Field of Investigation
The book delves into the realm of Ubiquitous Computing (Ubicomp), as highlighted by key figures such as Weiser, Gold, and Brown It begins by outlining the foundational concepts of Ubicomp as the main area of study Following this, it discusses the technological advancements in Ubicomp, specifically focusing on Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) and its evolution into Near Field Communication (NFC) The section concludes by exploring potential use cases for NFC in mass consumer markets, illustrating its practical applications and relevance.
(1) Ubiquitous Computing: Recent technological developments influence the ongoing integration of Ubicomp in our life today (adapted from (Fleisch/Mattern/Billinger 2004)):
Moore's Law, established in 1965, predicts that the complexity of integrated circuits doubles approximately every 18 months, leading to a surge in available micro-processors at reduced costs This trend is fueled by the miniaturization of microchips, which enhances their wireless capabilities and opens up numerous application scenarios RFID technology plays a crucial role in advancing the vision of ubiquitous computing, while NFC utilizes RFID as a standardized interface for seamless data exchange between devices.
Mobile phones have become essential, ubiquitous devices in today's world, facilitating user interaction with the underlying infrastructure of ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp) Innovative designs and entirely new devices continue to emerge, enhancing the user experience and accessibility of these technologies.
Recent advancements in internet download bandwidth and the allocation of additional wireless-frequency wave bands for both business and private use have significantly enhanced network capabilities and infrastructure This expansion allows for greater network reach for ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp) applications, as wireless mobile transfer rates continue to achieve unprecedented levels.
Smartphones equipped with high-resolution displays are now commonplace, with new devices featuring miniaturized screens that utilize touch or point technologies (Poupyrev/Okabe/Maruyama 2004; Luk et al 2006; Rukzio 2007) Recently, Near Field Communication (NFC) phones have also been introduced to the market, enhancing interaction capabilities (NFCForum 2007c).
• Software: Web services enable fast and easy access to distributed content on the Internet, with the potential to link physical objects and data (McIlraith/Zeng 2001; Paolucci et al 2002)
• Production technology: New self-assembly techniques have arisen in recent years that make cost-efficient productions possible (Kommandur 2004) RFID chips can be produced in self-assembly processes 1
• Standards: With the Internet providing an already standardized backbone, further identification schemes for various industries and purposes are being standardized (Auto- ID-Center 2003; NFCForum 2007c)
1 Examples can be found at http://www.pb.izm.fhg.de/izm - Self-assembly and interconnection of silicon chips
Recent technological advancements are paving the way for innovative applications that connect virtual and physical environments These developments range from natural interfaces in human-computer interaction to context-aware computing, showcasing a vast array of potential uses While some may argue that the vision of ubiquitous computing remains an aspiration, others believe it has already begun to manifest in new forms.
“messier” form than originally envisioned (Bell/Dourish 2007)
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a key technology within ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp) that has been extensively explored in academic literature Initially introduced to the retail sector, RFID primarily aimed to enhance logistics, address out-of-stock issues, and streamline supply chain processes While many contemporary RFID applications focus on optimizing these processes, they have not yet fully transitioned into consumer technology.
Near Field Communication (NFC), introduced in 2005, is a standardized technology for data exchange between electronic devices like PCs, mobile phones, and RFID tags Operating over a few centimeters, NFC works alongside RFID technology and contactless smart card systems It allows mobile phones to read data from RFID tags simply by touching or waving the device, effectively bridging the physical and virtual worlds NFC is primarily utilized in three key areas: service initiation, peer-to-peer communication, and application enhancement This technology enables the initiation of services, facilitates device communication, and builds upon existing infrastructures, such as ticketing and electronic payments, making mass market applications of RFID feasible.
NFC technology has not faced the same privacy concerns as RFID, despite their technological similarities in using radio frequencies for data transmission A key advantage of NFC is its integration into mobile phones, allowing consumers to utilize tracking and tracing capabilities in innovative ways Given the widespread use and growth potential of mobile phones, NFC-enabled devices could serve as true ubiquitous computing tools and may become a disruptive technology, provided that the necessary physical infrastructure, such as NFC tags or devices, is in place.
This study explores the integration of Near Field Communication (NFC) with Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and mobile devices Initially, it examines the interplay between NFC and RFID, particularly in relation to how showcases and prototypes influence consumer perception As the analysis progresses, it narrows its focus to NFC as the primary technology under consideration.
Ubiquitous computing technologies like RFID play a crucial role in shaping Near Field Communication (NFC) by delivering significant value to consumers The acceptance of these technologies on a technological level is essential, and it is important to develop and evaluate applications that align with the needs and demands of future users.
Research Problem
New technologies, especially those considered disruptive, often take considerable time to influence everyday life Disruptive technologies can lead to significant changes in how people live, a notion supported by various Ubicomp visionaries The process of adopting these technologies is complex and lengthy, highlighting the challenges faced in integrating revolutionary innovations into society.
