Contexte socio-historique et littérature vietnamienne à l’époque
Les causes de la conquờte franỗaise du Vietnam
In the mid-19th century, the Nguyen kings, wary of foreign ambitions, sought to limit relations between the Kingdom of Annam and Western countries to curb the activities of Western missionaries and merchants.
In the first half of the 20th century, diplomatic relations significantly declined compared to the 17th and 18th centuries when Dutch, British, and French trading posts operated freely in several Vietnamese cities During this time, Western governments, particularly France, sought to establish relations with the Kingdom of Annam Following political stabilization in Europe, the French government attempted to engage the Nguyen dynasty to promote trade However, instead of granting France trading privileges, the court of Hue rejected all such requests After unsuccessful attempts to secure agreements in 1817, 1822, and 1831, the French government was forced to abandon its efforts to establish diplomatic relations with Vietnam.
In 1833, King Minh Mang of Annam enacted a law prohibiting Christianity, leading to intensified repression of Christians This prompted public demand in France for military intervention in Vietnam to promote Christianity In response to the arrest of Bishop Lefèbre, Colonel General Cécile dispatched two warships to Đà Nẵng to secure the clergy's freedom, but King Thiệu Trị ordered the ships to be besieged After a fierce battle, many Vietnamese vessels were sunk, and the king subsequently ordered the execution of Europeans in Vietnam, eliminating any chance for reconciliation From 1844, amid the Opium War, France sought to establish a military base in East Asia, recognizing the growing European influence in the region Consequently, between 1848 and 1860, hundreds of missionaries, including ten Europeans, were executed, and tens of thousands of Christians faced massacre or exile The strong conservative and Catholic influence compelled Napoleon III to advocate for Christian rights in China and Vietnam while also seeking markets for France's burgeoning industrial products This military intervention aimed to restore confidence in the army and bolster national pride, leading to the formation of the Cochinchina Commission and the decision to occupy three major Vietnamese ports: Đà Nẵng, Saigon, and others for trade.
Ke Cho's occupation would benefit France in various aspects, including intellectual, political, and commercial domains On September 1, 1858, the French army launched an attack on Da Nang, supported by an infantry unit led by Spanish Colonel Lanzarote.
1 H CORDIER, La France et la Cochinchine 1852-1858 : la mission du Catinat à Tourane T’oung-Pao, 1906, p
2 Nguyễn Thế Anh, Việt Nam dưới thời Phỏp đụ hộ [Le Vietnam sous la domination franỗaise], Saigon : Lửa thiêng 1970 (Trung tâm sản xuất học liệu, 1974, 2 e éd ; Văn học, 2008, 3 e éd.), p 22
Le 31 aỏt 1874, un nouveau traité fut signé entre la cour de Huê et le gouvernement franỗais Son contenu visait à rộsoudre quatre problốmes liộs au territoire, à la diplomatie, au commerce et à la religion
Sur les questions territoriales, le Vietnam confirma l’occupation franỗaise en Cochinchine Cela a aidé la France à atteindre ses objectifs politiques
Concernant la diplomatie, la France s’engagea à garantir l’intégrité des États de
S M le Roi d’Annam D’un côté, le Vietnam promit d’adopter une politique étrangère cohộrente avec la diplomatie franỗaise : le Vietnam ne put communiquer diplomatiquement avec les Puissances étrangères uniquement par l’intermédiaire de la France De l’autre côté, la France fournit une assistance technique en envoyant des experts et des ingénieurs au Vietnam En outre, elle équipa l’armée vietnamien de cinq navires de guerre, de cent canons et de mille fusils afin d’aider le Vietnam à renforcer sa puissance militaire Dans le même ordre d’idées, les soldats vietnamiens furent formộs par des officiers franỗais À propos du commerce, des marchands étrangers eurent le droit d’ouvrir des factoreries dans les ports de Hanoi, de Thi Nai (Qui Nhơn) et de Ninh Hai (Hai Phong)
De ce fait, le Vietnam put mettre en place le libre-échange
Foreign missionaries were granted the right to preach in Vietnam, allowing Christians to hold administrative positions Moreover, members of the Church in Vietnam enjoyed the freedom to move about and own property.
1.2 Le protectorat franỗais sur le Tonkin et l’Annam
In the years following the treaty's signing, the court in Huê sought to evade its provisions Consequently, the Société de Géographie Commerciale de Paris convened to propose measures aimed at ensuring the treaty's implementation Simultaneously, the publication of two significant documents was initiated to support this effort.
In the context of French colonialism, public opinion in France began to support the idea of a permanent occupation of Tonkin, driven by accounts from authors like Jean Dupuis and Romanet du Caillaud French commercial interests, particularly from ports like Marseille and Bordeaux, advocated for government intervention to expand markets in East Asia This enthusiasm for imperial expansion was fueled by concerns over security threats posed by irregular Chinese soldiers, notably the Black Flags, in Indochina In response, French naval minister Admiral Jauréguiberry proposed deploying a contingent of six thousand soldiers to establish a protectorate in Tonkin; however, this plan was ultimately sidelined due to the government's focus on issues in Egypt and Tunisia.
Until early 1882, France permitted Le Myre de Vilers, the governor of Cochinchina, to send an army led by Captain Henri Rivière to Tonkin to secure the commercial activities of French merchants However, upon arriving in Hanoi, the military mandarin Hoang Dieu refused to allow French troops entry Consequently, Henri decided to seize the citadel of Hanoi, surprising not only the court of Huế but also Le Myre de Vilers, who was angered despite needing to support the action Even the French resident superior in Huế expressed dissatisfaction, stating that an attack had occurred.
Annamites en violation du droit, et quand les gens, revenus de leur surprise, se sont dộfendus, on a criộ à l’assassin ằ 8
Conscient qu’il était difficile de s’entendre, le tribunal de Huê décida de demander l’aide de l’empire Qing En Septembre 1881, la Chine annonỗa qu’elle rejetait
In 1880, Jean Dupuis published "The Conquest of Tonkin by Twenty-Seven Frenchmen Commanded by Jean Dupuis," which includes his portrait, an autobiography, and a map he created This work provides a detailed account of his experiences and insights during the French campaign in Tonkin, reflecting the historical context of French colonial expansion in the region.
5 Romanet Du Caillaud, Histoire de L’intervention franỗaise au Tonkin, Paris, 1880
6 Nguyễn Thế Anh, Việt Nam dưới thời Phỏp đụ hộ [Le Vietnam sous la domination franỗaise], Saigon : Lửa thiêng 1970 (Trung tâm sản xuất học liệu, 1974, 2 e éd ; Văn học, 2008, 3 e éd.), p 87
7 André Masson, La correspondance politique du commandant Rivière au Tonkin (avril 1882-mai 1883), Publiée avec une introduction et des notes par André Mason, Éditions d’Art et d’Histoire, Paris, 1933-1934
8 Charles Gosselin, L’Empire d’Annam, Librairie académique Didier, Paris, 1904, p 179 le traitộ de 1874 et qu’elle n’autorisait pas l’occupation franỗaise du Tonkin À la fin de
In 1882, China deployed troops to the provinces of Băc Ninh and Sơn Tây, but France opposed this intervention in Tonkin, prompting Jauréguiberry to send 700 reinforcements to support Colonel Henri In March 1883, upon learning that the court in Huê intended to cede the port of Hon Gai to the China Merchant's Steam Navigation company for coal exploitation, Henri ordered the capture of Hon Gai to establish a garrison He subsequently issued an ultimatum to the Vietnamese soldiers guarding the Tonkin ramparts, demanding their surrender However, on May 19, 1883, Henri fell into an ambush and was killed by the Black Flags.
