Rationale of the study
English plays a crucial role in various fields, particularly in economics, which has been significantly impacted by globalization As the world economy rapidly develops, countries must unify their economic practices, starting with a common language for trade English stands out as the preferred choice, as the majority of economic news and reports are published in this language For businesses and entrepreneurs to effectively access and understand vital information, proficiency in English is essential Ultimately, greater access to market data, partner insights, and customer feedback leads to increased opportunities for success.
This research highlights the significance of grammatical cohesion and modality in English economics news, which serves as a crucial platform for journalists to convey extensive information through cohesive devices The use of epistemic modality allows writers to express their opinions on economic matters, providing valuable insights for business readers However, the complexity of grammatical cohesion and modality often makes these articles challenging to comprehend Therefore, this study aims to explore the construction of English economic news and the application of these linguistic elements The research utilizes materials from VOA, a globally recognized broadcasting brand known for its reliable information, to enhance the knowledge and experience of businessmen and anyone interested in economics, ultimately aiding their success.
Starting from these issues above, the author chooses the topic ― Some
Discourse Features of English Economics News” to do her research.
Aims of the Study
The aims of the study are:
• Providing some general knowledge and emphasize the important role of grammatical cohesion and epistemic modality in creating textual coherence and various meanings in English Economic News
• Giving and analyzing some statistics and descriptions of grammatical cohesion as well as epistemic modality in newspaper articles
• Studying the reasons leading to the different degrees of fondness in different types of grammatical cohesion and epistemic modality
• Suggesting some implications for students and readers in learning and reading to understand English economics news
To fulfill these above aims, the thesis will answer questions as follow:
- What are Grammatical Cohesion and Epistemic Modality?
- What are grammatical devices and markers of epistemic modality frequently used in economics news reports?
- How to help students and readers to get good results in learning and reading an economics news report ?
Scope of the Study
This paper focuses on analyzing key discourse features in ten English Economics News articles from VOA, specifically examining grammatical cohesion and epistemic modality Due to time and resource constraints, a comprehensive analysis of all discourse features, such as form and function, cohesion, theme, rheme, and register, is not feasible Instead, this study aims to highlight the most significant aspects of the selected texts.
The theoretical foundation for the initial topics is primarily derived from Halliday and Hasan (1976), supplemented by information from textbooks and various online sources, including newspapers These descriptions serve as the framework for our data analysis.
Methods of the Study
To achieve the above-mentioned aims, the following methods are used:
• The descriptive method: after collecting data from newspaper articles relating to the topic, the author carries out to describe and investigate data through the study
• The analytical method: to analyze discourse features of English Economics News by analyzing the frequency of occurences of grammatical cohesion as well as modality in those news.
Design of the Study
The study will consist of three main parts
Part A is Introduction The Introduction discusses the reasons for choosing topic, the aims, objectives, scope, methods and design of the study
Part B of the article encompasses three chapters focusing on the Development of grammatical cohesion and modality Chapter 1, titled "Theoretical Background," introduces essential concepts related to grammatical cohesion and modality Chapter 2, "The Development," offers a practical analysis by examining the frequency of grammatical cohesion and modality in various texts Finally, Chapter 3, "Discussion and Implications," provides valuable insights and recommendations for students and readers to enhance their understanding and skills in reading news reports.
Part C is the Conclusion in which the author summarizes the main points discussed in chapter 1, 2 and 3 of the study Beside that, she also provides some suggestions for further studies
This study ends with References and Appendix
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Discourse versus Text
So far, there has been some confusion in understanding two terms
"discourse" and "text" They are thought as synonyms Therefore, it is time for us to study as well as discover this to have a clearer distinction between them
The term "discourse" encompasses various definitions, particularly in language studies, where it pertains to speech patterns, language usage, dialects, and community-specific acceptable statements Cook (1989) describes discourse as "a stretch of language perceived to be meaningful, unified, and purposive," while Crystal (1992) defines it as "a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence," often forming coherent units like sermons, arguments, jokes, or narratives Nunan further simplifies the understanding of discourse, contributing to its comprehensive definition.
Discourse refers to a connected series of sentences that are perceived as related through shared ideas and their functional roles within the discourse This definition is widely regarded as the most comprehensive and accepted understanding of the concept of discourse.
Text can be defined in various ways, but fundamentally, it consists of sentences According to Brown and Yule (1983), a text is "the verbal record of a communicative act." Crystal adds that "text is often a language unit with a definable communicative function," which can include forms like conversations or posters Furthermore, Halliday and Hasan (1976) emphasize that a text is "a unit of language in use," distinguishing it from grammatical units such as clauses or sentences, and noting that its definition is not based on size.
The term "text" can be understood in various ways, but for the purposes of this paper, we adopt the definition by Halliday and Hasan (1976: 1), which states that "a text is best regarded as a semantic unit: a unit not of form but of meaning."
There is a notable disagreement among writers regarding the meanings of the terms "text" and "discourse." While some use these terms interchangeably, others define discourse as language within its context However, there is a consensus that both text and discourse must be understood in terms of meaning, with coherent texts or discourse being those that create a meaningful whole.
According to Salkie (1995) " the term text refers to any written record of a communicative event, discourse refers to the interpretation of the communicative event in context".
Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis, or discourse studies, is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, spoken, signed language use or any significant semiotic event
Discourse analysis focuses on examining the connection between language and its contextual usage, encompassing the study of various written texts and spoken interactions, ranging from casual conversations to formal speeches.
Cohesion and Coherence
Understanding the difference between cohesion and coherence in writing can often confuse readers To clarify these concepts, we will first present examples and then provide their definitions By examining these examples, readers can gain a broader and clearer understanding of cohesion and coherence in text.
E.g (1): Although it rains heavily, he goes out
B: You're in San Francisco in the summer!
Example (1) is an illustration of cohesion and example (2) is of coherence
The initial sentence is straightforward as it combines two clauses linked by the conjunction "although," highlighting the contrast between different elements.
However, in the second example, there is no formal link between A and B, but the listener can infer that in San Francisco, the weather in the summer also extremely cold
From two above-mentioned examples, we can indicate the difference between cohesion and coherence as follows
Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of wrting together In other words, if a paper is cohesive, it sticks together from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph
Interpreting a text requires various procedures, including understanding its connections and utilizing background knowledge, or schemata This article focuses on the importance of coherence in text comprehension, highlighting how it aids in making sense of the material.
