B ack g ro u n d to th e stud y
The fir s t E S P term te st
This section discusses the initial ESP term test, examining how students' vocabulary influenced their performance The analysis is grounded in five key characteristics of an achievement test, as outlined by Brown (1984, cited in Brown 1995).
1 Used to measure: the test was used to measure specific language points learnt in the first term.
2 Purpose o f testing: the test assessed the amount o f grammar structures, medical expressions and ESP vocabulary achieved by each student.
3 Distribution o f scores: students could score 100 points if they learnt what had been taught According to the result statistics o f class Y1G, 60% students got mark 5 to 8, 40% got under 5 and had to redo the test These marks were converted from 100 total points with the rounding principle.
The test format consisted of six parts, each with clear instructions focused on vocabulary Part I required students to answer five questions based on a sixteen-line passage, where new vocabulary did not hinder students from achieving 30 points Parts II and V involved translating sentences into Vietnamese and English, respectively, each worth 25 points; however, many students left these sections blank or incomplete due to insufficient vocabulary and medical terminology Part III featured a ten-gap filling exercise, including four grammar points and six ESP vocabulary items, with only a few students managing to score 10 points In Part IV, students needed to make necessary changes to form complete sentences for a total of 15 points, but many struggled with word forms and combinations Finally, Part VI had two sub-parts: one required supplying the correct verb forms, and the other involved filling in blanks with appropriate prepositions, together totaling 20 points Despite frequent practice, most students scored low in both areas, often misusing prepositions.
- Timing: Time allowance was 75 minutes It was estimated enough for students to complete the test.
5 Students' knowledge o f test questions: The medical expressions and ESP vocabulary items in the test were taught in the first semester.
A student's vocabulary significantly influences their test performance, as a limited vocabulary can hinder their ability to complete assessments effectively To achieve success in upcoming term tests and meet educational objectives, students must expand their vocabulary by acquiring a sufficient number of new words.
Training g o a l
The training document, endorsed by the head of HMU, outlines the goal of ensuring that students graduate with the ability to fluently use English in the field of medicine This article aims to determine the minimum vocabulary required for students to achieve this objective.
After graduating from university, students, particularly general doctors involved in this study, are expected to use English for Specific Purposes (ESP) fluently across four macro skills Among these skills, reading is considered the most crucial for medical students, as they must engage with extensive reading materials throughout their academic journey and future careers.
Students must complete 12 terms at university, during which they study English for Specific Purposes (ESP) from the first to the fifth term Initially, they attend 36 hours of class, followed by 96 hours in the subsequent terms, totaling 132 hours of English instruction Successfully passing all ESP term tests is essential for students to graduate after completing the 12 terms.
Students often lack the necessary vocabulary to achieve effective communication, prioritizing grammar over lexical knowledge Research indicates that lexical competence is crucial for communicative competence (Hsu, 2006) and plays a more significant role than grammar As Wilkins (1972, cited in Carter & McCarthy) stated, "without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed."
Research indicates that a larger vocabulary enhances language proficiency, with studies suggesting that a minimum of 5,000 words is necessary for effective academic learning This consensus among scholars underscores the importance of vocabulary size in language acquisition and usage.
The primary inquiry is whether the teaching materials are appropriate for enabling students to acquire essential English for Specific Purposes (ESP) vocabulary Additionally, it is crucial to assess the effectiveness of the teaching approach in enhancing students' ESP vocabulary, which is vital for successfully passing term tests and meeting training objectives.
Teaching m a teria l
The textbook "Tiếng Anh cho bác sỹ y khoa," edited by Vuong Thi Thu Minh, is designed for first-year medical students and follows a functional and topical syllabus Released in 2006 by HMƯ, it serves as a primary resource, while teachers can supplement it with additional exercises to enhance students' language skills.
The textbook comprises 17 units, each divided into three sections: Reading Comprehension, Speaking, and Grammar and Vocabulary Accompanying the textbook is a bilingual wordlist featuring 677 new words organized into three columns: the new words with their classifications, pronunciation patterns, and Vietnamese translations Most of the vocabulary introduced in the textbook aligns with Fundamental Medical English (Salager, 1983) and includes both cryptotechnical and lay-technical terms (Fraser, 2005, cited in Fraser, 2007) For additional details, refer to section 2.1.1.2.
The following is the description o f each section in terms o f vocabulary rate to help find the answer for the first question mentioned in 1.1.2.
Section 1 -Reading comprehension: This section provides a topical reading text with a length o f around 300 words, in which new words take about 10% or 30 new words The topics are stress, stroke, home accidents, and so on.