After the signing of the Treaty of Hué, the French Parliament expressed its intention to establish a protectorate over Vietnam, approving a proposal by Foreign Minister Challemel-Lacour to allocate 5,500,000 francs for reinforcements and a small fleet in Tonkin The French government sent Jules Harmand, a physician and diplomat, to prepare for the protectorate's implementation and to establish new diplomatic relations The treaty marked the beginning of French control over foreign relations with the Annamite government, granting the French resident general in Huế private audience rights with the Emperor This agreement aimed to transform Vietnam into a French colony However, military officers in Tonkin opposed the treaty and allied with the Qing army to resist French advances, as China perceived the French attempts to control the Red River, linking Hanoi to Yunnan province By spring 1884, bolstered by reinforcements, French troops launched attacks on several northern provinces.
9 Étienne Boudet, Une grande figure coloniale : le médecin de la Marine Harmand (1845-1921), Revue
Vietnam, including its wealthiest regions, faced challenges due to the perceived weakness of its military In response, the Chinese government signed an agreement committing to withdraw all troops from Tonkin and to honor all treaties established between France and Vietnam.
Le 6 juin 1884, le gouvernement franỗais appliqua rộellement le protectorat franỗais sur le royaume d’Annam après que le traité Patenôtre fut signé
1.3 Le point de vue des Franỗais au sujet du protectorat
The organization of the protectorate and the implementation of social and economic measures aimed to protect the interests of French colonists across all regions of influence During this period, French theorists diverged into two main schools of thought regarding the challenges of establishing the protectorate in Vietnam: assimilation and association.
La société vietnamienne de l’époque
The French colonial domination significantly impacted Vietnamese society, leading to various positive and negative changes across administration, justice, and the economy, as well as in the daily lives of the Vietnamese people During this period, the influx of foreigners into Vietnam increased notably, with 400,000 Chinese, thousands of Indians, and 43,000 Europeans, including 30,000 French residents, recorded in 1937 By 1946, this demographic shift continued to evolve.
17 Paul Doumer, L’Indochine franỗaise (Souvenirs), Paris, Vuibert et Nony, ẫditeurs, 63 Boulevard Saint-
18 Levy Roger, L’Indochine et ses traités, Paris, Hartmann, 1947
In his work, Charles Robequain highlights that the Chinese population in Vietnam reached 466,000 individuals, marking a significant increase in foreign presence This surge of foreigners played a crucial role in transforming Vietnamese society during that period.
The French colonial administration in the Annam region was dominated by the resident of Annam and the governors of Tonkin and Cochinchina, all under the authority of the French governor-general of Indochina Vietnamese political and administrative activities were entirely controlled by the French, who held significant powers typically reserved for the president, including the ability to enact new laws and grant amnesty to Vietnamese citizens convicted by local courts Although the Vietnamese king theoretically had the right to reject the governor-general's legislative actions, in practice, he was unable to exercise this power Furthermore, the laws established by the king in Annam proved ineffective.
The Governor-General held financial control over the budget and established a unified direction for customs and financial management in Indochina He was also responsible for internal security and the defense of the Union of Indochina, granting him authority over curfews in urban areas, which were entirely under French control To enhance local administration in villages, the French limited the number of officials in each commune and established councils of notables to collect direct taxes for the central government However, these measures led to increased corruption and sectarianism, which were traditional issues in Vietnamese village activities Additionally, the Governor-General was able to set up criminal commissions in Tonkin and Annam to adjudicate crimes related to security or colonial exploitation committed by the Annamites.
20 Annuaire statistique du Việt Nam 1949-1950, Sai Gon, 1951, p.23
21 Paul Mus, Le destin de l’Union franỗaise De l’Indochine à l’Afrique, Paris, ẫditions du Seuil, 1954, p 317
22 Philippe Devillers, Histoire du Viờt-Nam de 1940 à 1952, Collections Esprit ô Frontiốre Ouverte ằ, Editions du seuil, Paris, 1952, p 35
23 Roger Pinto, Aspects de l’ộvolution gouvernementale de l’Indochine Franỗaise, Saigon, S.I.L.I, Paris,
24 Paul Isoart, Le phénomène national vietnamien De l’indépendance unitaire à l’indépendance fractionnée, Paris, Lib Gle de Droit et de Jurisprudence, 1961, p 193
In Tonkin and Annam, the People's Representative Chamber was established, yet it functioned solely in an advisory capacity Its sessions were heavily monitored by the protectorate government, prohibiting discussions on political matters, restricting the publication of debate content in the press, and limiting the duration of the sessions.
2.2 La situation du système judiciaire vietnamien à cette période
With the establishment of a civil government, numerous judicial reforms were implemented in Vietnam Annamite mandarins were replaced by French administrators, and French penal law became the foundation of Vietnam's legal system until it was revised to better suit local conditions.
In 1912, French civil law was implemented by Annamite courts, resulting in a chaotic legal status in Tonkin and Annam This turmoil stemmed from the conflict between traditional laws and French legal codes.
The French government faced challenges in establishing appropriate laws for the new conditions in Indochina, as the existing Nguyen dynasty laws were inadequate and French laws were not suited to local circumstances Consequently, organic decrees regarding indigenous labor were enacted and implemented across Indochina Jurisdiction was organized with an appellate court in Hanoi overseeing Laos, Tonkin, and northern Annam, while another court in Saigon managed southern Annam, Cochinchina, and Cambodia Additionally, a supreme court in Saigon had authority over all regions of Indochina The State Council played a crucial role in adjudicating personal rights violations by the colonial government, with ultimate jurisdiction resting with the Courts of Cassation Ultimately, the French maintained complete control over the legal system and its functions.
25 Nguyễn Thế Anh, Việt Nam dưới thời Phỏp đụ hộ [Le Vietnam sous la domination franỗaise], Saigon : Lửa thiêng 1970 (Trung tâm sản xuất học liệu, 1974, 2 e éd ; Văn học, 2008, 3 e éd.), p 134
27 Dennis Duncanson, Government and Revolution in Vietnam, London, Oxford University Press, 1968, XIV, p 95-389
During the French colonial period in Vietnam, the involvement of Vietnamese people in governance was severely restricted Two key institutions, the Gendarmerie and the Directorate of Political Affairs and General Security, were established to support the court system However, their primary role shifted to investigating political matters, ostensibly to safeguard the interests of the French government.
2.3 Le statut social des Vietnamiens de l’époque
According to the country's protection policy, key positions in the administration and general services of Indochina, as well as those in the councils of deputies, were reserved for individuals with citizenship status, specifically the French.
In 1937, there were 2,555 French naturalizations across Vietnam, with three out of five applicants originating from Cochinchina To be recognized as eligible for naturalization, candidates had to demonstrate their assimilation by being adopted by a French family, marrying a French citizen, serving in the French army, or obtaining a certificate from a French high school Additionally, converting to Christianity provided an advantage in the citizenship application process.
The role of Vietnamese individuals in administrative activities was significantly restricted, as they were only able to attain the lowest positions within the French administrative offices These positions included roles such as interpreters, civil service clerks, and secretaries Notably, the number of Vietnamese subordinates increased from 12,200 in 1914.
In 1929, the appointment of mandarins was primarily based on trust rather than ability, leading to a government that favored loyal secretaries and interpreters for these positions French authorities aimed to Europeanize the Vietnamese mandarin framework by assigning these roles to their subordinates In Cochinchina, provincial and district leaders served merely as assistants to the French administrative service, while in Annam, local administration was similarly influenced by French oversight.
29 Dennis Duncanson, Government and Revolution in Vietnam, London, Oxford University Press, 1968, XIV, p
30 Philippe Devillers, Histoire du Viờt-Nam de 1940 à 1952, Collections Esprit ô Frontiốre Ouverte ằ, Editions du seuil, Paris, 1952, p 33
31 Paul Isoart, Le phénomène national vietnamien De l’indépendance unitaire à l’indépendance fractionnée, Paris, Lib Gle de Droit et de Jurisprudence, 1961, p 193
During the French colonial period in Indochina, particularly in Huế, the French superior resident exerted control over the region, leading to a significant loss of power for provincial mandarins in Tonkin, who became entirely dependent on the French administration A discriminatory principle was enforced, preventing any Vietnamese from holding high administrative positions, regardless of their professional qualifications Furthermore, Vietnamese workers, despite performing the same tasks as their French counterparts, received only one-fifth of the salary paid to the French.