Unlike cohesion, coherence is the feeling that the text makes sense It usually depends on the common shared background knowledge, implication or inference
To make this distinction clear and specified,we take Nunan's opinion
Coherence refers to how well a discourse appears to be connected and unified, rather than consisting of disjointed sentences or phrases In contrast, cohesion involves the formal connections that illustrate the relationships between clauses and sentences within the discourse.
In short, we can summarize the distinction between cohesion and coherence through the following table
- in the text - in the reader's / listener's mind
- grammatical links - the feeling that the text makes sense
- clues signals guide to coherence - the reader has to create coherence
Types of Cohesive Devices
Halliday and Hasan (1976) categorize cohesion into two distinct types: grammatical cohesion, which pertains to the structural aspects of a text, and lexical cohesion, which focuses on the language content.
Grammatical cohesion can be divided into four kinds: reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction
Reference serves as a grammatical cohesion tool within a text, requiring interpretation based on either other sections of the text or the shared experiences of the sender and receiver.
Halliday and Hasan (1976) distinguish between two types of reference: situational reference, which identifies a thing within its situational context (exophoric reference), and textual reference, which identifies a thing based on its surrounding text (endophoric reference).
Exophoric reference is crucial in communication as it relies on the shared background and context between the speaker and the listener Understanding the audience, the context, and the purpose of the conversation allows for the inclusion or exclusion of relevant information, ensuring clarity and effectiveness in both speaking and writing.
Yesterday, I went to the capital
Understanding the intended capital in a communication can be challenging for an external receiver, as the reference is not clearly specified This ambiguity may lead to assumptions that the capital could be cities like Hanoi or Paris Therefore, exophoric references rely on a shared context between the sender and receiver of the message, transcending cultural differences.
Endophoric reference pertains to references made within a text, which can be categorized into two types: anaphoric reference and cataphoric reference To illustrate these concepts, we will provide two examples followed by their definitions.
E.g: Last night, I saw a girl in the park She is very beautiful and active (1) They pressed round him in ragged fashion to take their money Andy,
(Graham Swift, The Sweet Shop Owner, Penguin Books Limited, 1983: 13)
The first example is seen as anaphoric reference We can notice that "she" in the second sentence refers back to "a girl" in the first one
However, in the next example, it is difficult to interpret the pronoun "they" unless we read on the second sentence This pattern is known as cataphoric reference
From two examples and analysis above, we can understand the two terms as follows
Anaphoric reference involves looking back in the text to identify its referent, while cataphoric reference requires looking forward Among these two types, anaphoric reference is more frequently used than cataphoric reference.
Halliday and Hasan (1976) categorize referential cohesion into three sub-types: personal, demonstrative, and comparative These cohesive devices allow writers and speakers to effectively refer to individuals and objects throughout a text, enhancing clarity and coherence.
Substitution is a linguistic strategy employed by speakers and writers to prevent the repetitive use of specific words, utilizing grammatical resources to replace these items Halliday and Hasan (1976: 88) define substitution as the act of replacing one item with another, highlighting its role as a cohesive element within the text.
In English, the substitute may function as a noun, a verb or as a clause These correspond to the three types of substitution: nominal, verbal, and clausal
Nominal substitution, as defined by Nguyen Van Sy (2009:9), refers to the replacement of a noun in a preceding sentence with another word or element, typically using terms like "one," "ones," or "the same." This linguistic technique helps to avoid repetition and enhance clarity in writing.
I like to read this short story because the long one would make me bored (Nguyen Van Sy, 2009: 9)
A: I'll have two poached eggs on toast, please
Verbal substitution is do This operates as head of a verbal group and its position is always final in the group
B: Yes, everybody does (does = hates hypocrisy)
Clausal substitution is a significant concept in the study of cohesive devices, as highlighted by Halliday and Hasan (1976) This type of substitution involves the presupposition of an entire clause, with the contrasting element positioned outside the clause.
E.g: Is there going to be an earthquake? - It says so
Here, "so" presupposes the whole clause There is going to be an earthquake and the contrastive environment is provided by "say" which is outside it
Ellipsis can be defined in different ways
Nguyen Hoa in "An introduction to discourse analysis" (2001:26), sees ellipsis as the omission of certain elements from a sentence, allowed by context
The website http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk defines this as follows:
Ellipsis refers to the deliberate omission of one or more words in a sentence, which are deemed unnecessary because they have already been stated This linguistic technique allows the meaning to remain clear even in the absence of these words, contributing to the overall cohesion of the text.
In "Introducing Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers," McCathy defines ellipsis as the omission of grammatical elements that the speaker or writer believes are evident from the context, making their inclusion unnecessary This definition effectively captures the essence of ellipsis in discourse analysis.
However, it appears to us that it is necessary to distinguish between substitution and ellipsis Firstly, both have the relation at the grammatical level (wording), a relation within the text
Ellipsis represents a unique form of substitution known as substitution by zero, where an item is omitted rather than replaced Unlike standard substitution, which involves replacing one item with another of the same word class, ellipsis involves the absence of an item altogether.
E.g: My axe is too blunt I must get a sharper one (Substitution)
Ellipsis is divided into 3 types: nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis
Nominal ellipsis means ellipsis with the nominal group In other words, in nominal ellipsis, " the noun may be obmitted and replaced by deictic, numerative or epithet" (Halliday and Hassan:1976:147)
E.g: The father and the mother were so busy making money that the two children left to their own devices Naturally, both were resentful
In this case, the father and the mother are obmited after the word " both " in terms of deictic element
Verbal ellipsis refers to the omission of verbs in sentences, and it can be categorized into two types: lexical ellipsis and operator ellipsis Lexical ellipsis involves the omission of the lexical verb, while operator ellipsis entails the omission of the subject from the clause These distinctions are crucial for understanding how meaning is conveyed in language.