Section 2- Speaking: This provides some simple speaking drills or dialogues to illustrate grammar structures, and few new words and expressions in medicine are presented.
Section 3- Grammar and vocabulary practice: Beside grammar-pattern exercises, one or two vocabulary exercises are added The vocabulary selection is topical and v ocabulary exercises are matching word meaning, matching synonym s, gap-Jilling, or matching words to make compounds These exercises are designed to serve as an illustration for grammar rules Some units have a 200-word passage, which requires students to translate it into Vietnamese and the new words account for around 5% to 10%
The textbook, consisting of 17 units and incorporating 677 new medical terms, effectively covers essential medical expressions and vocabulary across various topics According to the evaluation by the HMU board, it is well-suited for medical students, making it a valuable resource for their studies.
During the first term of the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) course, students covered 9 units and acquired 319 new vocabulary words In the second term, which is the focus of this study, students learned the remaining units along with an additional 358 new words.
Teaching approach
This part provides a description o f the teaching approach in the first ESP term to find an answer for the second question raised in 1.1.2.
The teaching schedule for English teachers at the Department of Foreign Languages Teaching (DFLT) at HMU highlights the use of the Grammar-Translation Approach (GTA) in the classroom This method primarily emphasizes reading skills, with occasional writing instruction, while neglecting listening and speaking The curriculum focuses on presenting grammatical rules in the first language (LI) and includes exercises for practicing these rules along with text translation into LI The primary medium of instruction is also LI.
In ESP vocabulary teaching, effective techniques included providing word meanings in the learners' first language and emphasizing grammatical patterns such as countability and transitivity Students engaged in vocabulary exercises primarily in the Grammar and Vocabulary section Classroom organization favored class work, with individual tasks being the second most common, while pair and group work were rarely utilized The teacher maintained authority in the classroom, directing interactions predominantly from teacher to students, with minimal student initiation and limited peer interaction.
In sum, the description above illustrates main characteristics o f GTA Because GTA focused on the ability to analyse language, and not the ability to use it (Schmitt,
Historically, grammar was prioritized in language instruction, with vocabulary merely serving to illustrate grammatical rules, leading to its neglect in teaching (Larsen-Freeman, 1986) Consequently, this approach proved ineffective in helping students enhance their vocabulary for term assessments and training objectives This highlights the urgent need for a revised vocabulary teaching strategy in the classroom.
A ims o f t h e stu d y
The research aimed at improving ESP vocabulary teaching for the first year students at HMU To achieve this aim, the research had to:
1 Identify the causes to the ineffective ESP vocabulary teaching at HMU.
2 Suggest the solution to the problems based on the identified causes.
To achieve the objectives above, answers to the following questions were sought:
1 What are the causes to the problem?
2 What are the solutions to the problem?
3 Do the suggested solutions help to improve ESP vocabulary teaching?
S c o pe o f t h e stud y
The study aimed to enhance English for Specific Purposes (ESP) vocabulary instruction for first-year students at HMU through the implementation of the Lexical Approach (LA) While LA was applied in the classroom and its effects were observed, the study acknowledged that due to time constraints and the scope of a master's thesis, not all potential impacts of LA could be explored.
S ig n ific a n c e o f t h e study
As mentioned in 1.1, vocabulary played a very important part in language teaching Students could pass ESP term tests and achieve the training objective if they got a certain amount o f ESP vocabulary.
For first-year students, effective vocabulary instruction is crucial in the challenging field of medicine, where specialized terminology can be unfamiliar and difficult to master This teaching not only aids in comprehension but also enhances students' understanding of the importance of vocabulary and various learning strategies, ultimately leading to a richer vocabulary and improved language skills.
Besides, the study probably gives the teacher a chance to take a deep understanding in vocabulary and suggests a good way to deal with vocabulary teaching for medical students.
O rg a n iza tio n o f t h e t h e s is
This thesis is divided into five chapters bellows:
Chapter 1, ‘Introduction’, presents the background to the study, aims o f the study, its scope, its significance, and ends with the organization o f the study.
Chapter 2, 'Literature Review’, presents a brief overview o f vocabulary teaching, and LA as a suggested solution.
C h ap ter 3, ‘M ethodology’, includes the study methodology (Action Research- AR) and its procedures The chapter ends with a description o f the subjects and data collection.
Chapter 4, 'Data analysis and Discussion’, is divided into four parts as follows: initial data, discovered problems, the action plan, and the evaluation o f the action plan.
Chapter 5, ‘Conclusion’, summarizes the study’s result and then presents the conclusion o f the study.