2.4 Les transports et les infrastructures de l’époque
Dốs l’exploitation de l’Indochine, les Franỗais eurent l’intention de bõtir une infrastructure de transport moderne Ainsi, le gouverneur gộnộral Paul Doumer lanỗa en
In 1898, a major public works program was initiated, which included the construction of the Saigon-Hanoi-Phnom Penh-Yunnan railway and a line connecting Laos to the sea By 1939, the total length of the railway system reached 2,997 kilometers The completion of the Transindochinese railway not only met the needs of the local population but also facilitated travel for foreign residents This achievement effectively connected Hanoi, Hue, and Saigon, representing the regions of Tonkin, Annam, and Cochinchina, while also providing essential transportation services.
1118000 tonnes de marchandises 35 et créa des emplois pour plus de 20000 ouvriers vietnamiens
Outre le systốme ferroviaire, les Franỗais construisirent un rộseau routier de
23987 kilomètres dont 17500 kilomètres empierrés et 5000 kilomètres asphaltés 36 En
La vie des Vietnamiens à cette période
Acculturation, as defined by Cộcilia Courbot (1999), refers to the phenomena and processes that occur when two distinct cultures meet Alphonse Dupront (1965) emphasizes that acculturation involves the movement of individuals, groups, or societies towards another culture, fostering dialogue, teaching, confrontation, and often conflict This highlights that acculturation is essential for the survival and growth of each culture It occurs through prolonged contact between at least two ethnic groups and leads to significant transformations in both material and spiritual aspects of life.
Acculturation played a significant role in diversifying cultural forms, leading to the emergence of talented artists and writers in fields such as art, music, architecture, and literature, showcased at international exhibitions During French colonial rule, Vietnamese journalism gradually evolved with the establishment of national-language newspapers like Nam Phong (1919), Thanh Nien (1925), and Tieng Dan (1927) The advancement of printing technology enabled the rapid and cost-effective publication of literary works, making reading more popular and fostering a reading culture.
45 Lauriston Sharp, Colonial regimes in Southeast Asia, Far Eastern survey, American Council, Institute of Pacific Relations, feb 1946, p 49
46 Lê Thành Khôi, Le Viêt-nam, histoire et civilisation, Paris, Éditions de Minuit, 1955, p 416
47 Dennis Duncanson, Government and Revolution in Vietnam, London, Oxford University Press, 1968, XIV, p
48 Cécilia Courbot, De l’acculturation aux processus d’acculturation, de l’anthropologie à l’histoire Petite histoire d’un terme connoté, Publications de la Sorbonne, 1999, p 121-129
Alphonse Dupront highlighted that the French brought significant transformations to Vietnam, particularly through the introduction of science This shift encouraged researchers to think critically and revise their approaches, fostering scientific development on new foundations Science not only enriched the arts and music, making them accessible to a global audience, but also provided the Annamites with access to advanced technologies like irrigation systems, electric pumping stations, and chemical fertilizer factories These scientific and technical advancements enabled farmers to cultivate new plant varieties, including rubber trees, with over 1,000 rubber plantations set to operate by 1929.
The extensive network of waterways, railways, and airways transformed Vietnam's infrastructure, establishing it as one of Southeast Asia's most advanced transportation systems in the 20th century Daily life for the Vietnamese improved significantly, with Western foods like cheese, coffee, and ham becoming common in their meals Fashion trends evolved, with Western-style suits and dresses symbolizing elegance and politeness Everyday items such as bicycles, soap, electric torches, and cigarettes gained popularity The emergence of theaters, cinemas, and tea houses flourished, while French architecture set the standard for beauty, leading to rapid home decor developments Consequently, Vietnamese architecture became more intricate, and many rural villages were replaced by European-style cities, reflecting a profound shift in the material culture of Vietnam at the beginning of the 20th century.
Entre l’année 207 avant notre ère et 1945, le Vietnam ne jouit que de 52 ans d’indépendance après avoir passé plus de 1000 ans sous la domination chinoise et 100
50 Pierre Brocecheux et Daniel Hộmery, Indochine, la colonisation ambiguở 1858-1954, ẫd La Dộcouverte,
During the French colonial rule in Vietnam, the Vietnamese culture faced significant challenges as the French imposed their language and customs The French language was mandated in the education system and administrative processes, similar to the earlier influence of Chinese As a result, many Vietnamese began to use French regularly in their professional and daily lives, often adopting French lifestyles in pursuit of better salaries.
In the early 19th century, Vietnamese culture gradually liberated itself from Chinese influence and began to engage with Western cultures, particularly French culture This interaction led to the adaptation of European elements to meet globalization needs, creating a conflict between tradition and modernity Various intermediaries facilitated this acculturation, including international trade, the spread of Christianity, and foreign invasions, resulting in both positive and negative changes in Vietnam A significant milestone was the creation of Quoc Ngu, the national writing system, attributed to Alexandre de Rhodes (1591-1660), who developed a Romanized and phonetic transcription of Vietnamese By the 20th century, this Latinized writing system replaced Chinese characters in many areas, including administration, arts, literature, and education Following the end of colonialism in 1954, Quoc Ngu became the official writing system for government affairs and a subject in public education assessments.
Additionally, it enriched Vietnamese literature by introducing various literary genres, including poetry, novels, journalism, and plays Linguistically, the Annamites expanded the Quoc Ngu script with an unprecedented lexical richness by incorporating French words to express concepts that were previously non-existent in Vietnam.
51 Geoffrey C Gunn, First globalization: The Eurasian Exchange, 1500 to 1800, Rowman & Littlefield, 2003, p
52 Mark W McLeod et Nguyen Thi Dieu, Culture and Customs of Vietnam, Greenwood Publising Group, 2001, p 11
The dissemination of the national language significantly enhanced public access to books and newspapers, fostering a growing demand for reading in the new society This led to the flourishing of cultural commercial activities such as printing, publishing, and journalism Writing emerged as a means of livelihood despite challenges, and the advent of newspapers introduced the Annamites to European and American cultures, bringing new ideologies and perspectives that transformed their traditional beliefs Furthermore, the development of journalism contributed to the refinement of the national language, enhancing its grammar and vocabulary, thus allowing it to articulate concepts in science and philosophy Translations of literary works from French and Chinese were widely published, while the introduction of Western musical instruments like the guitar and violin enriched the Vietnamese music industry French education provided new knowledge and perspectives to both teachers and students, encouraging learners to express personal opinions rather than solely accepting traditional teachings The intellectual class of this period exemplified the cultural assimilation of French influences, which also impacted the lifestyle, behaviors, and culinary preferences of Vietnamese youth to this day.
The presence of foreign residents, particularly the French, in the Vietnamese community fostered cultural exchanges that allowed locals to adopt customs and lifestyles from some of the world's greatest cultures This interaction led to a gradual transformation in the thoughts and behaviors of the Annamites, as communication between French and Vietnamese officials, foreign and local bourgeoisie, and educators and students motivated a positive shift in ideologies By gaining a deeper understanding of Western culture, the Vietnamese developed analytical thinking, enabling them to view issues dialectically and select the best values from the French Democratic Republic while preserving their traditional culture This shift also allowed individuals greater freedom in personal choices, such as marriage, breaking away from the constraints of parental selection The awareness of a more advanced civilization spurred cultural innovation among the Annamites Following a millennium of Chinese domination, the French colonial period introduced significant positive changes, including the recognition of individual rights Previously, the monarchy held absolute power, and customs overshadowed laws, leaving subjects without a voice The Vietnamese of this era began to challenge the ills of the old regime, inspired by Western ideals of equality and freedom, which helped them recognize their own human values The blend of individualism and democracy propelled Vietnamese culture onto the global stage.