1 Have you been singing ? - Yes, I have ~ (lexical ellipsis)
2 What is he doing ? - ~ Taking photograph (operator ellipsis)
Clausal ellipsis often occurs in the form of answer to the question In this case, the answer whether yes or no or other response can be considered as substitute
E.g: 1 Can you swim ? - Yes (I can)
2 Don’t tell anyone what you saw! - Yes, I will The omitted part in example (1) is the clause "I can swim".And in (2) is "I will not tell anyone about that"
Modality
The term "modality" encompasses a broad range of meanings According to Van Lam and Dinh Phuong in "Discourse Analysis," it refers not only to the closed class of modal verbs like must, can, will, and may but also includes numerous lexical words—such as nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs—that convey similar meanings This highlights the significance of modality within the grammar of English.
According to Pamper (1986), "modality" is associated with "subject's attitude or opinion about what is said"
Modality refers to a linguistic category that expresses possibility and necessity It plays a crucial role in conveying the speaker's attitude towards the likelihood of an event or the necessity of an action Examples of modality illustrate how language can reflect different degrees of certainty and obligation.
Sandy might be at home (There is a possibility that Sandy is at home)
Sandy must be at home (In all possibilities, Sandy is at home)
Above all, Nguyen Hoa (2004:176) summarizes this term briefly as follow
"Modality is described as the expression of the speaker's attitude or opinion toward the content of proposition"
Modal meanings include degrees of certainty and possibility, permission and obligation
Linguists generally categorize modality into two primary types: deontic and epistemic This thesis specifically examines epistemic modality, which is conveyed through four distinct word forms: verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and nouns.
Deontic modality is a kind of modality having to do with permission and obligation.Unlike epistemic modality, it refers to acts not propositions
Deontic modality can be subdivided into:
(i) possibility (permission): You may leave
(ii) necessity (obligation): You must go
(iii) volition : He won't go
The term "epistemic modality" derived from Greek word meaning
Understanding, as defined by Lyons (1977), pertains to a speaker's belief in the validity of a proposition He categorizes this understanding into two types: (i) the speaker's judgments regarding necessity and possibility, and (ii) evidentiality, which is explicitly expressed through evidentials that provide the basis for the statements made.
Judgment involves necessity or possibility and has two degrees: a "weak" one and a
"strong" one Correlatively, there are two typical representatives: may and must
E.g: Cheryl may be at home (It is possible Cheryl is at home)
Cheryl must be at home (It is necessary that Chery is at home)
Coates (1983) notes that the modal auxiliaries "may" and "must" convey speculative and deductive meanings, reflecting the speaker's uncertainty regarding the truth of the statement These modals are indicative of epistemic possibility, highlighting the degree of confidence the speaker has in the proposition presented.
Aikhenvald (2003,2004) states two broad types of evidential marking:
The first type expresses comment on the extent to which he believes that what he is saying is true It is subdivided into 3 cases:
(i) They express a subject view on the truth of what is said: certainly, surely, undeniably, undoubtfully, unquestionably
E.g: Surely, she is a hard worker
(ii) Markers of degrees of convictions as open to object evidence: clearly, evidently (inevidently), obviously, plainly
E.g: Inevidently, objections will be raised to the promotion of the motor cycle as the saviour environment
(iii) Markers of reality or lack of reality in what is said: actually, officially, technically, theoretically
E.g: Obviously, he is telling lie
The second type involves the speaker's evaluation of the truthfulness of the statement made This evaluation reflects the speaker's attitude but does not necessarily imply that the judgment pertains to the subject of the sentence or the speaker themselves.
E.g: Luckily, he passed the final examination
In the above example, the speaker aims that "It is lucky for him to pass the final examination"
Other markers are annoyingly, curiously, happily, hopefully, surprisingly, etc
Or it can emphasize speaker's attitude toward the subject of the sentence:
E.g: Wisely, Huong did not invite him to her birthday party
Clearly, speaker would like to remark that Huong was wide in doing so Some other markers are: rightly or wrongly
In conclusion, both deontic and epistemic show the speaker's opinion or attitude toward what he or she utters
There are numerous kinds of expression that have modal meanings: verbs, adverbs, adjectives and nouns
Downing and Locke (1992) classify the verbs expressing modality into 4 groups as follow
(i) Lexical verbs: appear, assume, look as if, suggest, think, believe, etc They often occur in subordinate clauses such as: I think/suppose/ believe that , It seems/appears that
E.g: “I think that what China is doing today is no different to other advanced economies, ” Shen said
(quoted in " Global Development Aid from China on the Rise")
(ii) Lexical-modal auxiliaries: able to, about to, bound to, due to, going to, likely to, mean to, certain to, etc
E g: The research also revealed that passive smoking had a large impact on women, killing about 281,000 worldwide This is due to the fact that in many parts of the world, women are at least 50% more likely to be exposed to second-hand smoke than men
(iii) Modal auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, must, will, should, ought to
E.g: It is estimated that over the next 20 years India will buy 1,150 commercial jets valued at $130 billion to cater to the growing demand in the country
(quoted in " Aviation Recovers After Global Economic Downturn ")
(iv) Semi-modals: have to, ought to, had better, be going to, used to
E.g: He has to take responsibility for the accident
Many adverbs show modality meaning such as probably, possibly, surely, hopefully, actually, inevitably, obviously, certainly
Eg: Obviously, that is not her real name
Adjectives that have modality meaning include certain, sure, likely, possible, necessary, etc
E.g: Unless you make it a totally totalitarian society it is impossible to control prices
(cited in " Ethiopia’s Inflation Rate Hits Nearly 15 Percent in December")
Modal nouns express modality meaning include possibility, probability, ability, necessity, likelihood, capability, etc
E.g: "I'm angry with the government, because the government counts on its capability to control price", said Bulcha
(cited in " Ethiopia’s Inflation Rate Hits Nearly 15 Percent in December")
In short, in terms of frequency, verbs, adverbs are considerably more frequent than nouns and adjectives
All these words carry important information about the stance and attitude of the sender to the message; they are concerned with interpersonal meaning, assertion, tentative, commitment, etc.
The concept of a newspaper
A newspaper is a printed periodical designed to provide up-to-date and factual news and information Typically published daily or weekly, newspapers may also have multiple editions each day Their content usually includes a mix of news, opinions, and advertisements, with the editorial section crafted by journalists under the guidance of editors and often supplemented by wire service reports.
In today's rapidly evolving society, the variety of newspaper types has significantly increased, capturing the interest of readers The most prominent and popular formats include daily newspapers, weekly newspapers, international newspapers, and online newspapers, each catering to different informational needs and preferences.