The final section of the thesis includes appendices that provide essential documents related to this inquiry, featuring two questionnaires, Test #1 and Test #2 focused on vocabulary performance, along with a sample lesson plan designed for teaching ESP vocabulary.
This chapter, Literature Review, will discuss two mains issues relevant to the current study: Vocabulary and Historical review o f vocabulary teaching.
V o c a b u l a r y
What is vocabulary?
Vocabulary is a set o f lexemes, including single words, compound words and idioms (Longman Dictionary o f Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, 1985) Ur
According to 1996, vocabulary encompasses not only single words but also compounds of two or three words, as well as multi-word idioms Additionally, it refers to the words that are taught in a foreign language.
According to Diamond & Gutlohn (2006), vocabulary encompasses both the knowledge of words and their meanings Stahl (2005, as cited in Diamond & Gutlohn, 2006) elaborates that vocabulary knowledge extends beyond mere definitions, highlighting how words relate to broader contexts in the world.
Vocabulary encompasses single words, compound phrases, and multi-word idioms, highlighting the importance of understanding not just their definitions but also their contextual relevance in the world.
All professions develop their jargons and jargon simply means “words belonging to a specific area o f expertise” (cited in Technical vocabulary: Law and Medicine, p i 24:
6) Several researchers use “technical vocabulary” to state about vocabulary used in a specific area (e.g Chung & Nation 2004: Nation 2001 cited in Fraser 2007: Salager
Technical vocabulary is defined as language that is specifically related to a certain topic or discipline, as noted by Nation (2001, cited in Fraser, 2007) Chung & Nation (2004) further elaborate that such terminology is associated with specialized domains and is integral to a system of subject knowledge Additionally, Salager (1985, cited in Fraser, 2007) emphasizes that medical vocabulary comprises high-frequency terms that are context-bound and specific to particular medical specialties.
Researchers may define vocabulary in specific subject areas differently, but it is clear that such vocabulary encompasses knowledge relevant to that field This includes single words, compounds of two or three words, and multi-word idioms Vocabulary can also be categorized as high-frequency, context-bound, or topic-dependent terms In this study, the focus is on medicine, and the medical vocabulary is referred to as English for Specific Purposes (ESP) vocabulary.
The classification o f ESP vocabulary is often based on quantifying the vocabulary of scientific texts using computer-aided frequency counts and statistical analyses (Fraser,
2007) Due to the aims o f researchers, the classification may be different.
Chung and Nation (2003) conducted a study on an anatomy text and an applied linguistics text to analyze the frequency of technical words They identified two types of technical vocabulary: one that appears in general usage and another that is specific to specialized fields Their findings revealed that technical words occur once in every three words in the anatomy text and once in every five words in the applied linguistics text The authors propose effective strategies for teaching technical vocabulary, emphasizing the importance of providing contextual meanings of words and advising teachers to focus on vocabulary learning strategies rather than delving into specific technical content.
Fraser (2005, cited in Fraser, 2007) analyzed two textbooks on pharmacology and applied linguistics using the rating scale developed by Chung & Nation (2003) He categorized vocabulary related to specialized texts into three distinct groups: fully technical vocabulary, cryptotechnical vocabulary, and lay-technical vocabulary, providing clear definitions for each category.
Fully technical vocabulary consists of words with precise meanings that are specific to a particular field, such as pharmacology These terms, including the names of drugs, are not commonly understood in general language.
Cryptotechnical vocabulary is characterized by polysemous terms such as "transmitter" and "relaxation," which possess hidden technical meanings Words like "irregular," "token," and "sense" in linguistics exemplify this cryptic nature, highlighting the complexity and depth of language within the field.
• Lay-technical vocabulary comprises those items, which are obviously technical but are likely known by the layperson-words like bacteria, fever, and heart in pharmacology.
Fraser (2007) emphasizes the importance of training learners in strategies to comprehend and retain cryptotechnical vocabulary, highlighting that understanding the context of these terms is crucial to prevent misinterpretation He suggests that contextual guessing can be an effective approach Furthermore, students should be encouraged to utilize specialized dictionaries and expand their vocabulary through corpus-based learning.
Salager (1983) analyzes a representative corpus of 100,000 words from natural language texts to define groups of medical vocabulary This corpus consists of 50 sample texts, each containing approximately 2,000 words, sourced from 50 different textbooks, journals, and reviews across 12 medical specialties, including Internal Medicine, Pediatrics, and Surgery Through the analysis of roots within this lexicon, she categorizes medical vocabulary into three distinct groups.
