Indigenous or local breeds make up most of the world’s poultry genetic diversity and play important role in rural economies in most of the developing and underdeveloped countries. However, in Europe, over the last decades, old, locally adapted chicken breeds are suffering dramatic decrease in numbers. In Hungary, 7 native chicken breeds, including the Partridge Coloured Hungarian chicken (PHc), are officially registered and conserved under the Association for Hungarian Farm Animal Gene Conservation (MGE). Most of these stocks are kept by Hungarian academic institutions as in vivo gene banks. Involving Hungarian indigenous poultry breeds such as PHc in sustainable agricultural production is highly recommended by many scientists. The main goals of the research work is to (1) analyse the population data of 14 local Hungarian poultry breeds; (2) investigate the adaptation and conservation potential of PHc in the subtropics; (3) examine the performance of crossbreds of PHc and other chickens (commercial lines, old breeds of either nearby or distant origin); (4) identify the heterosis in the crosses of PHc and other chicken breeds; and (5) determine the quality characteristics of PHc crossbreds that may be valued by modern consumers in terms of overall acceptability.
INTRODUCTION
Data from the State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources and the Domestic Animal Diversity Information System reveals that indigenous and local breeds constitute the majority of global poultry genetic diversity (FAO, 2015), as noted by TIXIER-BOICHARD et al.
Gene flow within local poultry populations continues to occur, leading to both positive outcomes, such as the preservation of local genetic diversity, and negative effects, like the potential replacement of indigenous breeds with hybrids that may lack essential adaptive traits Among poultry species, chickens exhibit the highest variability, and indigenous chickens are crucial to the rural economies of many developing countries In contrast, Europe has seen a significant decline in the numbers of traditional, locally adapted chicken breeds over recent decades, with only a small fraction of these breeds contributing to the development of commercial strains.
Producers aiming to cultivate native chicken genotypes for special poultry production encounter significant challenges, primarily due to the scarcity of published data on their production parameters Additionally, there is a need to incorporate these genotypes into practical use without compromising their unique productivity traits Therefore, implementing conservation programs that emphasize the importance of these native chickens and aim to increase their effective population size is crucial for their sustainability and success.
Hungary is home to seven officially registered native chicken breeds, including the Partridge Coloured Hungarian chicken (PHc), which are preserved by the Hungarian breeding authority and the Association for Hungarian Farm Animal Gene Conservation (MGE) The majority of these breeds are maintained by local farmers and breeders.
Hungarian academic institutions as in vivo gene banks (KOVÁCSNÉ
Involving Hungarian indigenous poultry breeds in sustainable agricultural production is strongly endorsed by researchers, highlighting their significance in conservation efforts While gene banks cannot be directly selected for specific production traits, various studies have explored crossbreeding local breeds with commercial and robust exotic breeds to enhance their viability and productivity.
Breeders can leverage genetic interactions through crossing to harness the genetic variation inherent in different breeds (VAN TIJEN, 1977) This process can reveal phenotypic markers in indigenous breeds that enhance the marketability of final products This dissertation focuses on several key areas: it analyzes the current status of 14 local Hungarian poultry breed populations, investigates the adaptation and conservation potential of PHc in subtropical regions, examines the performance of crossbreds between PHc and various chicken breeds (including commercial lines and traditional breeds), and identifies the heterosis present in these crosses.
(5) determines the quality characteristics of PHc crossbreds that may be valued by modern consumers in terms of overall acceptability
The dissertation is prepared based on the following published/going to be published original research/review papers:
- Lan Phuong, T.N., Dong Xuan, K.D.T and Szalay, I (2015) Traditions and local use of native Vietnamese chicken breeds in
21 sustainable rural farming World’s Poultry Science Journal, 71(02), 385-396 (subchapter 2.4)
In their 2016 study published in European Poultry Science, Szalay et al evaluate the trends in population data, effective population size, and inbreeding rates of old Hungarian poultry breeds from 2000 to 2015 The research highlights the importance of these conservation indices in understanding the genetic health and sustainability of these traditional breeds The findings, discussed in subchapters 3.1, 5.1, and 6.1, emphasize the need for ongoing monitoring and conservation efforts to preserve Hungary's poultry heritage.
- Lan Phuong, T.N., Barta, I., Bódi, L., Dong Xuan, K.D.T., Kovács, J.N Ferencz, T.R and Szalay, I.T (2014) Egg production profiles of seven traditional Hungarian chicken breeds Archiv für Geflügelkunde, 78, Paper 10.1399/eps.2014.69 9 p (subchapter 3.2,
The study by Dong Xuan et al (2017) evaluates both in situ and ex situ conservation strategies for a native Hungarian chicken breed, focusing on its adaptability to subtropical environments The research highlights the breed's potential for sustainable animal production and emphasizes the importance of preserving genetic diversity Key findings suggest that targeted conservation efforts can enhance the breed's resilience and productivity in changing climates, making it a valuable asset for agricultural systems in subtropical regions.
The study by Szalay et al (2017) investigates the conservation of meat-producing traits and the effects of heterosis in crosses between two distinct local Hungarian chicken breeds The research highlights the significance of preserving genetic diversity within poultry populations while enhancing meat production capabilities The findings emphasize the potential benefits of crossbreeding for improving growth rates and overall meat quality, contributing valuable insights to poultry science and conservation efforts.
- Productivity studies and crossbreeding of two geographically distant native chicken breeds for enhanced conservation (subchapter 3.5, 5.5 and 6.5; the paper is under preparation)
- Crossing as a safe and effective way to utilise indigenous Hungarian chicken genetic resources (subchapter 3.6, 5.6 and 6.6; the paper is under preparation)
LITERATURE REVIEW
Hungarian indigenous poultry genetic resources and their potential use in
Understanding the origin and history of poultry genetic resources is crucial for developing sustainable management strategies As of 2014, the Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS) reported 2303 local poultry breeds, alongside 80 regional and 160 international transboundary avian breeds Local chickens, in particular, face the highest risk, with Europe and the Caucasus having the most at-risk breeds (FAO, 2015) Despite their lower productivity, indigenous chickens remain prevalent in rural areas due to their strong mothering instincts, heat tolerance, and resistance to diseases compared to commercial breeds These birds thrive in free-range environments, often serving as a secondary source of income for rural households, and play a significant role in the livelihoods of smallholders (ABDELQADER et al., 2007) They are vital for poultry meat production and consumption, with both rural and urban consumers willing to pay a premium for their meat and eggs over those from commercial sources (PYM et al., 2006; PYM, 2010).