Daily newspapers are published every day, typically excluding Sundays and certain national holidays The Sunday editions are generally larger, featuring additional specialized sections, more advertising inserts, and a higher price.
Weekly newspapers are general news publications released once or twice a week, typically printed on newsprint They generally have smaller circulations compared to daily newspapers and follow a similar format, covering news, sports, obituaries, and more The main emphasis of weekly newspapers is on local news relevant to their specific coverage area.
There is also a small group of newspapers which may be characterized as international newspaper For example, The International Herald Tribune
These international editions are scaled down to remove articles that might not interest the wider range of readers
In today's digital age, online newspapers have gained immense popularity among readers due to their convenience Also referred to as web newspapers, these publications exist on the Internet, either as standalone entities or as digital versions of traditional print newspapers The rise of online newspapers has opened up new opportunities for both publishers and readers, enhancing accessibility to news and information.
1.6.2 General structure of a news report
News reports, commonly found in newspapers, aim to inform readers about current events They follow a specific structure known as the Inverted Pyramid, where the most crucial and engaging information is presented at the beginning, followed by supporting details in order of decreasing importance This format allows readers to grasp the essence of the story even if they stop reading at any point, catering to varying levels of curiosity It provides essential information while also offering additional details for those who wish to delve deeper into the topic.
1 News Reports begin with a catchy HEADLINE
2 The LEAD PARAGRAPH informs the reader of the most important aspects of the story as soon as possible The LEAD PARAGRAPH is often the only part of the story that people read which use the 5Ws rules:
• WHEN (did it take place)
• WHERE (did it take place)
• HOW (did it happen) – only include this if there is space
3 The body of the news report gives more details and provides more information about WHY and HOW of the story
4 The tail contains the less information which is often omitted by the newspaper editor if there is not enough space left in the newspaper.
AN ANALYSIS ON SOME DISCOURSE FEATURES OF
Some Information about the Material Selected
This thesis addresses the pressing issue of English economics news from VOA, highlighting ten key articles that explore critical financial topics such as the global economic downturn, growth trends, inflation rates, credit issues, and global development aid Additionally, these articles provide valuable insights into interest rates and unemployment rates across various countries The accompanying table presents general statistics related to the selected materials.
Total On average Total On average
Table 2.1: General information about the selected material
The data reveals the connection between paragraphs and sentences in discourse, indicating that there is an average of one paragraph for every two sentences This suggests that each paragraph typically contains two sentences Consequently, the purpose of English economic news from VOA is to provide concise and clear information for readers.
Grammatical Cohesive Devices
This article focuses on endophoric references, specifically anaphoric and cataphoric, while excluding exophoric references Our survey reveals that anaphoric references are predominantly used, with 95 occurrences out of a total of 101 references, accounting for 94% This prevalence can be attributed to the fact that anaphoric references enhance readers' ability to easily understand and engage with content in newspapers.
Our survey indicates that anaphoric references predominantly refer to individuals rather than objects, with 51 out of 95 occurrences (53.6%) focusing on people This trend can be attributed to the nature of economics news, which often relies on the judgments and analyses of experts and economists, leading to a higher frequency of terms related to individuals compared to those referring to inanimate objects.
During a recent briefing, Foreign Ministry spokesman Hong Lei addressed a question regarding China's potential competition with the World Bank While he did not provide a direct response, he emphasized that China remains committed to offering development aid to other nations.
Hong says as China continues to develop, it will continue to provide development aid to other countries as - in his words - a concrete reflection of China’s contributions to world peace
In the text, the personal pronoun "he" serves as an anaphoric reference to "Foreign Ministry spokesman Hong Lei," while "it" refers back to "China." The possessive adjective "his" indicates possession related to Hong Lei Notably, the text demonstrates a higher frequency of anaphoric references to individuals compared to objects, with three references to people and only one to a thing.
The degree of anaphoric reference to person and thing in the whole material we have just surveyed can be shown in the following table
Total occurrences of anaphoric refering to person and thing
Table 2.2 Frequency rates of anaphoric reference refering to person and thing
Cataphoric reference is another type of reference usually used in English economics news Let take one instance to see it more clearly:
A new initiative in Philadelphia is out to change that The Food Trust,, a nonprofit, is trying to make access to healthier foods easier and profitable
The term "a new initiative" serves as a cataphoric reference, pointing forward in the text to reveal its significance The subsequent sentence clarifies this by asking, "What is the name of the new initiative?" and "What is its role?" This structure emphasizes the importance of understanding the initiative's identity and purpose within the context.
For the use of cataphoric reference, our survey finds about 5.9% (6 occurrences in whole of 101 endophoric references)
The table below will summarize the occurrences of cataphoric and anaphoric reference
Total occurrences of Endophoric reference
Table 2.3 Survey results on anaphoric reference and cataphoric reference
In English economic news, pronouns serve as the most common and preferred reference items for establishing referential cohesion, surpassing other elements like demonstratives (this, that, these, those), the definite article "the," and comparative references (same, equal, similar, such, more, etc.) This article primarily analyzes the sub-types of referential cohesion expressed through pronouns.
In English, a formal link between sentences can be established through the substitution of words such as "so" or "do" for previously mentioned words or phrases Halliday and Hasan (1976) identify three types of substitution: nominal, verbal, and clausal.
Nominal substitution often is realized by the two words one/ones Below are one of the examples containing nominal substitution
Ethiopia already had a significant trade imbalance, with $1.2 billion worth of exports against nearly $7 one in importsin the most recent year
Clearly, "one" is the substitute for the nominal group "billion worth of exports" to avoid the repetition in the sentence
Our survey of ten news articles revealed that the occurrence of this substitution type is limited, with only two instances identified Consequently, it appears that this cohesive device is not widely utilized in economic news reporting.
Verbal substitution involves replacing a verb element with the verbal substitute "do." In our survey, we identified three instances of verbal substitution out of six total occurrences, resulting in a significant 50% prevalence.
GM has regained its footing after emerging from bankruptcy in late 2010 and, for the first time, sold more cars last year in China than it did in the U.S
In the context of language substitution, "did" serves as a replacement for the verb "sold" within a clause Another form of substitution is clausal substitution, which involves replacing a clause with a clausal substitute such as "so" or "not." However, in our research of ten materials, we identified only one instance of this usage This scarcity is attributed to the fact that newspaper articles prioritize specific and clear information, making clausal substitution less favorable in this context.