• Basic English (BE) defines as that part o f the lexicon common to all kinds of writing, whether it be scientific, technical or literary;
• Fundamental medical English (FME) made up o f those roots whose frequency o f occurrence is homogeneously distributed over the whole ME corpus but in a significantly different way than in BE;
• Specialized medical English (SME) composed o f specialized terms particular to a given discipline and known only to the small group o f workers in that field.
The classifications of vocabulary are essential for effective teaching, as different types require distinct approaches Salager's study, which focuses on medical texts, offers valuable insights that can be adapted for vocabulary instruction at HMU, particularly for first-year students When comparing Salager’s three categories, it becomes evident that the majority of vocabulary in the textbook aligns with Fundamental Medical English (FME).
A comparison of three types of Fraser reveals that the vocabulary in textbooks for first-year students predominantly consists of cryptotechnical and lay-technical terms, with cryptotechnical vocabulary representing the larger group.
Therefore, vocabulary should be taught in its context and students should be helped to use vocabulary-learning strategies effectively.
Role o f vocabulary in foreign language learning
For many years, vocabulary in foreign language learning was overlooked, but by the mid-1970s, it began to be recognized as a crucial component of language education This shift in perspective highlighted vocabulary acquisition as an active skill, informed by insights from lexical semantics, emphasizing the importance of understanding what learners need to know and how they can effectively learn it (Carter & McCarthy, 1988).
Vocabulary plays a crucial role in language acquisition and proficiency, as highlighted by Zimmerman (1997), who emphasizes that "vocabulary is central to language" and vital for learners Research indicates a positive correlation between vocabulary knowledge and language proficiency levels (Luppescu & Day, 1993; Mehrpour, 2008), suggesting that a strong vocabulary provides the "enabling knowledge" necessary for success in various aspects of language (Laufer and Nation, 1999) Furthermore, studies have shown a significant link between vocabulary and academic achievement (Anderson & Freebody, 1981; Ann, 1999), reinforcing the importance of vocabulary development in educational contexts.
Vocabulary knowledge plays a crucial role in comprehending both spoken and written language When the percentage of unfamiliar words exceeds 10%, reading comprehension can drop to a frustrating level.
For medical students, reading is a crucial skill, with vocabulary size closely linked to reading comprehension in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Research indicates that the primary challenge for EFL readers is not inadequate reading strategies or grammatical knowledge, but rather insufficient vocabulary The threshold hypothesis suggests that there is a minimum vocabulary level that learners must achieve to attain a basic level of comprehension in a second language.
In conclusion, vocabulary plays an important role in language learning and learners need to possess a certain amount of vocabulary to be able to read.
Vocabulary learning
This section focuses on vocabulary learning, emphasizing the distinction between receptive and productive knowledge Understanding a word's meaning and determining how many words students should know are crucial aspects of this process The interconnectedness of these elements highlights the importance of reviewing word knowledge to enhance vocabulary acquisition effectively For non-English majors aiming to master English for Specific Purposes (ESP), establishing a target vocabulary size is vital, even if it seems daunting To reach this goal, implementing effective vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) is essential for students.
Receptive and productive knowledge o f vocabulary
According to Gairns & Redman (1986), receptive vocabulary refers to language items that learners can recognize and understand when reading or listening, while productive vocabulary consists of language items that learners can recall and use effectively in speaking and writing These terms are also known as passive and active vocabulary.
Sharing the same idea, Schmitt (2000) states being able to understand a word is known as receptive knowledge and is normally connected with listening and reading
Productive knowledge in language involves the ability to use words independently in speaking or writing Initially, words are acquired receptively, meaning we understand them before we can use them effectively Therefore, grasping a word's meaning is essential for it to serve any practical purpose in communication.
To enhance students' passive vocabulary, Haycraft (1978) emphasizes the importance of guiding them in dictionary usage and encouraging extensive reading He highlights that monitoring students' progress, similar to other homework assignments, is crucial for vocabulary acquisition When transitioning passive vocabulary to active use, teachers should focus on pronunciation and contextualizing words to ensure their correct application.
Gairns and Redman (1986) emphasize the crucial role of teachers in determining which vocabulary items should be learned for productive use versus those meant for recognition While categorizing vocabulary into productive and receptive may appear somewhat artificial, it's essential to consider this distinction Teachers should focus on selectivity based on the specific needs of their students and the learning environment.
Gairns & Redman (1986) highlight that students can typically acquire eight to twelve productive vocabulary items in one hour, with elementary students leaning towards the lower end of this range and advanced learners reaching the higher end They estimate that low-level students may develop a productive vocabulary of around 1,000 items by the end of their course.