Major historic events of Hungarian poultry conservations programmes are shown in Table 1 After approximately 40 years of execution, the total
24 number of old Hungarian poultry breeds has been increased up to 14 (Table
The establishment of conservation stocks has been enhanced by the registration of color varieties as distinct breeds and the implementation of gene rescue programs These efforts utilize pedigreed offspring from original, institutional, and closed populations to support biodiversity and preserve genetic diversity.
Table 1: Major historic events of Hungarian poultry conservations programmes
1897 The Hungarian Royal Poultry Breeding Farm (HRPBF, predecessor of HáGK) was founded
Early 1930s Major breeding program of old Hungarian poultry breeds started at
1939-1945 Most of breeding stocks were destroyed by World War II
Early 1950s Hungarian poultry breeds were preserved and propagated again in great quantities thanks to Balint Báldy and colleagues (BISZKUP and BEKE, 1951; BÁLDY, 1954)
Early 1960s Hungarian breeds were replaced by foreign hybrids even in small- scale farms
Early 1970s Conservation of local chicken breeds became the task of the
Hungarian Animal Breeding Authority to maintain Hungarian and Transylvanian breeds as gene reserves
In the early 1990s, non-governmental organizations took charge of breed protection programs in response to new animal breeding regulations This shift led to the establishment of new poultry conservation initiatives that utilized existing breeding stocks from the Institute for Small Animal Research (KÁTKI), along with contributions from three agricultural universities located in Mosonmagyaróvár, Debrecen, and Hódmezővásárhely.
In 1998 MGE was appointed as the official breeding organisation for old
Hungarian poultry breeds and responsible for registering as well as supervising the whole breeding programme of the existing old Hungarian poultry stocks
In 2008, the Hungarian Poultry Information System officially registered all poultry breeding stocks, encompassing both those maintained under conservation programs and those regulated by the breeding authority.
From 2010 Special EU subsidy system was elaborated and introduced for all officially registered Hungarian farm animal genetic resources, including poultry
Institutional and individual breeders have been encouraged to take part in the conservation programme for either research or production purposes
From 2012 New gene rescue programmes to collect and conserve old local poultry breeds and ecotypes of the Carpathian Basin have been initiated by KÁTKI
In 2013 Change the name of KÁTKI for HáGK
Old Hungarian chicken breeds are medium-sized, dual-purpose birds, with hens weighing between 2.0 to 2.3 kg and cocks ranging from 2.5 to 3.0 kg Their primary value lies in their fine-fibred, high-quality meat, which is known for its excellent taste Pullets reach market readiness at 8 to 10 weeks of age.
Table 2: List of conserved Hungarian poultry breeds registered in conservation programme (SZALAY, 2015)
Partridge Coloured Hungarian chicken PHc
White Transylvanian Naked Neck chicken WTc
Black Transylvanian Naked Neck chicken BTc
Speckled Transylvanian Naked Neck chicken STc
Hungarian Landrace Guinea Fowl HLgf
Wild Coloured Hungarian Duck WId
Transylvanian naked neck chickens are known for their unique featherless necks and limited plumage, typically laying 140 to 150 eggs per hen annually in colors such as white, yellow, speckled, and partridge Renowned for their hardiness and excellent winter laying capabilities, these chickens trace their lineage back to birds brought to the Carpathian Basin from Asia by Hungarian conquerors in the late 9th century, as noted by WINKLER (1921) and BAKOSS (1931).
The 27 chickens are believed to have originated from the crossbreeding of the "ancient Hungarian" chicken with various breeds, including oriental and Mediterranean types Over centuries, these breeds have adapted to the continental climate, resulting in valuable local varieties found in the Carpathian Basin.
Figure 1 Appearance of male (a) and female (b)
The PHc chicken breed, recognized as the 7th oldest Hungarian breed by KÁTKI in 2004 through a gene rescue program, features distinct physical characteristics It has a yellow or brownish-spotted beak, striking orange-red eyes, and a blood-red comb, face, earlobe, and wattle, while its shank and toes are ivory white or yellow Female PHc chickens exhibit brownish plumage with partridge patterns, whereas males display a striking sexual dimorphism, characterized by golden yellow neck feathers and upper parts, along with an orange-red head.
28 surface colour of breast, belly and thighs, middle part of wings and the main feathers of the tail are black with steel shade (Figure 1).
Ex situ conservation of live Hungarian poultry genetic resources
Conservation programs in developed countries often rely on collaborations among in vitro, in situ conservation, and the animal breeding industry However, solely depending on in vitro and in situ methods is insufficient for ensuring genetic recovery, especially for geographically isolated breeds that risk total loss during localized catastrophes Therefore, establishing ex situ preserved live breeding stocks is essential This involves captive breeding of indigenous poultry outside their natural habitats, allowing for better access, monitoring, and utilization of breeds amid changing agroeconomic conditions Before initiating an ex situ conservation program, it is crucial to define clear objectives regarding gene preservation, adaptability to new environments, and potential impacts on local biodiversity Additionally, the size of the founder flock is vital, as a larger flock enhances genetic variation, allowing it to serve as a nucleus for interaction with other farms or herds in the conservation initiative.
Recommended steps for establishing a live poultry ex situ gene conservation programme can be summarised as follows:
1 Search for suitable habitat and partners
2 Investigate the chosen habitat and its local biodiversity where intended to develop a live poultry ex situ conserved population
3 Begin with an adequately sized nucleus flocks who should be noninbred and fertile They should represent the range of genetic types found within the population
4 Conduct adaptation study of conserved population in the chosen habitat
5 Expand the population to a minimum effective population size and ensure the representation of the founder flocks in each generation
6 Maintain the integrity of nucleus flocks and involve the full utilization of a breed in local practice
Researching the production traits of specific breeds can spark renewed interest and highlight their potential in new environments This process not only identifies the role of conserved breeds in their adapted habitats but also fosters the development of local markets for these breeds A prime example is the guinea fowl, which has seen significant populations outside Africa (ROMANOV et al., 1996; BAEZA et al., 2010; DONG XUAN et al., 2014; SZALAY et al., 2015).