In short, the use of substitution in English economics news is not very common Its rate of different types of substitution is summarized in the table below
Table 2.4 Survey results on different types of substitution
As mentioned earlier, there are three types of ellipsis: nominal, verbal and clausal In ten economics news, we have found quite many occurrences of them
By nominal ellipsis we mean ellipsis with the nominal group For instance:
Japan has scant natural resources, and ~ is reliant on exports to fuel its economy
Looking at the above example, we have marked the place where the word are omitted or replaced by the symbol ~ The original item replaced is "Japan"
The use of nominal ellipsis to avoid the repetition is an effective and necessary option for writers
Verbal ellipsis is the omission of verb The below example will show us this Toyota sold more than 8.4 million vehicles last year, 28,000 more than General
Motors GM has regained its footing after emerging from bankruptcy in late 2010 and, for the first time, ~ sold more cars last year in China than it did in the U.S
It is clear that the original sentence must be "Toyota has sold more cars " The use of ellipsis makes the sentence shorter and clearer
Clausal ellipsis is commonly found in responses to questions, but our analysis, based on newspaper articles, reveals that these materials consist of formal statements rather than informal dialogues Consequently, readers are unlikely to encounter this type of ellipsis In our survey of ten articles, we found no instances of clausal ellipsis The accompanying table illustrates the prevalence of nominal, verbal, and clausal ellipsis in the analyzed texts.
Table 2.5 The frequent use of nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis
The final type of cohesive relation in grammar is conjunction, which differs from other cohesive elements as it relies on specific meanings rather than directly linking to preceding or following text According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), conjunctive elements express meanings that assume the presence of other discourse components This thesis will explore four categories of conjunction: additive, adversative, causal, and temporal.
In our investigation of 10 news articles related to economic issues, conjunctions were the most frequently used grammatical cohesive devices, with 43 occurrences This represents 27.3% of the total 157 cohesive devices identified The following extract highlights the significant use of conjunctions within the content.
The economy needs to grow at a faster pace to effectively tackle the high unemployment rates, as current growth is not sufficient for a rapid decline in joblessness There is, however, increased confidence in the sustainability of this growth and a reduced risk of falling back into recession Last year, the U.S economy experienced nearly three percent growth, a significant improvement compared to the over two percent contraction in 2009 Despite these gains, the initial GDP figures were slightly below the market's expectations of three-and-a-half percent.
The Dow Jones Industrial Average fell over 150 points at the close on Friday, with analysts attributing the drop primarily to rising oil prices and concerns over unrest in the Middle East.
The frequency of occurrences of grammatical cohesive devices in
From the above analyzed and surveyed results, then we can totalize the frequency of occurrences of cohesive devices in the table below
Number Grammatical Devices English Economics news
Table 2.7 The frequency of occurrences of cohesive devices in English Economics News
A recent survey analyzed the usage of cohesive devices in English Economics News from VOA, revealing that anaphoric references dominate with 60.5% of the total 157 instances Conjunctions followed, making up 27.3% with 43 occurrences, while ellipsis constituted 4.4% of the total.
Cataphoric reference and substitution share the low same proportion which is 3.8%
Grammatical cohesion is essential for establishing structural coherence in a text, as it contributes significantly to the development of complex discourse and ensures overall textual clarity.
Epistemic Modality Manifested in English Economics News
As being discussed earlier, our thesis only investigates one type of modality- epistemic And, we will focus on analyzing it via four typical modality expressions: verbs, adverbs, adjectives, nouns
In types of words expressing modality, verbs rank the first position for its frequent use with 44 occurrences in whole of 57, holding 77.1 %
In 4 types of modal verbs we have surveyed, will is the most frequent use, with 8 occurrences, holding 30.7% in whole of 26 of modal verbs in total
Will denotes a judgment / evaluation made by speaker for something happening in the future based on the concrete situation or evidence Let us examine this by the illustrations below
"There are all the signs that there will be very high growth in passenger traffic,” Kaul said
Here "will" refers to the speaker's attitude of the possibility to have high growth in passenger traffic based on reliable signs at the present
It is estimated that over the next 20 years India will buy 1,150 commercial jets valued at $130 billion to cater to the growing demand in the country
"Would" (formally the past tense form of "will") is used in the same way as
"will" but with stronger degree
Portugal is now negotiating terms of its request for a bailout from European neighbors and would become the third country, after Greece and Ireland, to accept international assistance
This modal verb takes 15.3% (with 4 occurrences) in the whole of 26 occurrences of 4 types of modal verbs in total
"Can" and "could" express the speaker's assessment or forecast regarding the likelihood of a situation occurring in the present The speaker's uncertainty implies that the statement may be true or false, as illustrated in the example.
The country's economy is stagnating, leading to limited financial resources for its citizens, making it difficult for them to afford basic necessities Without effective price controls in place, there is a significant risk that the population may face hunger and food insecurity.
And the same to negative form of them " can not" or "could not"
Bulcha expressed frustration not with retailers or sellers, but with the government, highlighting its reliance on the belief that it can control prices He emphasized that it is impossible for the government to effectively manage price levels.
" The prime minister told reporters he was “not well informed” and could not immediately discuss the downgrade."
We have found that the occurrences of "can" and "could" in respectively are
4 and 3, thus, their average proportion in the total of 26 modal verbs in texts correlatively are 15.3% and 11.5% Similarly, "can not" holds 3.8%(1 occurrences) and "could not" holds 11.5% (3 occurrences)
It is impossible for us to find any occurrence of shall and ought to in ten news articles
For should, in terms of meaning, they are equal to "would" or "might" that conveys logical necessity to do something In other word, it is the logical obligation
Eg: Economists say the gains should help alleviate concerns about the threat of another recession
Or more explicit in this example
Government intervention in price control is crucial to prevent rampant price increases in a free economy Without such measures, consumers struggle to afford basic goods, leading to a scarcity of available products and significant economic disparities.
Economists emphasize the need for effective strategies to mitigate concerns about a potential recession, while Shenkut underscores the government's critical role in regulating prices Both perspectives highlight the importance of proactive measures to ensure economic stability.
