting, and regulating room temperature, due to their practicality and energy efficiency These devices not only enhance convenience in homes but also contribute significantly to electricity savings.
Implementing occupancy sensors can significantly reduce energy consumption by up to 30 percent, as reported by the United Kingdom's Carbon Trust Furthermore, incorporating daylight sensors can lead to even greater energy efficiency, with potential savings of up to 40 percent, making them a valuable addition to any energy-saving strategy.
Another interesting data fact from the U.K was presented by the King’s College London
In 2013, the university achieved a remarkable reduction in lighting energy consumption by nearly 90% through the implementation of sensor-controlled indoor lighting This innovative project is projected to save the institution approximately £6,349 (around $8,037) annually on electricity expenses Additionally, the use of smart power strips further enhances energy efficiency.
Smart power strips, often referred to as smart power bars, are essential yet frequently overlooked components of a smart home These innovative devices effectively cut off energy supply to gadgets in standby mode, serving as a significant tool for energy conservation.
According to the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), standby mode contributes to 10% of residential electricity consumption Utilizing a smart power strip can significantly reduce your energy bills by preventing this hidden energy drain With this technology, you can eliminate the hassle of unplugging devices, ensuring a more efficient home.
Long, hot showers can be both soothing and invigorating, yet they are often energy-inefficient To address this issue, experts have developed intelligent shower time limiters that allow us to enjoy the comfort of a warm shower while also conserving energy by setting a time limit.
Shower time limiters can significantly enhance water conservation, potentially reducing usage by up to 50 percent Brands like Shower-guard highlight that these smart timers can cut utility bills by as much as 20 percent, leading to substantial savings of hundreds of dollars annually By allowing users to set their desired shower duration, these devices effectively notify them when it's time to turn off the water, promoting both efficiency and sustainability.
Smart thermostats exemplify the essence of home automation, blending advanced technology with energy efficiency These devices seamlessly connect to smartphones and tablets, enabling users to remotely monitor and adjust their home's temperature.
Smart thermostats offer a range of features beyond just remote access, including regular energy usage reports and historical data charts These functionalities can lead to savings of approximately 15% on energy bills, as reported by Canada’s Global News.
Future of Smart Home
By 2022, 63 million American homes are expected to be classified as “smart,” with devices ranging from Internet-connected light bulbs to pet-monitoring cameras, as reported by Swedish research firm Berg Insight Looking ahead a decade, experts predict a shift from basic voice-activated controls to a fully immersive Internet of Things (IoT) experience With advancements in artificial intelligence, future smart homes will learn from their occupants and anticipate their needs, while robotics will assist with tasks like cleaning and cooking Enhanced sensors will monitor our well-being, and the data collected will transform these homes from simple gadgets into truly intelligent living spaces.
As our homes become increasingly interconnected and learn more about our habits, ensuring their security is paramount Every Internet-connected device poses a potential risk for hackers, especially those that can remotely unlock doors, access cameras, and gather sensitive personal information Therefore, prioritizing cybersecurity is essential to protect our privacy and safeguard our living spaces.
Technological advancements are set to propel smart-home technology far beyond current market offerings Innovations in artificial intelligence are poised to transform various aspects of our lives, including home environments Many individuals are already utilizing AI-powered voice assistants to access the latest news and weather updates.
In the future smart home, AI platforms will act as the central brain, learning about residents' habits and preferences while coordinating and automating a variety of smart devices for seamless living.
In the future smart home, robots will play a significant role, with devices like iRobot's Roomba already assisting with cleaning tasks Additionally, innovative products such as Aibo, a robotic dog designed for children, demonstrate how robots can provide companionship similar to that of a pet.
Robotic-furniture company Ori Living is collaborating with Ikea to create adaptive furniture that transforms according to user needs, such as retracting beds for workspace or concealing closets during meals Meanwhile, Design3 has unveiled CARL, a smart-home robot designed to patrol your home, equipped with cameras and sensors to detect intruders, monitor harmful emissions, and watch over pets Additionally, Nvidia is developing a smart robotic arm that serves as a personal sous chef, capable of tasks like chopping vegetables and assisting with cleanup, making it especially beneficial for busy parents or individuals with disabilities This innovative device would incorporate safety features to prevent accidental injuries, ensuring a seamless cooking experience.
Figure 11 Future of Smart Home [22]
Conclusion
In Chapter 3, we explored the concept of smart homes, focusing on their definition, functionality, and the advantages they offer to users through IoT technology While smart homes present numerous benefits, they also come with challenges that do not deter developers from envisioning their future Given the critical importance of connection, communication, and data exchange in the context of the internet, we also examined transmission technologies, which are vital for achieving the desired outcomes in smart home projects.
One of the widely known and used technologies is Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and ZigBee