Southeast Asia (SEA) – a potential region for ex situ poultry gene
Southeast Asia (SEA) is home to approximately 10% of the global agricultural population while occupying around 4% of the world's total land area (FAO, 2007b) The region is characterized by its diverse demographics and varying land mass among its countries.
Southeast Asia is characterized by rich biodiversity and a wealth of poultry genetic resources, despite varying GDP per capita, government systems, and religions According to Alders and Pym (2009), domesticated birds were likely introduced to other continents from this region Notably, Southeast Asia is home to 3% of the world's turkey breeds, 5% of chicken and goose breeds, and 14% of duck breeds, with a total of 163 indigenous poultry breeds reported.
Two poultry breeds are critically endangered, while six are classified as endangered, with the status of 90 breeds remaining unknown (FAO, 2007b) This data likely underrepresents the true situation due to insufficient information Southeast Asia (SEA) experiences a tropical climate influenced by monsoons, which creates hot temperatures, high humidity, and consistent rainfall, making it more conducive for poultry production compared to continental climates like Hungary Poultry serves as a major source of animal protein in SEA, driven by low production costs, lifestyle choices, and trade dynamics The region is recognized for its significant potential for livestock development (TANGENDJAJA, 2010) While industrial farming dominates poultry production in SEA, small-scale and family farming have historically played a crucial role and are expected to continue alongside industrial practices This coexistence presents opportunities for indigenous poultry breeds Additionally, the recent Asian economic crisis has prompted some SEA countries to reevaluate the use of traditional breeds alongside commercial varieties (FAO/UNEP, 2000).
Governments and institutions are increasingly implementing policies and conservation programs aimed at enhancing the appreciation of indigenous genetic resources, even with limited financial backing.
2004) With above mentioned encouraging conditions, SEA would be a promising choice for ex situ poultry gene conservation.
Native Vietnamese chicken breeds (e.g Mia chicken) and their
Vietnam, located in Southeast Asia, has a total land area of approximately 33,095 thousand hectares, with around 10,151 thousand hectares dedicated to agricultural production, including both crop and animal farming (GSO, 2013) The country's subtropical monsoon climate, abundant water resources, and extended daylight hours create ideal conditions for agricultural development, particularly in poultry production Historical evidence suggests that multiple domestication events of the Red Jungle Fowl occurred in Vietnam over 7,000 years ago (ELTANANY and DISTL, 2010), and archaeological findings of chicken statues from the Early Bronze and Stone Ages highlight the significance of chickens in Vietnamese civilization (VO, 1978; HIGHAM et al., 2011) Poultry farming reportedly began in the Tam Dao valley and Ba Vi mountains, now part of Vinh Phuc and Ha Noi provinces (DUC and LONG, 2008) The Vietnamese perceive local poultry farming as irreplaceable due to its low investment requirements, short production cycles, and high market value, leading to its establishment as a traditional agricultural practice.
In 2012, Vietnam's poultry meat production reached 724.9 thousand tons, making it the second largest meat category after pork, according to the General Statistic Office of Vietnam Additionally, the country produced an impressive 7,299 million eggs during the same year.
The traditional extensive backyard poultry production system, recognized as a "village farming system" by the Vietnamese Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development in 2006, remains the predominant method of poultry farming in Vietnam, as classified by the FAO in 2004 This system is utilized by 84-85% of rural families in the Northeast and Northwest regions, and by 42-71% of families in the Southeast and Mekong River Delta areas.
In South Vietnam, small-scale poultry farming typically involves flocks of fewer than 50 birds, where farmers frequently sell chickens through informal channels to local markets and urban areas This system, characterized by a continuous flow of birds, sees farmers both selling for self-consumption and introducing new birds into their flocks Despite the prevalence of this practice, many farmers lack precise knowledge of their flock sizes and seldom maintain documentation The expertise in chicken rearing is often inherited across generations Additionally, rural families are increasingly adopting more intensive and market-oriented production methods, which require higher inputs for poultry farming.
BURGOS et al (2007) classified poultry production systems into two main categories: semi-intensive commercial and intensive industrial In the intensive system, birds are specifically bred for rapid growth in confined spaces and are fed a concentrated diet While some products are available in traditional markets, a significant portion is distributed through supermarkets and food companies Additionally, mixed farming systems play a role in this production landscape.
In rural areas, integrated systems such as garden-fish pond-chicken cages (VIET LY, 2004) and crop-chicken production (DEVENDRA, 2007) are prevalent Following the FAO's breed definition from 2007, Vietnamese researchers identified over 30 native chicken breeds, which are categorized by their place of origin and endangered status, as detailed in Table 3 The classifications of “normal,” “vulnerable,” and “extinct” are based on FAO criteria, highlighting the significance of these breeds in village and mixed farming systems.
These systems vary in size and typically demonstrate low performance; however, they require minimal inputs and are well-suited for free-range environments.
Local Vietnamese chicken breeds have consistently comprised a significant portion of the country's poultry population, accounting for over 80% in 1998 and more than 70% by 2007 (VIET LY, 1998; HONG HANH et al., 2007) Furthermore, TIEU et al (2008) noted that local breeds contribute to 75% of egg production Despite the rising popularity of imported exotic breeds and hybrids known for higher productivity (VANG et al., 2001; COI et al., 2006; NGA et al., 2006), local Vietnamese chickens continue to thrive and play a crucial role for smallholders in underdeveloped regions, supporting their diverse needs and livelihoods.
Table 3: List of Vietnamese native chicken breeds with the origin and level of use (VANG, 2003; SU et al., 2004; TIEU et al., 2008; TIEU, 2009)
Breed Origin Level of use
Feather leg chicken Ha Giang L
Man Dien Bien Dien Bien L
Phu lu Te Ha Tay -
Six toes chicken Lang Son L
Smooth feather chicken Ha Giang L
Te Dong Bac Lang Son L
Van Phu Yen Bai Extinct
Poultry rearing and consumption in Vietnam are deeply intertwined with socio-cultural factors, reflecting the nation's rich agricultural heritage Local chicken breeds symbolize peace and prosperity, featuring prominently in Vietnamese poetry and folk art For centuries, these chickens have served as gifts to strengthen social bonds rather than for economic exchange, fostering relationships within families and communities Historically, peasants have presented specially raised breeds, such as Mia chickens from Duong Lam village and Ho chickens from Dong, as tokens of goodwill and cultural significance.