La littérature vietnamienne de l’époque
By warmly embracing the values of French literature, Vietnamese literature has significantly enriched its form and content Unlike the era of Chinese influence, Vietnamese writers of this period prioritized realism and clarity, steering clear of the antiquated themes of medieval literature As a result, the content of their works expanded beyond strict moral confines.
New literary genres gained popularity, including novels, short stories, reports, and plays Writers' perceptions of literary genres, the content of their works, and their target audiences evolved during this time This transformation in literature was a result of Franco-Vietnamese acculturation.
The Vietnamese encountered the French language as early as 1865 Following the emergence of Quoc Ngu, the modern Vietnamese script, they gradually adopted punctuation, sentence structures, spelling, and writing styles prevalent in French literary works This evolution of prose was reflected in articles and translations published in newspapers such as Gia Dinh Bao and Mong Co, as well as in various literary creations.
The history of Vietnamese literature saw significant contributions from renowned translators like Nguyen Van Vinh and Phan Ke Binh, enhancing the Vietnamese language by 1930, enabling it to meet the demands of new genres such as novels and essays The rapid development of the Vietnamese press, spurred by modern printing technology, began with the publication of Gia Dinh Bao in 1865, marking a pivotal advancement for both literature and Annamite ideology The press emerged as an independent power, influencing public opinion and serving as a vital means of communication for disseminating information and educational content, facilitating the learning of the national script The rise of journalism in Vietnam was also influenced by popular French reports, particularly following the release of George Anquetil's "Satan Leads the Ball," which left a notable impact on contemporary Vietnamese literature.
Kon Tum, a notable work by Le Van Hien, explores the themes of imprisonment and societal issues, while Ky nghe lay Tay delves into the European marriage industry Additionally, Vu Trong Phung's Luc xi addresses the challenges of prostitution and venereal diseases, highlighting the complexities of these intertwined social phenomena.
French poetry was highly appreciated by the Vietnamese public during the French colonial period An inventory by Pham Dan Binh reveals that numerous French poems were translated into Vietnamese, including "Les Fables de La Fontaine" translated by Truong Vinh Ky in 1884, Baudelaire's "Recueillement" translated by Pham Quynh in 1917, and Victor Hugo's "Le chant de ceux qui s’en vont sur mer" translated by Tuong Van in 1939 Renowned poets like Edmond Haraucourt and Alfred de Musset inspired Xuan Dieu, who earned the title of "the king of love poems" in Vietnam.
During the early 20th century, the novel and the short story emerged as significant literary genres Notable French novels from this period include "Les Aventures de Télémaque" by Fénelon, "Les Misérables" by Victor Hugo, "Les Trois Mousquetaires" by Alexandre Dumas, and "La Peau du chagrin." These works exemplify the richness of French literature and its evolution during this time.
53 Tri Đăng, Lịch sử báo chí Việt Nam [L’histoire du journalisme vietnamien], Saigon, 1973, p 52
In the late 19th century, Vietnamese literature began to evolve, moving away from the medieval focus on poetry to embrace prose as a means of self-expression and social commentary This shift allowed modern writers to accurately depict the complexities of bourgeois life, including social issues and moral decay, contrasting sharply with the indifference of earlier scholars towards societal realities The publication of Nguyên Trọng Quản's "Thay Lazaro Phien" in 1887 marked a significant milestone in the development of Vietnamese novels French literature greatly influenced Vietnamese authors, leading to adaptations such as Hụ Bieu Chanh's works, which reinterpreted classic French novels During this period, literature served as a critique of the semi-colonial and semi-feudal Vietnamese society, with narratives reflecting the tensions between romanticism and realism, highlighting writers' hopes and aspirations.
The central theme of romantic works generally revolves around the promotion of the self, impossible love, and nostalgia Authors created pieces focused on the powerful emotions of the human heart Additionally, romantic literature played a significant role in the struggle against feudal ethics, aiming to liberate the people and rediscover personal happiness However, romanticism was not always aligned with social life and sometimes encouraged individual extremism During this period in Vietnam, the number of romantic writers increased exponentially, leading to a growing diversity in the content of their literary works.
"The Anesthetic" by Tham Tam explores the fate of women impacted by the horrific practices of Indigenous people, while "Doi Ban" (The Two Friends) by Nhat Linh delves into the conflicts between love and ideals.
At the beginning of the 20th century, social reality became increasingly complex due to the emergence of various issues Consequently, Vietnamese writers of the time often focused on individuals, specific situations, and events within a corrupt society where money gradually assumed a dominant role.
The authors highlighted the suffering, disruption, and injustice within Vietnamese society during its semi-colonial and semi-feudal periods, portraying the populace as victims of the regime Their works focused on describing and analyzing social realities through typical characters and events, often employing a satirical tone From 1930 to 1945, Vietnamese realistic literature experienced its golden age, marked by the emergence of numerous works that explored the fate of the people, such as "So Do" (The
The works "Fabuleux destin de Xuan le Rouquin" and "La prostitution" by Vu Trong Phung, along with "Chi Pheo" by Nam Cao and "L’enfance" by Nguyen Hong, explore significant themes in Vietnamese literature These narratives delve into the complexities of societal issues, character struggles, and the human condition, reflecting the cultural and historical context of their time Each author presents a unique perspective, contributing to the rich tapestry of Vietnamese storytelling and highlighting the challenges faced by individuals in a changing society.
Historically, authors in Vietnam were predominantly feudal intellectuals or Confucianists, who, despite their high social status, focused solely on Chinese scriptures and wisdom literature, limiting their knowledge to Confucian doctrines Their rejection of Western civilization stemmed from viewing it as a product of foreign invaders, resulting in a minimal and undiversified body of literary work However, in the early 20th century, the rise of a national language led to the decline of the Confucian class, giving way to a new generation of intellectuals educated in French schools This new wave of writers aimed to rejuvenate Vietnamese literature by embracing modern French education, initially through translation and journalism, before moving on to novels and short stories that catered to the urban public's entertainment needs Unlike their Confucian predecessors, they emphasized both political and cultural themes, displaying a keen interest in Western literature, especially French works, while promoting a blend of Eastern and Western cultures By the 1930s, Vietnamese literature experienced significant transformation with the emergence of numerous writers familiar with French culture and literature, such as Vu Trong Phung, Nam Cao, Ngo Tat To, and Vu Ngoc Phan, who sought to accurately reflect social realities through their works.
Historically, classical scholars did not create literature for public consumption, indicating a lack of need for an audience In the early 20th century, Confucian poets continued to write, yet their works remained largely unread by the public As Indigenous life modernized, Confucian literature experienced a decline, as the audience sought literary innovations Consequently, writers were compelled to innovate to provide more engaging spiritual nourishment.
Prộsence des traits culturels franỗais dans les deux œuvres La
Vu Trong Phung
Vu Trong Phung (1912-1939) was a prominent journalist and writer in 20th-century Vietnamese literature, born and raised in Hanoi As one of the first Vietnamese teenagers to benefit from the French educational system, he gained extensive knowledge of French culture and literature Renowned for his realistic writing style, he is often referred to as the "Balzac of Vietnam." Today, many of Vu Trong Phung's literary works are included in the curriculum of Vietnamese schools.
He grew up in a poor family, losing his father, an electrician at the Charles Boillot garage, when he was just seven months old, leading to his mother raising him alone After completing primary school, he had to leave his studies to earn a living Thanks to the new educational system implemented by Governor-General Albert Sarraut, he had the opportunity to learn French and Quoc Ngu from a young age, which sparked his fascination with French culture Additionally, he became one of the writers who actively promoted literature in the national language.