C’obb (2004) emphasizes that a vocabulary acquisition approach focused on output can assist teachers in bridging the gap between receptive and productive vocabulary for advanced ESL learners The researcher highlights that this transition requires significant effort from both learners and teachers in the educational process.
In summary, vocabulary knowledge consists of receptive and productive aspects Receptive knowledge is crucial for reading and listening, while productive knowledge is necessary for speaking and writing For the subjects of this study, a stronger emphasis on receptive vocabulary is vital for effectively understanding medical documents Therefore, it is important to define what vocabulary knowledge entails and what it means to truly know a word.
Knowing a word encompasses understanding its spoken and written contexts, recognizing its relationships with synonyms and collocations, and being aware of its syntactic, pragmatic, and discoursal patterns (Carter, 2001).
Nation (1990, cited in Schmitt, 2000, p5) proposes the following list o f the different kinds o f knowledge that a person must master in order to know a word:
• the written form o f the word
• the spoken form o f the word
• the grammatical behaviour of the word
Nation's comprehensive list effectively assesses an individual's understanding of a word (Schmitt, 2000) by breaking down the essential components of lexical knowledge This separation is beneficial, as it highlights the various types of knowledge necessary for using a word across diverse language contexts Furthermore, these aspects of word knowledge are likely interconnected, suggesting that enhancing one area may facilitate improvements in others.
How many words students need to know?
W illis (1990) states the 700 most frequent words o f English account for around 70% o f all English text, the most frequent 1,500 words for 76% and the most frequent 2,500 words for 80%.
Basic English, a project designed to provide a basic minimum vocabulary for the learning o f English, gives 850 words for the clear statement o f ideas Later, a General
The 1953 edition of the Service List includes 2,000 words, along with semantic and frequency data sourced from a five million-word corpus Research by Cater and McCarthy (1987) suggests that mastering these words enables comprehension of approximately 80 percent of any written text Similarly, Nation and Newton (1997) emphasize that lacking this vocabulary makes it challenging to use English effectively in everyday situations.
(2004) gives a number o f most frequent 2,000 words as a survival level in order to be able to process a text.
Hunt and Belgar (1998) emphasize the importance of knowing around 3,000 high-frequency and general academic words, as this vocabulary accounts for a substantial portion of the words on an average page Additionally, Laufer (cited in Hsu, 2006) highlights that a core vocabulary for foreign language learners should comprise the most commonly used 3,000 to 5,000 words.
Chung and Nation (2003) discovered that technical vocabulary appears frequently in specialized texts, with one technical word present for every three words in anatomy texts and one for every five words in applied linguistics texts Additionally, they noted that many of these terms originated from the first 2,000 words of English and the Academic Word List.
Fraser (2007) validates the reliability of the rating scale methodology used in Chung & Nation’s research He chose to apply their approach to analyze technical vocabulary in two textbooks, specifically in pharmacology and applied linguistics, in 2005.
Chung & Nation (2003) and Fraser (2007) highlight that technical vocabulary often appears in lists of frequently used words, blurring the lines between technical and non-technical terms Despite this ambiguity, Fraser (2007) endorses Laufer's (1989) assertion that a lexical threshold of 5,000 words is essential for students embarking on their academic journeys.
H ist o r ic a l r e v iew o f vocabulary t e a c h in g
Introduction IK 2.2.2 The LA theory
For over two millennia, second language instruction has evolved through various teaching methodologies, often fluctuating in its emphasis on vocabulary While some methods have prioritized vocabulary acquisition, others, like the Direct Method, Audiolingualism, and Communicative Language Teaching, have overlooked it, as noted by Schmitt (2000) This inconsistency highlights the need for a more principled approach to vocabulary in modern language teaching.
In the first part o f the twentieth century, vocabulary has been paid much more attention on That was the appearance of General Service List and Basic Lnglish in
The "Vocabulary Control Movement" sparked significant research in vocabulary acquisition, as highlighted by studies from Carter (1987), Carter & McCarthy (1988), Gairns & Redman (1986), Nation & Newton (1997), Lewis (1997), Schmitt (2000), and Willis (1997) A notable trend emerged emphasizing the importance of learning words within natural discourse rather than through isolated lists, as suggested by Nattinger (1988) Additionally, the focus on word relationships, particularly collocations, underscores the frequent co-occurrence of words, which occurs more often than by chance, as noted by Schmitt (2000).
The advent of computer-aided research has significantly transformed vocabulary studies, as corpus analyses offer extensive databases that reveal actual word usage in English Notable examples include the Cambridge International Corpus (CIC) and the British National Corpus (BNC), each containing over 100 million words, which are invaluable resources for vocabulary instruction (Schmitt, 2000).