In Vietnam, particularly in Ho village and Hung Yen, local chicken breeds like Dong Tao chickens play a significant role in cultural practices These chickens are often given as gifts to relatives and neighbors as a token of gratitude for agricultural assistance or as a special present for the sick Additionally, they are integral to both ritualistic and secular celebrations, serving as offerings to honor ancestors and worship heaven and earth, as well as being involved in marriage exchanges Certain traditional ceremonies in northern Vietnam require chickens of specific colors, such as the yellow-skinned Ri chicken, which are readily available at local markets.
Local chickens, such as the Choi breed, exemplify the deep human-animal bond and serve as a symbol of social status and prestige among rural farmers Specifically bred for traditional cockfighting events, Choi chickens are known for their robust shanks and sharp heels These competitions not only offer social entertainment but also reflect the honor and strength of their owners.
The significance of raising backyard chickens for Vietnamese women has been highlighted in various studies, identifying it as a form of "women's capital." These women take on the daily management of the chickens, supported by their children and family members, handling tasks such as feeding, coop maintenance, and veterinary care This practice not only serves as a viable income-generating activity that aligns with their domestic responsibilities but also requires minimal investment and yields quick financial returns, making it suitable for household caretakers Ultimately, keeping chickens provides Vietnamese women with an opportunity to gain respect for their contributions to family labor while also creating a job for elderly family members at home.
Backyard chicken keeping leverages family labor and underutilized feed resources, primarily consisting of rice (cooked grains, meal, or bran), maize, cassava, aquatic plants like Ipomoea aquatica, and kitchen scraps The quantity of feed provided is largely determined by the chickens' needs and the availability of grains in storage Typically, farmers hatch replacement chicks from their own stock eggs rather than purchasing from local markets, leading to a low-input and low-labor system that defines backyard chicken farming.
Vietnamese farmers view backyard chicken farming as an attractive option due to its short production cycle, high market demand, and low exclusion risk, making it a viable and profitable agricultural practice (HONG HANH et al., 2007).
Vietnamese local chicken breeds play a crucial role in rural households, as they cannot be easily replaced by other farm animals Farmers utilize backyard chickens as an affordable and high-quality protein source for home consumption while generating cash income by selling chicken products such as meat, eggs, viscera, feathers, and manure throughout the year This practice acts as a form of saving, providing quick cash conversion with low transaction costs, contributing approximately 35% of household income from animal husbandry and over 30% of total household income For families living below the poverty line, backyard chickens are often their only asset to cover immediate expenses, highlighting the significant role poultry plays in enhancing income for lower-income groups.
Definitions and concepts of sustainable agriculture cited by KEENEY
Utilisation of indigenous chicken genetic resources by crossing
Incorporating indigenous chicken breeds into sustainable agricultural practices is strongly endorsed by researchers (Hodges, 2006; Bodó & Szalay, 2007; Mtileni et al., 2012) This approach offers a promising avenue for producers looking to engage in specialized poultry production using native chicken genotypes.
Forty face significant challenges, primarily due to the limited published data on their production parameters Additionally, there is a need to effectively and safely integrate them into practice while maintaining their unique productivity characteristics Numerous studies have documented attempts to cross local breeds with commercial or robust exotic breeds, highlighting ongoing efforts in this area (OMEJE and NWOSU, 1988; BEKELE et al., 2010; SIWENDU et al., 2013; UDEH, 2015).
In the study of OMEJE and NWOSU (1988), local Nigerian chicken breeds were crossed with Golden-link commercial chickens, and their crossbreds showed some appreciate productive traits BEKELE et al
(2010) found that body and egg weight could be improved by crossing Netch cockerels (an Ethiopian local breed) and Fayoumi (exotic breeds)
A study by SIWENDU et al (2013) demonstrated heterosis through the crossing of the indigenous Venda breed with the Naked Neck breed and the commercial Ross 308 broiler UDEH (2015) further highlighted significant improvements in body weight and weight gain when an indigenous Nigerian breed was crossed with two exotic lines This practice allows breeders to leverage genetic interactions and variations among different breeds (VAN TIJEN, 1977; FAIRFULL, 1990; KITALYI, 1998) Additionally, crossing can reveal phenotypic markers in indigenous breeds that enhance the marketability of final products.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Population study of 14 indigenous Hungarian poultry breeds
This study evaluates the population data of 14 local Hungarian poultry breeds, including both officially registered and temporarily unregistered stocks The breeds assessed are YHc, WHc, SHc, PHc, WTc, BTc, STc, HLgf, FHg, HUg, WHd, WId, COt, and BRt, with data collected consistently from 2000 to 2015 by MGE and HáGK The evaluation includes yearly monitoring of breeding stocks, as well as the number of breeding males and females, allowing for the calculation of the sex ratio (Nm/Nf).
The effective population size (Ne) refers to the number of individuals in a population that would experience the same rate of inbreeding if randomly selected and mated However, in this study, the breeding birds were maintained in different locations across Hungary, making the assumptions of random mating and absence of selection unrealistic.
Ne serves as an estimation of the upper limit for genetic diversity, with the relationship between effective population size (Ne) and inbreeding coefficient (ΔF) being inversely proportional The calculations for both Ne and ΔF are derived from the formula established by Wright in 1931.
The effective population size (Ne) is represented by the formula 2N e (2), where Nf denotes the number of breeding females and Nm represents the number of breeding males To assess the level of genetic variation, the ratio of effective population size to total population size (Ne/N) is calculated, as outlined by Frankham (2007).
Egg production study of 7 indigenous Hungarian chicken breeds
Data were collected from seven native Hungarian chicken breeds (YHc, WHc, PHc, SHc, BTc, WTc, and STc) that hatched from the in vivo gene bank of HáGK This study aimed to analyze the egg production profiles of these breeds.
Two examinations were conducted to analyze egg production data from two successive generations The first focused on the entire egg production during the initial laying period, while the second compared egg production over two laying periods from January to June All layers were maintained under uniform conditions, with daily access to open air and a consistent diet As all nucleus flocks were hatched in May, egg production began in late autumn and continued through the summer, aligning with typical backyard poultry patterns, including winter egg production No artificial lighting or heating was utilized during this period, and a female-to-male ratio of 7:1 was maintained as recommended by MGE (SZALAY et al., 2009).