His family lived in a cramped attic on Hang Bac Street in the heart of Hanoi, where he witnessed a society intertwined with perversion, debauchery, prostitution, drug use, and violence from a young age Early in his journalism career, he encountered people from all walks of life, including prostitutes, drug addicts, and the bourgeoisie, who later became characters in his literary works He primarily wrote about the realities of Vietnamese society under French colonial rule, offering a unique and expressive perspective.
Throughout his life, he worked tirelessly to support his entire family, yet his earnings were insufficient for their needs Tragically, he passed away from tuberculosis in 1939 at the young age of 27.
En 1930, sa première nouvelle Chong nang len duong a été publiée dans le journal
Ngo Bao gained significant public attention with his first play in 1931 By 1936, his writing career flourished, marked by the release of several realistic and satirical novels, including "Giong to," "So do," "Vo de," and "Lam di."
Vu Trong Phung, known as the "King of Tonkin Reporting," produced several notable reports in the Nhat Tan newspaper, including "Cam bay nguoi" (1933), which addressed the epidemic of gambling addiction; "Ky nghe lay Tay" (1934), focusing on the European marriage industry; "Com thay com co" (1936), which discussed the plight of servants; and "Luc xi" (1937), reflecting on Vietnamese prostitution during the French colonial period According to Peter Zinoman, these literary works collectively highlight significant social issues of the time.
Vu Trong Phung représentent l’une des réalisations personnelles les plus remarquables de la littérature vietnamienne moderne 55
1.3 Son point de vue sur le réalisme
At the beginning of his career, Vu Trong Phung established himself as a realistic author through his early works, which included short stories and plays He actively sought, read, and translated the realistic literary works of Maupassant and Richepin to disseminate the artistic visions and ideas of Western realist writers Drawing from the perspectives of these authors, Phung emphasized the essential elements that he believed were crucial for realistic writers.
According to Vu, a realistic writer must first be an experienced individual Their works should focus on everyday life and ordinary people, depicting these subjects in a vivid and natural manner Through their experiences, realistic writers help readers gain a deeper understanding of social realities and the complexities of mental and psychophysiological activities across all social classes Furthermore, Vu emphasized that realists are obligated to portray the natural sexual life of humans, bringing to light issues such as fornication, deceit, and vices, allowing readers to confront these realities directly.
Peter Zinoman's commentary highlights the significance of Vu Trong Phung's "Dumb Luck" as a pivotal achievement in modern Vietnamese literature In his introduction to the work, published by the University of Michigan Press in 2002, Zinoman argues that realistic literature serves as a means to address and heal human suffering He emphasizes that realistic works must authentically portray all facets of reality, including its harsh and unappealing aspects, reflecting the deep wounds present in Vietnamese society that deserve no concealment.
As a journalist, Vu Trong Phung was direct and practical in his approach, often documenting the harsh realities of life in alleys, brothels, and among con artists He boldly addressed society's most taboo issues in 1930s Vietnam, including sexuality, homosexuality, adultery, and prostitution Unafraid to delve into the darker aspects of society, he investigated the epidemic of gambling addiction, the sex trade, and the European marriage industry.
He argued that realistic literature aims to denounce a morally corrupt, unjust, and anti-progressive society, where the lower classes are exploited, oppressed, impoverished, and corrupted, while the bourgeois class indulges in a life of debauchery He insisted on the importance of educating all individuals from a young age to overcome societal ills and lead fulfilling lives His works, particularly his novels and reports, can be viewed as his weapon in the ongoing struggle for progress, democracy, and social justice.
Résumé des œuvres
"La Prostitution" is a realistic novel that explores Huyen's fate across four key stages of her life: puberty, maturity, marriage, and debauchery This work serves as a cautionary tale about moral decay and highlights the importance of sexual education Throughout the narrative, the author criticizes the hypocrisy and outdated views on marriage and sexual education that have led to the tragic circumstances of the main character.
Huyen is a young girl from a middle-class family whose outdated father dismisses her questions about sexuality, leaving her to learn from inappropriate jokes and conversations among servants As she enters puberty, her sexual curiosity leads her to fall in love with her cousin, but her parents force her to marry Kim, the son of a civil servant After discovering that Kim has syphilis, Huyen expresses her disdain for him and later cheats on him with Tan When Kim finds out about the affair, Huyen seeks help from Tan, who ultimately abandons her, revealing he has other mistresses After learning that Tan is a judge for a beauty contest in Saigon, she attempts to find him with the intention of killing him but lacks the funds to do so By the end of the novel, Huyen admits to leading a dissolute life and becoming a prostitute.
The European marriage industry is a renowned report featuring ten chapters that explore the lives of Vietnamese women working as prostitutes This work highlights the harsh social reality in which women are treated as commodities The author critiques contemporary society, portraying it as corrupt, with the phenomenon of marriage to Europeans emerging as a significant social issue.
Vu Trong Phung, a young journalist, travels to Thi Cau to report on the stigmatized profession of prostitution He encounters various individuals involved in this activity, including European soldiers who served in Vietnam, pimps, concubines of Europeans, mixed-race children, and women who marry Europeans for financial stability This leads him to investigate why marrying Europeans has become a trend and a means for women of that era to earn a living Gradually, he uncovers the answer to his inquiry: has marrying Europeans turned into an industry?
56 Nous traduisons de la parole en vietnamien du personnage Tan ô Lỳc nào anh cũng cú dăm bảy cụ nhõn tỡnh ằ,
Vu Trong Phung, Lam di [La Prostitution], Hanoi, Éd Văn Học, 2017, p 193.
L’influence de la langue franỗaise dans les deux œuvres
According to Deroy (1980:63), borrowing becomes almost a necessity when it comes to naming distinctly foreign concepts Additionally, as Guilbert (1975:89) notes, no culture has developed in isolation from others, whether through wars or economic relations, leading to inevitable linguistic interactions and influences, however minimal Indeed, borrowed terms play an essential role in every language.
Under French colonial rule, Vietnamese vocabulary was significantly influenced by French culture and language A report by Nguyen Quang Tuan and Nguyen Duc Dan in 1992 noted over two thousand French-origin words used in Vietnam Additionally, Dang Thai Minh's 2011 Vietnamese-French Dictionary published in Paris identifies nearly four thousand French-derived words in the Vietnamese language The incorporation of new words from another language into Vietnamese is not straightforward; these borrowings must be adapted to fit Vietnamese linguistic rules Linguistic borrowing can be categorized into four types: lexical borrowing, semantic borrowing, borrowing of morphological traits, and calques.
After analyzing the two works in our corpus, we conclude that lexical borrowing and calques are the most prevalent categories Vietnamese, being an isolating language, cannot incorporate morphological units from other languages Furthermore, the structural differences between French, which is polysyllabic and toneless, and Vietnamese, which is monosyllabic and tonal, significantly limit the occurrence of semantic borrowing in Vietnamese Therefore, we will focus on these aspects.
57 Louis Deroy, L’Emprunt linguistique, Liốge, Presses universitaires de Liốge, coll ô Belles Lettres ằ, 2013, p
58 Louis Guilbert, La créativité lexicale, Paris, Larousse, 1975, p 89 l’ộnumộration et l’analyse d’emprunts lexicaux et de calques franỗais dans les deux œuvres
Lexical borrowing is a process that involves fully adopting both the meaning and form of a foreign word The presence of lexical borrowings in Vietnamese literature is undeniable evidence of the French language's influence on Vietnamese During the French colonial period, the Vietnamese vocabulary was limited, making lexical borrowings a solution for naming concepts lacking Vietnamese terms Given the distinct phonetic systems of French and Vietnamese, the pronunciation of these borrowed words must adapt to Vietnamese phonetics, transforming unfamiliar sounds into those easier for Vietnamese speakers In the novel "La Prostitution," numerous French lexical borrowings underwent graphic and phonetic modifications to integrate into the isolating and unchanging Vietnamese language Even today, many of these borrowed words lack synonyms in Vietnamese, such as "brancard" (băng ca), "dictée" (đích tê), "café" (cà phê), and "champagne" (sâm banh).