The modal verb "might" is utilized to discuss the theoretical or factual possibility of future actions or events However, in our analysis, its occurrence is quite limited, appearing only once, which represents just 3.8% of the total usage This suggests that "might" is not frequently employed by journalists to convey modality in news articles compared to other modal verbs For a clearer understanding, consider the following example.
E.g: There are more than 89,000 corner stores in the United States Most are small, locally-owned shops, and in poorer city neighborhoods, they might be the only general store for blocks around
To sum up, the occurrences of modal verbs in ten economics news will be presented by the below table
Type Will Would Can Can not Could Could not Should Might Total
Table 2.8 The frequency of occurrence of epistemic modality seen from types of modal verbs
In our survey of ten news articles, we identified a variety of lexical verbs with modal meanings, including suppose, think, believe, suggest, expect, warn, estimate, expose, and surprise The majority of these verbs are utilized in the active voice, while a smaller portion appears in the passive voice.
Among them," think" is used most It occurs 5 times in total of 14 occurrences of lexical verbs, taking 35.7%
E.g: But I think there's much more confidence now that it's sustainable, much more confidence that we're able to avoid the risk of slipping back into recession," he said
Think in the above example has similar meaning to verbs suppose, suggest or believe All show individual speaker's stance to object said
And the same as the below one that is presented in the passive voice
The minister says there are no reliable estimates of money illegally funneled overseas, but it is thought to be between $500 billion and $1.4 trillion (=It is believed/ said/considered that ")
The verb "warn" conveys a heightened sense of urgency and importance compared to other lexical verbs For instance, the Nikkei business newspaper emphasized that Mr Kan's government must present a clear plan for tax and social reform to prevent a potential disaster that could destabilize financial markets.
Adverbs take 10.5% among the four In general, most of these adverbs are
"personal modality" They are used to express:
E.g: "Our growth is metro-based growth…regional growth is yet to come,” he added “Regional growth is essentially when Tier 3 towns start using aircrafts and airlines start going there."
- The speaker's attitude toward the issue he mentions: hopefully, particularly
E.g: Kevin Flanagan, a financial analyst at Morgan Stanley, said "I think we have changed the conversation now to a more sustainable recovery and hopefully now that moves into expansion."
Here, the speaker is expressing his opinion about one financial conversation
The position of adverbs is very various but in our thesis they mostly are placed in the middle of utterances
Besides, we also find one case of adverbs of time but denotes the modality meaning, it is often as in the sentence following
E.g: Some development experts have said that Chinese loans and grants often are not tracked to prevent corruption or do little to reduce poverty
" Often" here means something that does not happen regularly,i.e, it refers to the frequency of doing something
Adjectives represent a small fraction of the total in the four types analyzed, accounting for approximately 8.7% with only five occurrences Among the epistemic adjectives, "possible" appears most frequently, occurring three times, and reflects the speaker's estimation of the likelihood of an event For example, a speaker stated, "Like any well-intentioned members of society, the government is also keen on uncovering black money and, if possible, repatriating it to the country while simultaneously addressing the loopholes that allow such evasions."
Another adjective also having the modal meaning used in the text is certain
"Certain" itself expresses the certainty of some issues Take one instance to illustrate
E.g: "The eurozone crisis is clearly going to dominate to a certain extent I think the underlying concern is going to be the persistent weakness of [the economic] recovery in the U.S and in Europe - and concerns about overheating in China," said Tilford
It is clear that nouns are rarely used in ten news articles we have surveyed Only 2 cases found in the two following examples
E.g: "I'm not so angry with the retailers, sellers," said Bulcha "I'm angry with the government, because the government counts on its capability to control price
E.g: But he admits the economy needs to grow faster to reduce the nation's high unemployment "You know, it's not a boom It's not an expansion that's going to offer the possibility of a rapid decline in the unemployment rate ", he said
The terms "capability" and "possibility" reflect the speaker's belief in the likelihood of an action regarding the subject discussed For instance, one can assess the government's capability, while the next consideration pertains to the potential decline in unemployment rates.
The below table will summarize how the four types above express the epistemic modality
Type Verbs Adverbs Adjectives Nouns Total Occurrences
Table 2.9 The frequency of occurrence of epistemic modality seen from fours types of word-forms manifested
DISCUSSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Findings and Discussion
When working in discourse analysis, linguists particularly show their interests to two major fields: cohesion and modality
Grammatical cohesion, particularly reference, is a key focus in linguistics, with our thesis revealing that it accounts for 64.3% of the 157 instances of grammatical cohesion found in English economics news from VOA (see Table 2.7, p.30) There are two types of reference: anaphoric and cataphoric, with anaphoric reference being preferred at 60.5%, while cataphoric reference is used only 3.8% of the time (see Table 2.7, p.30) This preference is attributed to the need for clarity and brevity in economics news, prompting journalists to favor anaphoric references Anaphoric references allow readers to easily understand information by looking back in the text, whereas cataphoric references require readers to look ahead for the referent, making comprehension more challenging and time-consuming.
In the analyzed material, conjunctions account for 27.3% of grammatical cohesion, with adversative conjunctions leading at 48.8% Causal, temporal, and additive conjunctions follow, representing 34.8%, 9.3%, and 6.9%, respectively The prevalence of adversative conjunctions is attributed to the diverse viewpoints presented in the ten surveyed economics news articles, where various economic issues are evaluated through the perspectives of both the writers and economists.
Ellipsis accounts for 4.4% of the data, as shown in Table 2.7 (p.30) It comprises three sub-types, with nominal ellipsis being the most prevalent at 57.1% Verbal ellipsis follows with a significant 42.8%, while clausal ellipsis is absent, as indicated in Table 2.5 (p.27).
Substitution only accounts for a very small rate: 3.8% (see Table 2.7,p.30) It is classified into 3 sub-types and we have found that the verbal is used most
(50%), next is nominal (33.3%) and clausal is the last (16.6%) (see Table 2.4,p.26)
This article explores the concept of modality in English economic news, focusing specifically on epistemic modality, which reflects the subject's attitude or opinion regarding the information presented Unlike deontic modality, which pertains to obligation or permission, our analysis is centered solely on epistemic modality to understand how it shapes the interpretation of economic narratives.