Adaptation study of Partridge Coloured Hungarian chicken in the
In this study, a total of 1,000 PHc chicks were hatched, with 500 sourced from the HáGK in vivo gene bank stock and 500 from eggs imported by the Thuy Phuong Poultry Research Centre (POREC) in Vietnam These two experimental flocks were raised simultaneously, one at the HáGK poultry farm in Hungary and the other at POREC in Vietnam Notable differences in basic climatic parameters between Hungary (Budapest station) and Vietnam (Hanoi station) are detailed in Table 4.
Table 4 illustrates the differences in monthly average climatic parameters between North Vietnam, as recorded at the Hanoi station by the General Statistic Office of Vietnam, and Hungary, based on data from the Budapest station provided by the Országos Meteorológiai Szolgálat of Hungary.
VN HU VN HU VN HU VN HU
Growth was monitored from May (hatching day) to July 2010 and egg production from November 2010 to May 2011 The same husbandry technology described by MGE was applied in both locations (MGE, 2009)
In a meat production trial, 20 pens were utilized, with 10 located at POREC and 10 at HáGK, each housing 50 birds Initially, the birds were kept in closed cages with a density of 5 birds per square meter, featuring concrete floors with 5-6 cm of bedding made from shavings and 25 cm of perch space per bird For the first three weeks, they were fed a commercial starter feed, which was later replaced with locally available grains To meet their additional protein needs, the diet was supplemented with soybean meal and processed infertile, broken, or substandard eggs from the hatchery.
While the VN and HU flocks received different types of feed and premix, their diets were consistent, based on the calculated chemical feed composition.
4 weeks of age, birds were released in a running area of 4 m 2 /bird during the day, which was closed at night Lighting and prophylactic programmes are described in Table 6
Table 5 presents the average chemical feed composition utilized in the adaptation study of Partridge Coloured Hungarian chickens, conducted at the Research Centre for Farm Animal Gene Conservation in Hungary and the Thuy Phuong Poultry Research Centre in the sub-tropical climate of North Vietnam.
Composition Unit 1-3 wks of age
Vitamin E mg/kg 35.0 35.0 35.0 35.0 wks: weeks
The adaptation study of Partridge Coloured Hungarian chickens was conducted at the Research Centre for Farm Animal Gene Conservation in Hungary and the Thuy Phuong Poultry Research Centre in North Vietnam, focusing on various lighting and prophylactic programs.
1 day 24 3 Vaccination against Marek disease
2 wks 21 2 1 st vaccination against Gumboro disease
3 wks 19 2 1 st vaccination against Newcastle disease and infectious bronchitis
8 wks 12 1 2 nd vaccination against Newcastle disease and infectious bronchitis
9 wks 11 1 2 nd vaccination against Gumboro disease
12 wks 8 1 Vaccination against infectious avian encephalomyelitis
18 wks 8 1 Vaccination against Newcastle disease, bronchitis and Gumboro-Small pox wks: weeks
All birds were provided with unrestricted access to feed and clean water Monthly measurements were taken of mortality rates, individual body weights, and feed intake at 4, 8, and 12 weeks of age At the conclusion of the 12th week, the birds were sexed by appearance to determine the sex ratio The feed conversion ratio (FCR), calculated as kg of feed per kg of body weight gain, was based on the number of live birds recorded monthly in each pen In contrast, the corrected feed conversion ratio (cFCR) represents a predicted value assuming an equal number of males and females in each pen.
FCR = Feed intake per pen (kg)
Number of live birds × Average body weight gain (kg) (3) cFCR𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑥 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 1 = FCR
After sexing, ten males from each pen were slaughtered to assess the weights of eviscerated carcass (Cw), deboned breast meat (Bw), and thigh meat (Tw), with their respective percentages calculated accordingly.
At 20 weeks of age, 200 females and 20 males of both the HU and VN flocks were moved to four laying pens (50 females and 5 males per pen) The total number of intact eggs produced daily was recorded throughout the 1 st laying period To avoid disturbance, the body weight and feed intake of layers were not monitored Eggs were collected twice a day Egg production (EP) was calculated using the following formula:
EP =Number of eggs produced on a daily basis
Number of birds available in the flock × 100 (8)
To measure egg weight (Ew), egg yolk (EYw), egg albumen (EAw) and egg shell (ESw) weight, as well as egg length (ELe) and egg width (EWi),
30 randomly selected eggs produced by 36-week-old layers were used Egg shape index (ESi) was calculated as follows:
The study utilized identical incubating technology across both research stations, where egg candling on the 7th day of incubation was employed to identify fertile eggs and embryonic deaths Key metrics recorded included fertility rates, hatchability percentages, and the counts of both standard and substandard hatchlings This research received approval from the local ethics committees of HáGK and POREC.
Crosses of Partridge Coloured Hungarian and a natively different
Chicks from four different genotypes, including purebreds PHc and WTc as well as their reciprocal crosses (♂WTc x ♀PHc and ♂PHc x ♀WTc), were hatched at the poultry gene bank farm in Hungary Individual identification was facilitated using wing bands, and the appearance of the WTc genotype is illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Appearance of male (a) and female (b)
The White Transylvanian Naked Neck chicken study involved keeping experimental groups of birds in closed cages on deep litter, with access to a running area during the day from four weeks of age Throughout the experiment, data on liveability, individual body weight (BW), and feed intake were recorded at 12, 14, and 16 weeks The feed conversion ratio (FCR) was calculated based on the number of live birds in each pen Additionally, to assess slaughtering yield, the live weight, eviscerated carcass, breast, and thigh weights of four randomly selected birds from each pen were measured at the same ages, with carcass weight percentage (Cw%) estimated accordingly.
Table 7: Experimental arrangement of study 4: Crosses of PHc and a natively different Hungarian chicken breed (WTc)
Number of birds per pen
PHc x PHc male 3 20 ♂ PHc female 3 20 ♀ PHc
WTc male 3 20 ♂ WTc female 3 20 ♀ WTc
PHc x WTc male 3 20 ♂ PHc x WTc female 3 20 ♀ PHc x WTc
WTc x PHc male 3 20 ♂ WTc x PHc female 3 20 ♀ WTc x PHc
PHc: Partridge Coloured Hungarian chicken; WTc: White Transylvanian Naked Neck chicken
Heterosis was calculated using means, with the formula adapted from WILLIAMS et al (2002):
Heterosis, represented as a percentage of parental performance, is calculated using the formula 0.5 × (P1 + P2) × 100 (10) In this equation, H denotes heterosis, F1 indicates the performance of crossbreds, and P1 and P2 refer to the performance of progeny from each of the two parental populations Additionally, the relative efficiency (RE) for each parameter is determined by the difference between reciprocal F1 performances, following the methodology outlined by SOLA-OJO et al (2012).