The article highlights the Vietnamese translations of various French words, showcasing the linguistic influences present in the language For instance, "Annamite" translates to "An Nam," while "ballet" is rendered as "ba lê." Other examples include "caisse" for "két," "garde" as "gác," and "dame" which translates to "đầm." The word "film" corresponds to "phim," and "manteau" is translated as "măng tô." Additionally, "essence" is referred to as "xăng," and "pique-nique" translates to "pích ních." Other terms such as "facture" become "phắc tuya," "boy" is "bồi," "valise" translates to "va li," and "bière" is expressed as "bia." This demonstrates the rich interplay between French and Vietnamese vocabulary.
The article highlights various French loanwords that have been integrated into the Vietnamese language, as observed in the report "L’Industrie de mariage." Examples include "capitaine" translated as "cập ten," "casquette" as "cát két," and "civil" as "xi vin." Other terms such as "colonial" (cô lô nhần), "sentinelle" (săng ty nền), and "mère" (me) also illustrate this linguistic exchange Additionally, words like "cavalière" (ca va li e), "la garde" (la gát), and "casse-croute" (cát-cút) reflect the influence of French on Vietnamese vocabulary The report further mentions terms related to measurement and food, such as "kilo" (kí lô), "vin" (vang), "beurre" (bơ), and "fromage" (pho mát) Other examples include "commissaire" (viên cẩm), "boxe" (đánh bốc), and "knock-out" (nốc ao), showcasing the diverse adoption of French terminology in various contexts, including military and culinary The integration of these words, such as "gilet" (gi lê) and "gratuit" (ga tuýt), demonstrates the ongoing cultural exchange between French and Vietnamese languages.
In the context of Vietnamese language and culture, various French terms have been adapted and translated, such as "Marseille" which means "mác xây" (Vu, 2018: 72), "maboul" translating to "ma bùn" (Vu, 2018: 74), and "madame" as "bà đầm" (Vu, 2018: 79) Additionally, the word "carte" is represented as "các" (Vu, 2018: 86), while "saucisse" translates to "xúc xích" (Vu, 2018: 91) Other terms include "gendarme," which is referred to as "săng đá" (Vu, 2018: 92), "gare" meaning "ga" (Vu, 2018: 98), and "autocar," which is known as "xe ca" (Vu, 2018: 98).
The borrowings highlighted in the two works demonstrate that the French language is deeply rooted in Vietnamese Its significant influence permeated nearly all areas introduced by the French during the colonial period, including gastronomy with terms like "butter" (bơ), "sausage" (xúc xích), and "cheese" (pho mát); beverages such as "beer" (bia), "champagne" (sâm banh), and "wine" (vang); clothing items like "shirt" (sơ mi), "vest" (di lê), and "coat" (măng tô); as well as everyday objects including "spoon" (cùi dìa), "card" (các), and "cap" (cát két), among many others.
Under French colonial rule, nearly all French loanwords mentioned earlier lacked synonyms in Vietnamese Consequently, the Vietnamese of that era regarded these Vietnamese-ized borrowings as integral to their vocabulary At times, they retained the original French terms to express specific concepts For instance, in "La Prostitution," the term "ô Psychộ" in excerpt 1 is used by the Vietnamese as an adjective.
Một chiếc gương kiểu Psyché…[…] (Vu, 2017 : 26)
[Un miroir de style Psyché…]
According to the National Center for Textual and Lexical Resources (CNRTL), the term "Psyché" refers to a large, mobile mirror that pivots on two supports or within a frame In the novel, the character refers to it as "a Psyché-style mirror" instead of simply "a Psyché." While both phrases convey the same meaning, using "Psyché" as an adjective to describe the mirror indicates that this type of mirror was not present in Vietnam at that time In other words, it represents a new object introduced to Vietnam by the French.
To highlight Huyen's intelligence, Quy employs the term "Prix d'honneur," as noted in excerpt 2 According to Van Hoc Editions (2017: 35), the "Prix d'honneur" is an award for top students Rather than translating this phrase into Vietnamese, the character uses it as a standard Vietnamese term, illustrating the influence of the French educational system on the Vietnamese language Furthermore, this usage reflects the author's esteem for Huyen's character and morality Indeed, during that era, achieving academic excellence within the new French educational regime was a significant challenge.
[…] Năm nay nàng chiếm bảng Prix d’honneur ! (Vu, 2017 : 35)
[Cette année, elle obtenait le Prix d’honneur !]
In addition to terms with no Vietnamese synonyms, we discovered several borrowed words from French that have long-held meanings in Vietnam and remain widely used in Vietnamese society This includes terms such as "ô mẻ ằ" (meaning "grandmother" in French) and "ô sắm ằ," which reflect the cultural integration of French vocabulary within the Vietnamese language.
In 2017, various Vietnamese terms were identified as phonetic transcriptions of their French equivalents, such as "ô chambre" (room), "ô Monsieur" (Mister), "ô bà đầm" (Madam), "ô ga tuýt" (free), and "ô đốc tờ" (doctor) The term "ô mốre" has numerous Vietnamese equivalents, including "mỏ," "bu," "u," "bầm," "đẻ," "mế," "cỏi," "mẫu," and "vú," reflecting regional accents across Vietnam Similarly, "ô chambre," "ô Monsieur," and "ô gratuit" also have Vietnamese synonyms, such as "buồng" or "phòng" for room, and "ông," "quý ông," or "ngài" for Mister.
During the colonial period, the Vietnamese extensively adopted French loanwords, often opting for these terms over existing Vietnamese synonyms due to cultural influence This shift in language usage was evident in the common adoption of terms like "Monsieur" and "Madame" to refer to both French individuals and Vietnamese who embraced French customs Additionally, new terms emerged, such as "đầm lai" to describe a mixed-race woman and "đầm ta" for a Vietnamese woman married to a foreigner, reflecting the blending of cultures and the impact of French presence in Vietnam.
The term "ô docteur" (đốc tờ) is particularly notable, as it emerged alongside traditional Vietnamese medical terms like "bác sĩ," "thầy thuốc," and "lương y," which referred to Eastern physicians practicing traditional Chinese medicine Unlike these terms, "ô docteur" signifies a practitioner of Western medicine who has attained the title of doctor, according to the mobile Larousse dictionary This distinction highlights the shift in medical practices and technologies introduced by the French in Vietnam, marking a significant evolution in the country's healthcare landscape.
L’influence franỗaise sur les personnages
The characters in both works represent various classes of Vietnamese society under French colonial rule, serving as living witnesses to the introduction of French culture in Vietnam Understanding the author's intentions necessitates an analysis of the French influence on these characters, particularly through their traits, behaviors, and habits It is essential to highlight their ideologies, which are significantly shaped by French civilization To provide a well-structured analysis, we will clarify each case with brief quotes from both works Finally, a comparison will be made to identify the similarities and differences in character construction across Vu Trong Phung's two works.
The changes introduced by the French significantly modernized the lifestyle of the Vietnamese during that era The Vietnamese became increasingly aware of their personal needs and sought ways to fulfill them They showed a growing interest in various forms of entertainment, European styles, and fashion, often embracing Western civilization and its artistic and cultural achievements Specifically, in the two works we analyze, four main factors contribute to the French-influenced lifestyle of the Annamites: fashion, gastronomy, entertainment, and journalism.