Christensen's concept of disruptive innovation highlights that the strategy behind innovation, rather than the technology itself, drives disruption, as only a few technologies possess true disruptive potential (Christensen 2003) True disruptive technologies create new use cases that were previously unavailable Although RFID technology has existed since the late 1940s (Stockman 1948), its widespread adoption has only recently begun (Knebel/Leimeister/Krcmar 2006) Major retail companies view RFID primarily as an incremental improvement for process optimization (Loebbecke/Palmer 2006) In North America, EPCglobal has played a pivotal role in developing RFID applications focused on industry use cases, sparking significant interest in supply chain management (Fine et al.).
While RFID technology has primarily been associated with supply chain applications, experts like Fine et al (2006) recognize its potential to enhance the lives of end-users, a reality that remains largely unrealized for both RFID and NFC technologies (Wilding/Delgado 2004) A shift in this dynamic could lead to significant disruptive innovations rather than merely incremental improvements The advancements in NFC technology, particularly with mobile phones, are poised to be transformative, especially as innovative ideas emerge to bridge the gap between the physical and digital realms following the launch of NFC-enabled devices by major mobile manufacturers (Rukzio/Schmidt/Hussmann 2004; Smith/Davenport/Hwa 2003; Vọlkkynen/Niemelọ/Tuomisto 2006) These developments underscore NFC's potential for mass-market adoption.
Implementing NFC and RFID technologies necessitates substantial investment in tag infrastructure, making large-scale ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp) deployment costly Conducting thorough market research and assessing user acceptance can help reduce the financial risks associated with these technologies.
2 Source: http:// www.epcglobalinc.org/ - accessed 24.02.2008
Fig 1 shows a possible benefits cycle that would evolve around RFID-based applications— here consumer RFID applications include NFC applications
Fig 1: Benefits cycle for the market introduction of RFID
RFID technology is primarily utilized in supply chain management and logistics, offering significant benefits to businesses, as evidenced by retail industry confirmations The successful implementation of RFID infrastructure not only enhances operational efficiency but also increases consumer interactions with RFID applications, such as product tags This opens the door for innovative consumer-oriented applications, like using an NFC-enabled mobile phone to read product information If these consumer-friendly applications gain widespread adoption, companies stand to benefit even more, as their RFID infrastructure would be utilized frequently, fostering further RFID integration The key challenge lies in initiating this beneficial cycle.
RFID technology is primarily viewed as an incremental enhancement in supply chain and logistics, yet it holds the potential for disruptive innovation in consumer applications The implementation of key industry use cases, such as item-level tagging, sparks a benefits cycle that signifies widespread consumer acceptance According to Sheffi, this shift highlights the transformative impact of RFID in enhancing efficiency and engagement in various sectors.
RFID technology, as noted by Sheffi in 2004, remains shrouded in uncertainty, with its benefits and advantages over traditional barcode technology still not fully understood Additionally, ongoing discussions surrounding standards and privacy concerns further complicate the adoption of RFID systems, as highlighted by Spiekermann in 2005 and Juels.
More RFID technology in the market
More RFID tags possibly in consumers hands
More RFID applications for consumers possible
Higher benefits for companies to introduce RFID?
Higher benefits for consumers using RFID applications
More RFID technology in the market
More RFID tags possibly in consumers hands
More RFID applications for consumers possible
Higher benefits for companies to introduce RFID?
Higher benefits for consumers using RFID applications
The evolution of technology, as highlighted by developments since 2006, demonstrates that it remains in its early stages A key factor in transitioning from invention to innovation is the widespread acceptance and adoption of the technology by consumers, as noted by Sheffi in 2004.
The increasing availability of RFID technology in supply-chain applications could enhance consumer access to RFID in the future, unlocking new product and service opportunities for mass-market companies However, significant initial infrastructure investments and uncertainties regarding user acceptance and the potential of NFC technology hinder the initiation of RFID's benefits cycle In the German market, the limited availability of NFC phones restricts consumer experimentation and familiarity with the technology, making it difficult for users to evaluate the advantages of potential NFC applications Additionally, companies recognize the challenges in implementing this technology, which stifles the development and testing of new applications Both RFID and NFC remain largely unfamiliar or negatively perceived compared to other technologies Consequently, some advocate for a technology-push strategy to facilitate RFID's market entry in consumer applications, although this approach is also linked to innovation failures.
Technology-push refers to the approach taken when potential market applications are unclear, contrasting with market-pull, where consumer needs and market details are well-defined This relationship highlights the importance of using anticipatory and exploratory methods to navigate market uncertainty, as suggested by Herstatt and Lettl (2000) and Lender (1991) Key strategies include the early integration of future users in the development process, which can enhance product acceptance during later stages of market entry.