Crosses of Partridge Coloured Hungarian and an old chicken breed of
Three experimental flocks (♂MIc x ♀MIc; ♂PHc x ♀PHc and ♂MIc x
♀PHc) were allocated in 6 pens (2 pens/flock, 3 males and 30
51 females/pen), with natural mounting under natural photoperiod The appearance of Vietnamese Mia chicken is shown in Figure 3
Figure 3 Appearance of male (a) and female (b)
Egg production was monitored from 23 to 68 weeks of age, with eggs from 37 to 38-week-old layers collected for incubation The egg production (EP) was calculated using a specific formula, and the resulting hatched chicks were labeled by genotype A total of 450 chicks, with 150 allocated to three pens per genotype, were raised in a semi-intensive keeping system at POREC Additionally, 480 crossbred chicks were transferred to family farms in Yen Noi village, Vinh Phuc province, North Vietnam, where 240 were reared in three farms using a semi-free range system and another 240 in three farms with a complete free-range system, with 80 chicks per farm The semi-free range and complete free-range keeping systems are illustrated in the accompanying figure.
The study examined two poultry keeping systems: semi free range, where chickens are closed at night, and complete free range, where they roam freely without nighttime confinement This research focused on the crossbreeding of Partridge Coloured Hungarian chickens and Vietnamese Mia chickens.
(d): chicken feeds made from local plants
In the initial four weeks, all birds were housed in closed cages and fed a starter-type commercial mixed feed Starting at five weeks, the housing systems diversified; in the si and sf systems, birds were kept at a density of 5 birds per square meter on concrete floors with 5-6 cm of bedding made from shavings and 25 cm of perch per bird During the day, they had outdoor access but were confined at night The si system featured a small fenced running area, while the sf system provided a larger foraging space of approximately 30 m² per bird In the cf system, birds enjoyed unrestricted movement.
53 the time in a fenced yard with trees against direct sunlight (40-50m 2 /bird, earth floor) The trial arrangement and labels of birds are shown in Table
8 While the birds at POREC were primarily aimed for genotype comparison in terms of growth performance and slaughter yield, the birds at family farms were kept for investigating the effect of keeping system on the growth performance of crossbreds Birds had free access to the same feed and clean water Body weight was recorded on hatching day, at the age of 4, 8 and 12 weeks FCR was calculated and corrected according to formula (3) and (4) Cw, Bw and Tw (all with skin) as well as abdominal fat of 6-6 randomly slaughtered male and female birds kept in si system were measured at the end of a 12-week rearing period Heterosis was calculated using equation (10)
Table 8 Experimental arrangement of study 5: Crosses of PHc and an old chicken breed of distant origin (MIc)
5-12 wks MIc x MIc si MIc 3 50 Closed Semi intensive
5m 2 running area/bird * PHc x PHc si PHc 3 50 Closed Semi intensive
5m 2 running area/bird * MIc x PHc si MIc x PHc 3 50 Closed Semi intensive
5m 2 running area/bird * MIc x PHc sf MIc x PHc 3 80 Closed Semi free range
MIc x PHc cf MIc x PHc 3 80 Closed Complete free range up to 50m 2 running area/bird **
PHc: Partridge Coloured Hungarian chicken; MIc: Vietnamese Mia chicken chicken; *: reared in Thuy Phuong Poultry Research Centre; **: reared at family farms
Crosses of Partridge Coloured Hungarian and 2 Bábolna Tetra’s chicken
The study was conducted at the poultry farm HáGK Seven parental flocks of the same age: ♂PHc x ♀PHc, ♂THc x ♀THc, ♂BHc x ♀BHc,
The breeding pairs PHc x THc, PHc x BHc, THc x PHc, and BHc x PHc were established with a sex ratio of one male to seven females, utilizing natural mounting under natural photoperiod conditions The PHc lineage originated from the HáGK gene bank's nucleus flock, while THc and BHc were supplied by BÁBOLNA TETRA Ltd., with THc representing the Bábolna Tetra H dual-purpose father line.
2014) and BHc is Bábolna Harco egg type, mother line (BÁBOLNA TETRA Ltd., 2013) The appearance of THc and BHc is shown in Figures
Figure 5 The appearance of Bábolna Tetra H dual purpose, father line male (a) and female (b)
Figure 6 The appearance of Bábolna Harco egg type, mother line male
Eggs from 34-week-old laying hens were collected for incubation After hatching, the chicks were sexed, labeled with wing bands, and placed in separate housing for males and females The organization and labeling of the birds were carefully managed.
56 shown in Table 9 Chicks of each genotype were distributed into 6 pens
(12 birds/m 2 , deep litter) Live%, weekly individual BW and feed consumption per pen was measured FCR was calculated by equation (3)
At the age of 12 weeks, all males were slaughtered, and females were reared further for egg production study
Table 9: Experimental arrangement of study 6: Crosses of PHc and 2 commercial chicken lines (THc and BHc)
F1 labels Number of: male female pens per gender birds per pen
THc x PHc ♂ THc x PHc ♀ THc x PHc 3 50
BHc x PHc ♂ BHc x PHc ♀ BHc x PHc 3 50
PHc x THc ♂ PHc x THc ♀ PHc x THc 3 50
PHc x BHc ♂ PHc x BHc ♀ PHc x BHc 3 50
PHc: Partridge Coloured Hungarian; THc: Bábolna Tetra H dual purpose, father line; BHc: Bábolna Harco, egg type, mother line
After slaughtering and cooling to the temperature of 4 o C, Cw, Bw and
The investigation focused on Tw, with their percentages determined using formulas (5), (6), and (7) Throughout the initial laying period, daily egg counts were documented, and the egg production (EP) was calculated according to formula (8).
At 28, 34, and 40 weeks of age, the weights (Ew), length (ELe), width (EWi), shape index (ESi), shell strength (ESs), and shell thickness (ESt) of 15 randomly selected eggs from each pen were evaluated Egg weight was measured using an electronic balance with a precision of 0.001g, while egg length and width were assessed with a digital caliper to the nearest 0.010mm The shape index was calculated using a specific formula, and shell thickness was measured at the sharp edge of the eggs with a micrometer.