Fashion plays a crucial role in shaping the modern lifestyle of Vietnamese people The Vietnamese bourgeoisie favored luxurious items that were accessible only to the wealthy, such as Houbigant perfume and Charles IX shoes Additionally, the makeup, clothing, and hairstyles of iconic stars from the 1930s, like Marlene Dietrich and Joan Crawford, became aspirational models for women In the analyzed works, the term "Âu phục" (European-style clothing) is frequently used whenever the author refers to the attire of socially elevated or fashionable characters This expression was coined by the Vietnamese to describe a style previously unfamiliar in Vietnam, typically consisting of a three-piece suit: jacket, vest, shirt, tie, and leather shoes Clearly, this fashion item quickly evolved into a symbol of elegance and politeness, as illustrated by excerpts highlighting the popularity of European clothing.
Bữa trưa hôm nay, tôi thấy ông giáo Qúy với bộ âu phục vải vàng và đôi giày da dầu
[J’ai vu le professeur Quy avec un veston jaune et des chaussures en cuir huilé…]
Paul Sanh mặc bộ âu phục rất sang trọng […] (Vu, 2017 : 94)
[Paul Sanh porte des vêtements à l’européenne somptueux…]
European luxury brands have gained recognition and appreciation in Vietnam, with products like Contax cameras and Mossant hats symbolizing not only Western innovation but also the wealth and modernity of the bourgeois class The introduction of Western fashion significantly transformed both the material and spiritual lives of the Vietnamese On one hand, individuals began to embrace beauty and stay updated with the latest trends; on the other hand, clothing became a crucial element in displaying social status, as only the affluent could afford to keep up with fashion at that time.
French cuisine has significantly influenced the French lifestyle in Vietnam, with an increasing number of French dishes being incorporated into traditional Vietnamese meals The distinct flavors and spices of French gastronomy have gradually blended into Vietnamese eating habits, leading to a transformation in the composition of traditional Vietnamese meals.
No longer reliant on rice, the Vietnamese people gradually began to incorporate bread and milk into their diets The author satirically highlighted this shift by depicting a meal of two slices of bread and a can of Madame Cam's butter in excerpt 5 from the report "The European Marriage Industry."
Bơ với pho mát đã vượt trùng dương qua đây, đã chinh phục được nhiều kẻ thù ở đủ các giai cấp (Vu, 2018 : 42)
[Le beurre et le fromage qui avaient traversé l’océan, ont conquis de nombreux ennemis de toutes les classes.]
French cuisine has increasingly been valued for its flavors and convenience, offering a time-saving alternative to traditional Vietnamese dishes that require extensive preparation While French foods may not completely alter the taste or core composition of Vietnamese meals, they have gained appreciation for their nutritional value and diversity Additionally, the influence of French hospitality has transformed how Vietnamese people entertain guests, shifting from serving traditional Chinese tea to offering coffee, cigarettes, or sweets as a sign of welcome This shift highlights the Europeanization of social customs among the upper class during that period, as reflected in the author's use of elegant terms like "superfine Western candies" in his works.
The introduction of British cigarettes and Camel cigarettes in Vietnam, as noted by Vu (2017), highlights the influence of French culture on Vietnamese society These new products emerged only after the arrival of the French, indicating a significant shift in dietary habits and the mindset of the Vietnamese people during that period.
The introduction of new forms of entertainment, such as dance, horse racing, and sports betting, significantly impacted the lifestyle of Vietnamese people during that era In Vu Trong Phung's works, readers can easily observe the rapid emergence of dance halls and racecourses The influence of these leisure activities was profound, with Vietnamese women mastering waltzes and men becoming well-versed in the terminology and slang associated with horse racing bets, such as "Prix de l’Abbaye de Longchamp," "Double événement," "Triple événement," and "Pari-mutuel."
2017 : 148) Les noms des chevaux en compétition ne sont pas vietnamisés, mais sont conservộs tels qu’ils ont ộtộ donnộs par les Franỗais : ô Pộgasec ằ, ô Orchidộe ằ (Vu,
2017 : 148), ô Clộopõtre ằ, ô Orion ằ, ô Reine ằ, ô Margot ằ, ô Pacifique ằ, ô Limier ằ (Vu, 2017 : 150) Cela montre que les Vietnamiens à l’époque étaient respectueux du franỗais ou du moins qu’ils avaient un niveau moyen de franỗais
In addition, another popular form of entertainment has emerged in Vietnam: cinema Western cinema, particularly French films, gained significant popularity in Vietnam during that era The strong influence of cinema is evident in the lives and tastes of both the characters and the author When discussing the fate of the legionnaires stationed in Tonkin, the author reflects on this impact.
Muốn tưởng tượng ra được những cuộc đời của họ, ta cần phải đã có xem chiếu những phim : Le grand jeu, Je suis un évadé, Le passager … (Vu, 2018 : 14)
To envision their lives, we must turn to films such as "Le Grand Jeu," "Je Suis un Évadé," and "Le Passager." During the time when Vu Trong Phung conducted his report on the European wedding industry in 1934, the French films he referenced—"Le Grand Jeu" (1934), "Je Suis un Évadé" (1932), and "Le Passager" (1928)—had achieved significant popularity in Vietnam.
The comparison of characters in literature to those in films enhances the author's unique writing style and reflects the significant influence of French cinema in Vietnam For instance, in the novel "La Prostitution," Nguyen Luu references the film "Mayerling" (1936), which depicts the doomed love of Archduke Rudolph of Austria for Maria Vetsera, subtly alluding to his own feelings for his cousin.
These forms of entertainment have enabled characters to access the achievements and modern inventions of humanity Furthermore, through their direct effects on the characters in both works, these entertainments also highlight social hierarchy During the French colonial period, activities such as dance classes, horse racing, and cinemas were typically reserved for the middle and upper classes At times, the characters in both works deliberately pursue these pleasures to showcase their modernity or Europeanization.
French journalism has not only laid the foundations for the development of Vietnamese journalism but has also inspired many young journalists, including Vu Trong Phung In his works, Phung frequently draws comparisons between his characters and those featured in famous French reports For instance, in his novel "La Prostitution," he likens a Vietnamese brothel madam to a figure from the renowned report "Les servantes du Démon." He also references popular Western pornographic materials such as "Paris Plaisirs," "Eros," and "Sex appeal," highlighting the nude artworks displayed in a brothel Furthermore, in "L’Industrie de mariage européen," he expresses admiration for French journalists Pierre Scize and Louis Roubaud, known for their impactful reporting As the "king of Tonkin reporting," Phung recognizes the significant influence that newspapers and magazines have on the daily lives of Vietnamese people By comparing Vietnamese realities with their French counterparts, he illustrates the dual nature of French contributions to Vietnam As society evolves, social issues have also diversified; alongside the benefits of new inventions and infrastructure, the influx of pornographic magazines, differing ideologies, and the presence of foreign soldiers have led to social unrest Phung acknowledges that Europeanization has inadvertently introduced negative aspects to Vietnamese society, such as promiscuity, infidelity, drug addiction, and deceit.
The characters in both works are drawn from social backgrounds that the author meticulously depicts It is evident that the French colonial period prompted these characters, or "Annamites," to transform their ideologies, particularly their thoughts, mentalities, and worldviews They gradually broke free from the outdated concepts and customs of feudal society, adopting the modern ideas of Europeans, especially the French Analyzing these changes is essential, as it helps explain the presence of French culture in the ideology of the Vietnamese during that era.
4.2.1 Le concept du ô Tõy ằ (Occidental)
La voix satirique de l’auteur
According to Balzac in the preface of "Les Employés" (1838), realism aims to depict society in its entirety, reflecting life as it truly is Realist works explore the realities of everyday life, including the lower classes, the bourgeoisie, and social ills Sophie Duval and Marc Martinez (2000) argue that satire involves a strong act of enunciation with a nearly performative value, creating a theatrical communication between the author and the audience centered around a specific target Furthermore, Colette Arnould (1996) suggests that satire ignites the smoldering embers of suffering, transforming pain into pleasure.