In 1990, Willis introduced a lexical syllabus that emphasizes the naturalistic and authentic use of language, addressing the gap between traditional teaching methods and the Communicative Approach, which often views language too holistically This syllabus allows learners to engage with language items in real contexts, such as collocations, enabling them to learn from their own experiences.
In this trend, Lexical Approach (LA) found by Lewis in 1993 was a remark which confirmed the importance o f vocabulary in foreign language teaching and showed a new way to treat vocabulary.
In Lewis's LA theory, the Communicative Approach is integrated into classroom activities, emphasizing the use of naturally occurring vocabulary This lexical-based teaching method prioritizes the acquisition of multiword phrases, such as poly-words, collocations, and both fixed and semi-fixed expressions.
The approach emphasizes the crucial role of utilizing corpora to enhance teaching materials and highlights the need for consistent recycling and reviewing of the language learned Lexical Approach (LA) focuses on improving learners' proficiency in lexis, which includes words and word combinations This method is grounded in the belief that a significant aspect of language acquisition involves the ability to understand and produce lexical phrases as cohesive units.
"chunks," and that these chunks become the raw data by which learners perceive patterns o f language traditionally thought of as grammar (Lewis, 1993 cited in Moudraia, 2001).
In his 1997 work, Lewis emphasizes the significance of awareness-raising activities over traditional formal teaching within the lexical approach He argues that the teaching focus should prioritize receptive skills and awareness, advocating for a crucial shift in emphasis towards valuing receptive practice in language learning.
Moudraia (2001) highlights the distinction made by linguists between vocabulary, typically seen as a collection of individual words with set meanings, and lexis, which encompasses both single words and the various combinations of words stored in our mental lexicons.
Kranz (1997) highlights that language acquisition (LA) involves more than just traditional grammar and vocabulary; it often relies on multi-word prefabricated chunks He reflects Lewis's view on the challenges of implementing LA, noting that many language teachers lack the intellectual curiosity and willingness to adapt, which are essential for professional growth Additionally, a significant number of educators resist new linguistic and methodological advancements, clinging instead to conventional practices centered around grammatical explanations and corrections.
LA redefines the role of vocabulary in language teaching and learning by emphasizing the importance of teaching vocabulary in context and through its combinations In this study, terms such as lexical phrases, multiword phrases, and prefabricated chunks are understood to be synonymous, highlighting the significance of these expressions in effective communication.
Lewis (1993) claims lexical items are central to both language use and teaching, and gives characteristics o f LA as following:
• Language consists o f grammaticalised lexis, not lexicalised grammar
• The grammar/ vocabulary dichotomy is invalid; much language consists of multi-words "chunks"
• A central element o f language teaching is raising students' awareness of, and developing their ability to "chunk" language successfully
• Although structural patterns are known as useful, lexical and metaphorical patterning are accorded appropriate status.
• Collocation is integrated as an organizing principle within syllabuses
• The central metaphor o f language is holistic - an organism; not atomistic- a machine
• It is the co-textual rather than the situational element o f context, which are o f primary importance for language teaching.
• Grammar as a receptive skill, involving the perception o f similarity and difference, is priotised.
• Receptive skills, particularly listening, are given enhanced status.
• The Present- Practice - Produce paradigm is rejected, in favour o f a paradigm based on the Observe- Hypothesise- Experiment cycle.
In LA, a special attention is directed to collocations and expressions that include institutionalized utterances and sentence frames and heads As Lewis maintains,
Instead of focusing solely on individual words, we prioritize collocations and express them through meaningful phrases This approach encourages us to view concepts in a broader, more holistic manner rather than dissecting them into smaller components.
Lewis (1997) suggests the four fundamental types o f lexical items as follows:
• Type 1: words (e.g hook, pen) or poly-words (e.g by the way upside down)
• Type 2: collocations, or word partnerships (e.g., community service, absolutely convinced)
• Type 3: institutionalized utterances (e.g., I'll get it; We'll see; That'll do; If I were you ; Would you like a cup of coffee?)
In this article, we explore the significance of sentence frames and heads, which serve as essential tools for effective communication Firstly, we discuss how phrases like "That is not as as you think" can clarify misconceptions Secondly, we highlight the importance of structured text frames, such as "In this paper we explore " to guide readers through the content Finally, we emphasize the role of these linguistic structures in enhancing clarity and coherence in writing.
Lewis emphasizes that this analysis is not exclusive, noting that there is some overlap between categories He suggests that it can be beneficial to classify a specific item into different classes for various analytical purposes, especially in classroom settings.