57 determined using “puncture” method described by VOISEY and HUNT
Egg mass (Em) per layer in kg was calculated as following:
The equation Em = (Number of eggs per layer x Ew) 1000⁄ (12) is used to calculate egg production Breast meat color and eggshell color were assessed using the L*a*b* system with a Minolta® CR 410 Chromameter at 3 and 24 hours post-cutting, as well as from layers aged 28, 34, and 40 weeks The L* value indicates lightness, ranging from 0 (black) to 99 (white), while positive a* values signify red and negative a* values indicate green, both ranging from +60 to -60 Additionally, positive b* values represent yellow and negative b* values denote blue, also within a range of +60 to -60 Higher values of L*, a*, and b* reflect paler, redder, and more yellow meat, respectively.
The colour index (Ci) was determined as following:
The calculation of the colour index (Ci) is based on the formula Ci = L ∗ − a ∗ − b ∗, where lower Ci values indicate a darker colour, as adapted from LUKANOV et al (2015) The total colour change (ΔE) between two measurements is computed using the CIE-recommended formula ΔE = √ΔL² + Δa² + Δb², where ΔL, Δa, and Δb represent the differences in lightness, redness, and yellowness, respectively Additionally, H and RE values are estimated using specific formulas The feeding regimen consists of a closed keeping system with a uniform starter diet for chicks aged 1-4 weeks (21-23% crude protein, 11-12 MJ/kg energy, 1.0% Ca, 0.7% P), a grower diet for 5-20 weeks (15-16% crude protein, 10-11 MJ/kg energy, 1.0% Ca, 0.65% P), and a layer diet for birds from 21 weeks of age (17-18% crude protein, 11-12 MJ/kg energy, 3.75% Ca, 0.7% P).
58 applied for all genotypes Birds had free access to feed and clean water Preventive vaccinations were done as required by national regulation
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The data analysis began with Levene’s test and two-way ANOVA to assess variance equality across groups When Levene’s test indicated equal variances (p > 0.05), the ANOVA provided insights into the effects of breed, pen, and time, along with their interactions on the studied parameters Significant differences in averages were evaluated using the post hoc Tukey HSD test, while a t-test was utilized for comparing two data sets In instances of unequal variances, Welch’s test was applied All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS software (IBM CORP, 2013).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Population study of 14 old Hungarian poultry breeds
Nm, Nf, estimated Nm/Nf, Ne, Ne/N and F are given in Tables 10, 11,
Before 2004, there were no registered breeding stocks for PHc, HLgf, WHd, and WId, and HUg was not registered until 2005 The number of breeds, excluding HUg, remained constant at two, but increased annually, peaking in 2012 with YHc and SHc at ten, COt and BRt at nine, HLgf at eight, and PHc, BTc, STc, FHg, and WId at seven, while WHd reached five In 2013, WTc also contributed to this growth.
Since 2013, there has been a noticeable decline in the population of most livestock breeds This trend is partially attributed to a new five-year subsidy program funded by the European Union, which focused on in vivo gene conservation for registered breeds and stocks from 2010 to 2014.
The studied breeds can be categorized into two distinct groups based on their Nm/Nf ratios: the first group consists of chickens, which exhibit relatively low Nm/Nf values, while the second group includes breeds such as HLgf, FHg, HUg, WHd, WId, COt, and BRt, characterized by relatively high Nm/Nf ratios.
Nm/Nf Ne varies widely, from 92 (COt in 2000) to 2581 (HLgf in 2012)
Between 2011 and 2013, the effective population size (Ne) was notably higher compared to other periods, although the Ne for WTc, BTc, STc, WHd, and COt remained consistently below 1000 individuals Significant increases in Ne were observed in PHc, rising from 242 in 2009 to 1640 in 2013; in HLgf, increasing from 633 in 2009 to 2581 in 2012; and in HUg, which grew from 163 in 2010 to 1262 in 2012.
Research indicates a direct correlation between higher n values and increased Ne, with all breeds exhibiting an Ne/N ratio above 0.400, peaking at 0.980 for HLgf in 2008 Additionally, the observed ΔF values ranged from a minimum of 0.019% to a maximum of 0.794%.
2012 (HLgf) and 2009 (WHd), respectively YHc and SHc had a F lower than 0.108% during the entire investigating period Populations with Ne
In the analysis of bird populations, 61 individuals smaller than 100 exhibited a ΔF greater than 0.500% across various years, specifically COt in 2000, 2002, and 2004, and WHd in 2009 However, during the final two years of the study, 2014 and 2015, only HUg and WHd recorded a ΔF exceeding 0.200% A notable trend was observed, with a gradual decline in ΔF for PHc, HLgf, COt, and BRt Among the breeds examined, a consistent positive correlation was found between population size (n) and effective population size (Ne), while a negative correlation existed between population size and ΔF, except for HUg, where the population size remained constant.
Table 10 presents the total number of breeding males (Nm) and females (Nf), along with the sex ratio (Nm/Nf), the ratio of effective population size to total population size (Ne/N), and the inbreeding rate (ΔF) in percentage for Yellow Hungarian chicken (YHc), White Hungarian chicken (WHc), Speckled Hungarian chicken (SHc), and Partridge Coloured Hungarian chicken (PHc) from 2000 to 2015.
Source: HáGK and MGE breeding archives and the Hungarian Poultry Information System, supervised by the National Food Chain Safety Office (the breeding authority of Hungary)
Table 11 presents the total counts of breeding males (Nm) and females (Nf) for White Transylvanian Naked Neck (WTc), Black Transylvanian Naked Neck (BTc), and Speckled Transylvanian Naked Neck (STc) chickens from 2000 to 2015 It also includes the sex ratio (Nm/Nf), the ratio of effective population size to total population size (Ne/N), and the inbreeding rate (ΔF) expressed as a percentage.
Source: HáGK and MGE breeding archives and the Hungarian Poultry Information System, supervised by the National Food Chain Safety Office (the breeding authority of Hungary)
Table 12 presents key data on the breeding populations of Hungarian Landrace Guinea Fowl (HLgf), Copper Turkey (COt), and Bronze Turkey (BRt) from 2000 to 2015 It includes the total number of breeding males (Nm) and females (Nf), the sex ratio (Nm/Nf), the ratio of effective population size to total population size (Ne/N), and the inbreeding rate (ΔF) expressed as a percentage These metrics provide valuable insights into the breeding dynamics and genetic health of these poultry breeds over the specified period.