Epistemic expressions are conveyed through four word forms: verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and nouns Verbs dominate this category, comprising 77.1%, while adverbs account for 10.5%, adjectives for 8.7%, and nouns for 3.5% (see Table 2.9, p.35) This prevalence of verbs is understandable, as individuals tend to express opinions on economic issues in a concise and clear manner Consequently, rather than using phrases like "It is necessary/possible that ", they prefer modal verbs such as think, believe, expect, suggest, suppose, and doubt to convey their thoughts more efficiently.
The problems
Grammatical cohesion and epistemic modality play significant roles in various aspects of our lives, yet achieving a deep understanding of these concepts in discourse can be challenging for both readers and English learners.
Grammatical cohesion can be challenging for learners due to its various devices, including reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction, each with its own sub-types A common source of confusion lies in distinguishing between different types of reference and conjunctions For instance, learners often struggle to differentiate between "and" as a coordinating conjunction, which links two nouns or other word classes within a sentence, and "and" as an additive conjunction, which adds information and typically appears at the beginning of a new sentence.
Cataphoric reference can complicate the reading experience, particularly in news reports This cohesive device requires readers to invest additional time and effort to grasp the information, as it is not presented upfront Consequently, they must look ahead in the text to uncover the referenced details.
Epistemic modality poses challenges for students and readers in comprehending news reports due to the prevalence of modal verbs and expressions such as "will," "can," "should," "think," "expect," "warn," "wisely," "obviously," and "surely." These terms convey the speaker's opinions regarding issues, possibilities, or necessities, but their similar meanings can lead to confusion, making it difficult for learners to differentiate and apply them correctly.
Some implications for students and readers to get good results in
With the aim to help students and readers to improve these above problems, then we will suggest some implications as follow
To effectively grasp the concepts of the two terms, learners must receive comprehensive theoretical knowledge from their teachers Additionally, regular practice through exercises and real-life application, such as engaging in conversations with friends, is essential for reinforcing their understanding.
To enhance their understanding, readers should explore theories related to grammatical cohesion and modality while also engaging with a wide range of news articles This approach allows them to apply their theoretical knowledge in practical contexts, enriching their reading experience.
To enhance awareness of grammatical cohesion and epistemic modality in understanding English economics news, consider engaging in activities that encourage critical reading and analysis These activities can help learners and readers recognize the significance of cohesive language and the nuances of modality, ultimately improving their comprehension and interpretation of economic articles.
Activity 1 : Analyse the news report using grammatical cohesive devices
India to Step up Economic Growth, but Inflation Remains a Concern
1 India is planning to increase the pace of economic growth in the coming years
2 At a meeting Thursday to set out the future path of the country's economic
3 policy, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh said India will set a target growth rate
4 of nine to 9.5 percent from the year 2012 to 2017
5 After a swift recovery from the global financial slowdown, India’s economy has
6 been growing at a rate of about eight percent in the last two years Companies
7 have posted good profits and employment is growing from strong consumer
8 demand for everything from cars to houses
9 However, economists have warned that high inflation could slow down India's
10 economic momentum, making it difficult to achieve the ambitious target of
11 more than nine percent growth
12 Government advisers admit that stubbornly high inflation poses a challenge
13 Despite efforts to slow rising prices, inflation remained at a higher than
14 forecast nine percent in March
15 The Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission, Montek Singh Ahluwalia,
16 says the government plans to tackle inflation by improving its fiscal balance
17 He says in the coming years, India aims to substantially cut its fiscal deficit,
18 which is presently about five percent
Activity 2 : Read the news report and analyze it in terms of modality
S Korea economy grows at fastest pace in three quarters
1 South Korea's economy grew at a better-than-expected pace in the first three
2 months of the year the latest government data shows The country's gross
3 domestic product (GDP) grew by 4.2% in the first quarter compared with the
4 same period last year The growth was powered by an increase in exports as
6 South Korea is the fourth-largest economy in Asia
7 When compared with the previous three months, GDP expanded 1.4%, the
8 fastest expansion of growth in three quarters
9 Analysts say that the economy is likely to sustain the momentum going forward
10 "Although external uncertainties persist, exports, which lead the South Korean
11 economy, are solid," said Lee Sung-Kwon of Shinhan Investment Corp
12 Mr Lee also said that improving conditions in Korea's key markets, like the
13 United States, have also contributed to growth
14 While booming exports have powered Korea's growth, analysts warn that
15 going forward the sector faces tough challenges
16 They said the disruption in Japan's supply chain may create problems for
18 Japan is working hard to rebuild infrastructure after the widespread damage
19 caused by the earthquake and tsunami last month
20 That has seen some of the biggest manufacturers in Japan suspending or
21 reducing production at their plants, resulting in a shortage of parts and components
22 Analysts say that if the problem is not fixed quickly it could start to hurt
23 production in Korean factories and have a negative impact on the country's growth
24 "Given that our exporters depend heavily on parts imports from Japan, Japan's
25 earthquake may disrupt parts supply and slow exports growth," said Kim
26 Yoon-Gee of Daishin Economic Research Institute
Activity 3 Analyze the following news report in terms of cohesive devices and modality
Bernanke: US Economy Growing Moderately
1 The head of the U.S Central Bank flung the doors of the normally secretive
2 Federal Reserve wide open Wednesday to hold the first of three planned news
3 conferences Fed chief Ben Bernanke fielded questions on a number of
4 economic issues, including record low interest rates and the nation's high
5 unemployment Mil Arcega has more
6 In his first ever news conference, Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke said
7 the U.S economy is recovering at a moderate pace
8 He also announced that the Fed's controversial $600-billion bond-buying
9 program would end in June as planned
10 "Of course, going forward the committee will regularly review the size and
11 composition of its securities holdings in light of incoming information and is
12 prepared to adjust those holdings as needed to meet the Federal Reserve's
14 The bond purchases were intended to bolster the U.S economy by lowering
15 loan rates and encouraging banks to lend more money But critics worried the
16 purchases would feed inflation and lower the value of the dollar
17 Bernanke downplayed inflation risks but acknowledged that the recent spike in
18 gasoline prices is hurting consumers
19 "Our view is that gas prices will not continue to rise at the recent pace and as
20 they stabilize or even come down if the situation stabilizes in the Middle East,
21 that that will provide some relief on the inflation front But we'll have to
22 watch it carefully," he said
23 The Fed also kept a pledge to hold its key interest rates at record lows for an
24 extended period Higher rates would reduce borrowing and dampen consumer
25 spending, but it would also make companies less inclined to boost prices
26 Economists say as long as unemployment remains high, the recovery is likely
27 to stay muted But Bernanke says he's optimistic
28 "While the recovery process looks likely to continue to be a relatively
29 moderate one compared to the depth of the recession, I do think that the pace
30 will pick up over time and I am very confident in the long run that the U.S
31 will return to being the most productive, one of the fastest growing and
32 dynamic economies in the world," said Bernanke
33 In the past, policy decisions made by the Federal Reserve's board members
34 were often shrouded in secrecy or announced weeks later
35 Some analysts see the Fed decision to answer reporter questions directly as a
36 bold move that will allow the nation's top economist to steer discussion on the U.S economy
Recapitulation
This thesis explores English grammatical cohesion as introduced by Halliday and Hasan (1976) and applies their theories to English economics news It also examines epistemic modality through various linguistic perspectives.