Hill & Lewis (1997, cited in Sheehan, 2004) identify the most important kinds of collocation as:
• adjective + noun, e.g., fatal accident, golden opportunity
• verb + noun, e.g., accept responsibility, undermine (my) self confidence
• noun + verb, e.g., the gap widened, a fight broke out
• adverb + adjective, e.g., highly desirable, potentially embarrassing
• verb + adverb, e.g., discuss calmly, lead eventually to
Similarly Gairns & Redman (1986) give the common types o f collocations:
• Subject noun + verb: E.g The earth revolves around the sun.
• Verb + object noun: E.g., She bites her nails.
• Adjective + noun: E.g., A loud noise, heavy traffic.
• Adverb + past participle used adjectivally: E.g., badly dressed.
Identifying collocation will help teachers much in teaching and guiding students to find collocations while reading and listening more easily.
Two researchers highlight that opinions vary on what constitutes acceptable collocations in English Often, we intuitively recognize certain combinations, like "a beautiful proposal," as valid collocations.
“pretty furniture” or “a lovely bird”.
Los Angeles (LA) emerged from a widely accepted notion among researchers that teaching lexical items effectively requires their contextualization and combination.
P revious rela ted r e s e a r c h
Questionnaires
The questionnaire was selected for its numerous advantages, including its popularity as a research tool (Gillham, 2000), ease of preparation, and straightforward data collection and analysis (Brown, 1995) It included both close-ended questions, which could be easily quantified, and open-ended questions designed to gather students' opinions on English for Specific Purposes (ESP) vocabulary teaching and learning at HMU To facilitate comprehension, the researcher was present to clarify all questions for the students.
The questionnaire featured two open-ended questions and six closed-ended questions, utilizing a five-point Likert scale It included a comment section for students to provide additional feedback The primary objective of the questionnaire was to gather accurate insights into the teaching and learning of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) vocabulary during the first ESP term test.
The question content was designed around four key areas: students' language learning backgrounds, their specific purposes for learning English for Specific Purposes (ESP), their evaluations of vocabulary teaching methods, and their preferences for vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) For more detailed information, please refer to Appendix 1.
The questionnaire, comprising 20 questions based on a five-point Likert scale, aimed to assess students' attitudes towards the application of Learning Analytics (LA) in two key areas: their evaluation of LA effects and their preferences for Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) To ensure response reliability, two questions (numbers 9 and 17) were included as tests The questionnaire was administered to 45 students from class Y1G following the action period, with detailed questions available in Appendix 2.
Test
The test was selected for its ability to effectively measure students' vocabulary performance, as it included only familiar content, making it a fair assessment It is regarded as an essential research tool for gathering data on students' vocabulary achievements and is specifically designed to evaluate learners' performance against established criteria (Brown, 1995).
The achievement tests (Test #1 and Test #2) assessed vocabulary size by evaluating students' partial knowledge of 100 random medical words Research indicates that vocabulary size is the strongest predictor of reading comprehension in both first language (LI) and second language (L2) contexts (Coady, 1997) The tests comprised four parts, with the first three focusing on students' receptive vocabulary knowledge, while the final part assessed their productive vocabulary knowledge This approach was essential for medical students, as receptive vocabulary is crucial for their primary skill of reading.
Test #1 aimed to assess the vocabulary knowledge of students by evaluating 100 random words learned during the first ESP semester, while Test #2 served the same purpose for the second semester Additionally, Test #1 provided insights into students' receptive and productive vocabulary skills, enabling the teacher to enhance vocabulary instruction based on the findings Test #2 was utilized to measure any changes resulting from the instructional treatment (Brown, 1995) For detailed information on both tests, please refer to Appendix 3A and 4A.
The achievement tests were designed basing on the five characteristics o f criterion- referenced type given by Brown (1984, cited in Brown 1995) and defined as follows:
1 Used to measure: Specific language points based on course objectives: Test #1 and Test #2 were used to measure 100 random medical words achievement o f students o f class Y1G The test parts might measure students’ receptive or productive knowledge o f vocabulary.
2 Purpose o f testing: Assess the amount o f material known by each student: The p u rp o se o f T e st # lan d T e st #2 was to assess the amount o f medical words got by each student The result comparison o f test parts in two tests could reveal how students’ receptive and productive knowledge o f vocabulary were improved after the action.
3 Distribution o f scores: The score for each correct answer was 1 point Students could score 100 points with 100 correct words answered This number could help interpret data analysis to the number o f words students got in the tests easier.
4 Test design: Clearly defined subparts, each testing one objective The parts were familiar to students The test was based on the reliability and validity features as follows.