Source: HáGK and MGE breeding archives and the Hungarian Poultry Information System, supervised by the National Food Chain Safety Office (the breeding authority of Hungary)
Table 13 presents key demographic data for various Hungarian waterfowl species, including the total number of breeding males (Nm) and females (Nf), the sex ratio (Nm/Nf), the ratio of effective population size to total population size (Ne/N), and the inbreeding rate (ΔF) expressed as a percentage The species analyzed are the Frizzled Hungarian Goose (FHg), Hungarian Goose (HUg), White Hungarian Duck (WHd), and Wild Coloured Hungarian Duck (WId).
Source: HáGK and MGE breeding archives and the Hungarian Poultry Information System, supervised by the National Food Chain Safety Office (the breeding authority of Hungary)
Table 14: Correlation between the number of registered stocks (n), effective population size (Ne) and inbreeding rate (F) in the populations of traditional Hungarian poultry breeds from 2000 to 2015
Traditional Hungarian poultry breeds n and N e n and F r Sig r Sig
BRt 0.953 ** -0.753 ** r: Pearson correlation coefficient, Sig.: Significant level, **: P < 0.01, ns: P > 0.05 -: cannot compute due to constant number of registered stocks
The article discusses various Hungarian poultry breeds, including the Yellow Hungarian chicken (YHc), White Hungarian chicken (WHc), Speckled Hungarian chicken (SHc), and Partridge Coloured Hungarian chicken (PHc) It also highlights the Transylvanian Naked Neck chicken breeds, such as the White (WTc), Black (BTc), and Speckled (STc) variants Additionally, the Hungarian Landrace Guinea Fowl (HLgf), Frizzled Hungarian Goose (FHg), Hungarian Goose (HUg), White Hungarian Duck (WHd), Wild Coloured Hungarian Duck (WId), Copper Turkey (COt), and Bronze Turkey (BRt) are featured, showcasing the diversity of poultry in Hungary.
Figure 7 Changes in the number of registered stocks (n) and effective population size (Ne) of local Hungarian poultry breeds from 2000 to 2015
(YHc: Yellow Hungarian chicken; WHc: White Hungarian chicken; SHc:
Speckled Hungarian chicken, PHc: Partridge Coloured Hungarian chicken,
WTc: White Transylvanian Naked Neck chicken, BTc: Black Transylvanian
Naked Neck chicken, STc: Speckled Transylvanian Naked Neck chicken, HLgf:
Hungarian Landrace Guinea Fowl, FHg: Frizzled Hungarian goose, HUg:
Hungarian goose, WHd: White Hungarian duck, WId: Wild Coloured
Hungarian duck, COt: Copper turkey, BRt: Bronze turkey)
According to MEUWISSEN and WOOLIAMS (1994), the Ne of 30 to
250 is needed for natural selection to compensate inbreeding depression LYNCH et al (1995) suggested that the Ne of rare breeds should exceed
To prevent extinction due to harmful mutations, a minimum effective population size (Ne) of 500 animals is essential The FAO (2013) advises that for short to medium-term survival, a minimum Ne of 50 is necessary, while a long-term population viability requires more than 50 individuals.
In this study, 11 Hungarian poultry breed recently had Ne higher than
In a study of six chicken breeds (WHc, WTc, BTc, HUg, WHd, and WId), none exhibited an effective population size (Ne) lower than 500, and no breed had an Ne below 50 This finding significantly surpasses the results reported by Lariviere et al (2011) for Belgian chickens, where only three breeds achieved an Ne exceeding 500 individuals.
When the ratio of Nm to Nf approached 1.00, the effective population size (Ne) was nearly equal to the actual population size, supporting Zanon and Sabbioni's (2001) assertion that increasing Nm to align closely with Nf enhances Ne In comparison to various European local poultry breeds, such as Polish (ΔF up to 0.20%), Slovakian (ΔF up to 0.71%), Belgian (ΔF up to 0.94%), and Spanish breeds (ΔF up to 0.70%), as well as commercial breeds (ΔF up to 0.60%), this finding highlights the significance of maintaining genetic diversity within populations.
Research indicates that the inbreeding coefficient (ΔF) of Hungarian poultry breeds is relatively low (AMELI et al., 1991; CAMPO et al., 2000; SPALONA et al., 2007; LARIVIERE et al., 2011) Maintaining this low ΔF over time is crucial, as it significantly reduces the risk of extinction for these local breeds (SIMON and BUCHENAUER, 1993).
Results on the trends of population data of old Hungarian poultry breeds between 2000 and 2015 show the effectiveness of Hungarian poultry
Egg production study of 7 indigenous Hungarian chicken breeds
In a study of seven chicken breeds, WHc and YHc consistently produced a high number of eggs per hen per day, while STc showed a consistently low output All breeds began laying eggs in October after hatching in May and continued until June of the following year Notably, during the 2009-2010 period, most breeds exhibited similar egg production patterns throughout the laying season, with the exception of STc.
Table 15: Eggs/hen/day of 7 traditional Hungarian chicken breeds in 2008-
Year Breed n Mean ± sd Significant level
WHc 220 0.468 a ± 0.141 SHc 220 0.356 d ± 0.155 PHc 220 0.446 c ± 0.134 WTc 220 0.318 f ± 0.171 BTc 220 0.320 e ± 0.168 STc 220 0.316 g ± 0.178
WHc 233 0.410 b ± 0.142 SHc 233 0.349 c ± 0.167 PHc 233 0.262 g ± 0.148 WTc 233 0.321 e ± 0.190 BTc 233 0.327 d ± 0.180 STc 233 0.269 f ± 0.203
The Yellow Hungarian chicken (YHc), White Hungarian chicken (WHc), Speckled Hungarian chicken (SHc), and Partridge Coloured Hungarian chicken (PHc) are notable breeds originating from Hungary Additionally, the White Transylvanian Naked Neck chicken (WTc), Black Transylvanian Naked Neck chicken (BTc), and Speckled Transylvanian Naked Neck chicken (STc) are distinguished varieties known for their unique characteristics and adaptability.
*: P