The article begins by exploring theoretical concepts related to discourse and text, emphasizing the distinction between cohesion and coherence It presents Halliday and Hasan's four types of grammatical cohesion: reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction Additionally, the author introduces modality, highlighting its two sub-types: deontic and epistemic.
Next, she summarizes some information relating to newspaper and the selected material and the general structure of a news report
To enhance the practicality of the thesis, the author analyzes grammatical cohesion and epistemic modality in ten news articles focused on economic issues The study reveals that reference constitutes the highest proportion of grammatical cohesion at 64.3%, while verbs dominate epistemic modality with a significant rate of 77.1%.
To enhance students' comprehension of key economic terms, the article offers practical activities and insights, enabling readers to effectively engage with and interpret economics news.
Suggestions for Further Studies
This study focuses on the grammatical cohesion and modality found in English economics news The author aims to explore additional areas of cohesion and modality in future research Below are suggested topics for further investigation.
- A discourse analysis on lexical cohesion manifested in some English short stories
Deontic modality is prominently featured in conversations within "Little House on the Prairie," reflecting the characters' obligations and permissions However, it is important to acknowledge that the author's research may have limitations due to constraints related to time, knowledge, and the scope of the study.
Thus, she does hope to have other opportunities to do further studies in order to gain overall knowledge in this field
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I Ten English Economics News Retrieved from VOA
1 Indian Aviation Recovers After Global Economic Downturn
The Indian aviation industry is recovering from previous financial challenges caused by the global economic downturn To accommodate the increasing demand for air travel, domestic airlines in India are anticipated to purchase hundreds of aircraft in the upcoming years.
In 2009, Indian domestic airlines faced a significant 30 percent decline in air passenger traffic, leading them to halt expansion plans and reduce staff salaries Many of these financially struggling carriers sought government assistance to survive the challenging economic climate.
Over the past year, the aviation industry has rebounded from the challenges posed by the global financial crisis With the economy on a trajectory of high growth, airlines are seeing a resurgence in passenger numbers, and domestic carriers are reporting increased profitability.
The first concrete signal that the industry is back on its feet came in early January, when private carrier IndiGo placed a $15 billion order for 180 aircraft with Airbus
It is the largest single order of Airbus planes and is expected to be delivered between 2016 and 2025
Besides IndiGo, other airlines also plan to buy new planes to cope with growing demand
Aviation experts say the orders are an indication of the potential growth of the industry
Sanat Kaul, chairman of the International Foundation for Aviation and Development in India and a former senior official in the aviation ministry, believes that competitive fares will encourage millions of rail passengers to transition to air travel, as low-cost airlines become increasingly attractive.
Kaul emphasized that significant growth in passenger traffic is on the horizon, noting that as individuals become increasingly accustomed to air travel, they will gradually shift away from using railways for longer journeys.
India is projected to purchase 1,150 commercial jets worth $130 billion over the next two decades to meet the increasing demand for air travel By then, approximately 180 million passengers are anticipated to fly each year, highlighting the country's expanding aviation market.
Kaul says the industry could expand hugely if airlines begin operations to smaller, so-called Tier 3 towns
"Our growth is metro-based growth…regional growth is yet to come,‖ he added
―Regional growth is essentially when Tier 3 towns start using aircrafts and airlines start going there."
Around ten years ago, approximately twelve domestic airlines launched operations in India, seizing the opportunity presented by a rapidly growing economy that fostered a significant middle class Prior to this emergence, the aviation industry in India was primarily controlled by state-owned carriers.
2 Toyota Edges General Motors as World's Largest Automaker
For the third straight year, Japan's Toyota was the world's biggest automaker in
2010, edging out General Motors, the resurgent American manufacturer
In the past year, Toyota achieved sales of over 8.4 million vehicles, surpassing General Motors by 28,000 units After recovering from bankruptcy in late 2010, GM successfully increased its sales, notably selling more cars in China than in the U.S for the first time In 2009, Toyota had a significant lead over GM, selling 330,000 more vehicles worldwide.
Toyota experienced an overall sales increase of eight percent last year; however, its U.S car sales saw a slight decline due to a global recall affecting 8.5 million vehicles linked to safety and manufacturing issues.
Analysts in the auto manufacturing industry predict that General Motors (GM) may overtake Toyota as the largest automaker globally in 2011, driven primarily by GM's strong performance in the Chinese market and supported by the gradual recovery of the U.S economy.
China has been the world's largest automotive market for the last two years General Motors sold more than 2.3 million vehicles in China last year compared to just 846,000 for Toyota
3 Ethiopia’s Inflation Rate Hits Nearly 15 Percent in December
In December, Ethiopia experienced a significant annual inflation rate of 14.5 percent, driven largely by sharp rises in food prices after a currency devaluation To alleviate consumer pressure, the government has implemented new price controls.
Ethiopia's Central Statistical Agency reported a significant rise in inflation, increasing from 10.2% in November to 14.5% in December The agency noted that non-food items saw a surge of nearly 23%, while food prices experienced an increase of almost 9%.
In September, the Ethiopian government devalued the birr by 17 percent against the dollar, leading to a notable increase in the cost of imported goods This devaluation exacerbates the country's existing trade imbalance, which saw exports valued at $1.2 billion compared to nearly $7 billion in imports in the latest fiscal year.
Last week, the government announced price controls on more than a dozen essential consumer goods as costs on food skyrocketed