Among Vietnamese writers of the early 20th century, Vu Trong Phung is recognized as a key figure in satirical realism His writing style aimed to express his perspective on the social realities of Vietnam during that era, focusing on defined criteria such as moral, aesthetic, and cultural values Specifically, in his works "Prostitution" and "The European Marriage Industry," the author vehemently condemned snobbery, moral decay, outdated views on marriage, sexual education, and obsolete social customs.
The arrival of the French undeniably influenced the author's satirical writing While the scientific advancements and new educational system brought advantages, French culture inadvertently fostered negative habits that significantly impacted traditional social and moral values This article explores the effects of French culture on the author's satirical voice through three main aspects: snobbery, moral decay, and outdated concepts.
In his two works, Vu Trong Phung critically examines the issue of Europeanization, recognizing its negative consequences As one of the first Vietnamese to benefit from the French educational system, he acknowledges the role of French civilization as a potential solution for the development of Vietnamese society at the time However, the author maintains a sarcastic and skeptical attitude towards the French lifestyle adopted by Vietnamese people during this period, citing reasons such as the pitfalls of modernization, the blind application of Western ideas, and the snobbery exhibited by a segment of Vietnamese youth.
60 Sophie Duval, La Satire, Paris, Armand Colin, 2000, p 184
61 Colette Arnould, La Satire, une histoire dans l’histoire : Antiquité et France, Moyen Âge – XX e siècle, Paris,
The use of French in conversations among Vietnamese individuals, or between a Vietnamese person and a foreign legionnaire, may come as a surprise to some readers There are two primary reasons for this linguistic choice First, the Vietnamese vocabulary of the time was limited and often inadequate for expressing new concepts Consequently, Vietnamese speakers resorted to French terms to describe realities lacking corresponding words in their native language, such as "Prix d’honneur," "valse," "ballet," and "violon."
In 2017, it was noted that snobbery is evident in the thoughts and words of the characters In "La Prostitution," Kim mechanically pursues a European lifestyle, striving to demonstrate his Europeanization by allowing his wife to spend time with his best friend, Tan Upon witnessing his wife greet Tan in his absence, Kim praises her with a phrase in French.
Tu es devenue très femme du monde ! (Vu, 2017 : 161)
Même quand Tan lui demande d’emmener sa femme en voyage, il était heureux de dire :
Mais avec grand plaisir ! (Vu, 2017 : 162)
In this novel, the protagonist remains oblivious to his wife's infidelity with a friend, highlighting the characters' use of Europeanization theory to deceive themselves Kim speaks French with his wife and bourgeois acquaintances to project an image of modernity, as there is no other reason for two Vietnamese to converse in French Despite his modern facade, he is deeply rooted in the feudal culture that has persisted in Vietnam for centuries He enters into an arranged marriage with Huyen, which occurs just 15 days later without her consent, reflecting a significant conflict between Eastern and Western cultures, or more broadly, between tradition and modernity.
The European wedding industry presents a unique case where conversations occur not among Vietnamese individuals but between foreign legionnaires and their European concubines The use of French by these women is notably peculiar, differing from the portrayals in "La Prostitution." Furthermore, all French dialogue from the report is transcribed into Vietnamese, highlighting the absurdity of how these women employ the French language Below are some examples of French conversations transcribed into Vietnamese by the author.
Toa ba mỏ nhá cút xê ăng co xê moa! Toi kích tê moi sang bảy dề, a lò phi ni phăm, phi nì ma ghi! A lò, kích ! (Vu, 2018 : 28)
According to the phonetic transcriptions and the author's notes, we rewrite this phrase in French: "Oh you, don’t lie down here anymore! You leave me without paying, so end up a woman, end up a husband! So, leave!" These sentences are completely ungrammatical in French, as a woman declares her desire to divorce her husband because this soldier has not provided her with enough money We can observe that this woman mixes French words with a Vietnamese syntactic structure Indeed, conjugation, gender, plural, and singular forms are absent in the Vietnamese language This is why the phrase she utters sounds very strange: she does not conjugate verbs and uses "oh me" and "oh you" instead of "oh I" and "oh you," effectively ignoring the rules of French grammar Similarly, we will list below the incomprehensible words of this woman with a transcription in French.
Nô, se phi ni ! Vắt tăng ! (Vu, 2018 : 28)
Non, c’est fini ! Vas t’en !
Va tăng ! Ê tút-suýt ! (Vu, 2018: 29)
Vas t’en ! Et tout de suite !
Moa, ba bơ toa ! Sí toa phe két sốt, moi điếc com măng đăng phe toa xếp linh ê toa pát sê công sây đờ ghe (Vu, 2018: 29)
Moi, pas peur toi ! Si toi faire quelque chose, moi dire commandant faire toi prison et toi passer conseil de guerre !
Phe vơ nia ba tui ! (Vu, 2018 : 31)
Alo, điếc lúy vơ nia đô nê xanh biệt! La bơ tít đoa bẩy dề pho băng xương ăng co đít dua Xăng qua en đoa đờ lắc kê bua Hanoi buýt cơ y a cảm soóc giăng đơ măng đê xa manh.
Alors dire lui venir donner cinq pièces ! La petite doit payer pension encore dix jours Sans quoi, elle doit déplacer pour Hanoi puisqu’il y a un sergent demander sa main
For French speakers and Vietnamese individuals proficient in the language, the content can be quite challenging to comprehend Throughout the report, we observe this woman and others like her who have chosen to marry as their profession.
In the village of Thi Cau, Europeans have a unique way of speaking French that often includes Vietnamese words, particularly from the concubines of Europeans This blending creates confusion with standard French To better understand the conversations of these women, we analyze them individually in the order they appear in the report, starting with an excerpt that features a dialogue between a legionnaire and a prostitute.
Ma ni-ét Bay dan, dơn, bố cu tốt! Toa vu lòa ê-pu-dê ?
Ma nièce Paysanne, jeune, beaucoup tốt ! Toi vouloir épouser ?
Bay-dan ? Vre ? Đăng nóa ? Phét voa !
Paysanne ? Vrai ? Dent noir ? Faites voir !
Xa và xa và Giơ viêng đe Ô voa com me !
ầa va, ỗa va Je viendrais Au revoir !
Chiêng ! Giăng ! Phô mơ đồ nề vanh biếu cẩm bua bòa ! Xăng qua ba lạp ben rơ vơ nia ! Hánh ?
Tiens ! Jean ! Faut me donner vingt pièce comme pourboire ! Sans quoi, pas rappel revenir ! Hein ?
The market transaction is completed swiftly with 20 coins, and the characters engage in simple conversations using a mixed French language Describing her niece, the speaker exclaims, "ô Bay dan, dơn, bố cu tốt!" which translates to "Oh beautiful, young, very good!" in English She incorporates the Vietnamese word "ô tốt," akin to "ô belle," "ô mignonne," or "ô gentille" in French This peculiar creole emerged as these women, from modest backgrounds, lacked formal education in French and learned the language solely to communicate with Europeans and facilitate arranged marriages Consequently, they struggle with proper French pronunciation The author humorously refers to this variant of French as "Tiếng Tõy giả cầy."
In 2018, the use of a faux French language persisted throughout the report We will highlight the Vietnamese words that these women incorporated into their French sentences in bold.
Bạc đồng me xừ chớ có mà phát xê…
At tăng moa rắc công tê tú sà! (Vu, 2018: 62)
Pardon Monsieur, chớ có mà fâché…
Attendre moi raconter tout ỗa !
Le groupement ô chớ cú mà ằ est l’ộquivalent du ô ne… pas ằ en franỗais Dans cette déclaration, la femme veut dire : Pardon Monsieur, ne soyez pas fâché !
Xê ba ma phốt, nét si bá là một chủ đề thú vị Uây, moa bơ rô mét a vu tú đơ, mê lúy viêng a văng vu ê a lô xe mông ma ghi! Vu dết dơ nê bố cu da lu, moa ba ú lòa! (Vu, 2018: 88)