The assessment comprised 100 words divided into four sections to evaluate students' receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge Clear and explicit instructions were provided to ensure students were familiar with the test format, enhancing the reliability of the assessment Each test section was designed to effectively measure vocabulary comprehension and usage, contributing to a comprehensive evaluation of students' language skills.
Part I: This part aimed at testing students’ receptive knowledge o f word meaning (RM) The testing type was matching There were two subparts The first subpart required students to match definition There were 15 words and their possible explanations divided into two columns, students had to match two columns to get 15 words and their possible explanations The second subpart consisted o f two columns, each column had 10 words, and students had to combine words in two columns to make 10 meaningful expressions.
Part II: This part was designed to test students’ receptive knowledge o f word form (RF) The random distribution o f nouns, adverbs, verbs and adjectives tested was 7, 6
6 and 6, respectively The part was completed by choosing the correct form o f the words given.
Part III: This part tested students’ receptive knowledge o f word meaning and form with contextual cues (RMC) There were 25 words given and students had to choose the right word for each sentence.
P art IV ; T h is part tested students’ productive knowledge o f word association (PA ) There were two subparts as follows:
• The first subpart required students to find suitable words to complete 15 sentences.
The second subpart of the tests varied between Test #1 and Test #2; Test #1 involved a picture-filling exercise, while Test #2 required students to create a mind-map Both subparts assessed the same 10 words, ensuring consistency in scoring The decision to use a mind-map was influenced by its introduction during the action time.
- Timing: Each test time allowance was 90 minutes for participants to complete the
- Scoring: Due to the characteristics of a vocabulary test, scoring items was completely objective.
Both Test #1 and Test #2 were designed to include a single measurement consisting of 100 medical terms, all of which were covered during the first semester The tests provided a representative sample of the units learned from the textbook, ensuring a high level of content validity.
The allotted time was sufficient for students to independently complete the test items without any discussion Additionally, to prevent collaboration, each student was spaced apart by an empty table, ensuring that they could not share answers.
5 Students’ knowledge o f test questions: They knew exactly what content to expect on test: The vocabulary items in tests were taught in the first semester and action time.
This chapter aims to present the study's results and discuss the key findings The results are organized into four main sections: 4.1 Initial Results, 4.2 Discovered Problems, 4.3 Plan of Action, and 4.4 Evaluation of the Action Plan.
Results o f Questionnaire HI 3S 1 Students’ language learning background
T he results are discussed in four areas mentioned in 3.4.1.1 to answer the research question 1 : "What are the causes to the problem ?"
■4.1.1.1 S tu d e n ts ’ language learning background
Years o f English learning The number o f students
Note: the total number o f students is 45
Table 4.1 Students’ years of English learning
Table 4.1 illustrates the years of English learning among students, indicating that the majority, 40 students, have studied English for approximately 3 years prior to enrolling at HMU Additionally, 3 students have 7 years of experience, while only 2 students have less than 1 year of English learning This distribution suggests that most students likely possess similar English proficiency levels, providing a favorable context for teachers to tailor their instructional activities effectively.
The number of medical words The number of students
Note: the total number o f students is 45
Table 4.2 Students’ medical word stock
Table 4.2 reveals that a majority of students reported knowing fewer than 50 medical words, with only 5 students claiming to know around 100 words and just 2 students reaching approximately 200 words This vocabulary knowledge is significantly lower than the 319 medical terms introduced in the first nine units of their textbook, indicating a concerning gap in their medical vocabulary This deficiency may contribute to the fact that nearly 40% of students failed their first ESP term test.
Item Mean Mode SD to pass the term tests at university 4.56 5.00 0.50 to study at higher education 2.24 2.00 0.53 to use it in medical communication 2.27 2.00 0.81 to get scholarships 2.22 2.00 0.93
Note: the total number o f students is 45
1Table 4.3 Students’ responses to ESP learning purposes
Table 4.3 highlights the various purposes for which students learn English for Specific Purposes (ESP), with "passing the term tests at university" being the primary motivation, reflected by a mean score of 4.56 and a mode of 5.00 This emphasis on test performance may stem from the fact that English is a mandatory subject at HMU, where success in all English assessments is essential for eligibility to take the graduation exam However, the challenge arises as nearly 40% of students failed the first term test, raising concerns about whether they can achieve their primary goal, especially given the reported deficiencies in their vocabulary skills as indicated in Table 4.2.
4.1.1.3 Students' evaluation o f ESP vocabulary teaching
This part deals with students’ evaluation o f the frequency o f vocabulary practice activities and their usefulness in ESP vocabulary teaching.