NFC, a subset of RFID technology, has the potential to reach over 3.3 billion mobile phone users globally While user reactions to the broader implementation of NFC technology remain uncertain, the significant market potential makes it crucial for mobile operators, service providers, and handset manufacturers to invest in NFC infrastructure.
The primary challenges include justifying substantial initial infrastructure investments, uncertainty regarding user acceptance of the technology, unpredictability about which technologies future users will adopt, and recognizing the necessity for consumers to experiment with NFC to fully understand its potential benefits.
3 Source: http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/newslog/Global+Mobile+Phone+Users+Top+33+Billion+By+ End2007.aspx – accessed 31.08.2008
Fig 2: Challenges of NFC and the research focus in overview
This thesis addresses the challenges faced by companies in developing successful NFC-based ubiquitous computing applications, while also providing researchers with the tools to evaluate these applications in their initial phases.
Research Questions and Objectives
The study is based on three research questions The first research question is (RQ1):
• RQ1: What are the defining elements of RFID- and NFC-applications (information systems) and what specific challenges are implied by the development of these applications?
This article explores the key aspects of RFID and NFC as ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp) technologies, followed by an analysis of current technology acceptance models and evaluation methods to identify the most suitable approach for the development process and unique characteristics of Ubicomp applications.
• RQ2: Which technology acceptance models and which evaluation methods support the development of Ubicomp applications?
The findings from RQ1 and RQ2 provide valuable insights for addressing the final research question (RQ3) on how companies can effectively leverage models and methods to develop and evaluate NFC-based Ubicomp solutions By focusing on minimizing infrastructure costs, assessing technology acceptance, enhancing user comprehension, and allowing future users to experiment, companies can establish a comprehensive set of design guidelines for successful implementation.
• RQ3: How can companies develop successful Ubicomp applications in a directed process and what are the design guidelines for these applications?
The three research questions follow from one another, from RQ1 to RQ2 to RQ3
NFC availability at consumer level
High initial investments in infrastructure needed
Unknown user technology acceptance Unknown application development and evaluation process
Ubiquitous Computing applications enter the market
Consumers need to experiment with NFC
Beyond examining the research problem and related questions, the following objectives belong to the stated goals of this research:
• To propose a process model for the development and evaluation of ubiquitous computing applications using the example of Near Field Communication
• To establish design guidelines for outlining the positive and negative factors related to user acceptance of NFC-based ubiquitous computing artifacts in three exemplary domains
This study explores the theoretical foundations necessary for understanding Ubiquitous Computing (Ubicomp) technology, focusing on NFC and RFID as examples It establishes initial requirements based on human-computer interaction theory for NFC applications, emphasizing the significance of ubiquity in daily life Additionally, it integrates technology acceptance models tailored for Ubicomp environments The research aims to develop a utility theory process model for the creation and evaluation of Ubicomp applications, followed by theorizing and testing this model through various evaluation methods Ultimately, the findings will inform design guidelines for NFC-based Ubicomp applications.
This work is addressed to practitioners and the information systems (IS) research community
This article proposes a method for integrating evaluation techniques into the development of ubiquitous computing applications, specifically through the lens of Near Field Communication (NFC) It aims to enhance the existing scientific literature by presenting empirical findings from three case studies, alongside novel theoretical perspectives on ubiquitous computing.
This study focuses on managers tasked with developing and implementing innovative, user-centered services in the fields of NFC and RFID The relevant audience includes professionals within ubiquitous computing, information systems, and the human-computer interaction community.
This study supplements existing research in the field of ubiquitous computing.
Methodology
Ubicomp currently lacks extensive ex-post quantitative analysis due to the limited number of consumer applications To address this gap, existing Ubicomp application artifacts will be assessed based on design science principles This chapter outlines the fundamentals of design science, details the design science process, discusses utility theories within design science, and describes the overall research process.
(1) Design science: This study makes use of the problem-solving paradigm of design science
(Hevner et al 2004) Design science is based on the work of Simon (Simon 1980; Simon
1996) Design means to create something that does not occur in nature “Design science attempts to create things that serve human purposes” (March/Smith 1995) Simon called it
The "science of the artificial," as defined by Simon (1996), explores the distinction between the natural and artificial realms, focusing on the creation and design of evolving artifacts within socio-organizational contexts This approach emphasizes that design research is distinct from the act of design itself, as it aims to generate relevant knowledge (Vaishnavi/Kuechler 2004).
“Design Science” is “Technology Invention” (Venable 2006)
(2) Design science process: Design consists of a set of activities (processes) and a product
According to March and Smith, design science encompasses two key processes: develop/build and justify/evaluate, leading to the creation of four types of artifacts: constructs, models, methods, and instantiations (March/Smith 1995) Hevner et al illustrate the connection between these processes, where development and building focus on theories and artifacts, while justification and evaluation involve analytical research and case studies The foundation of design science is built on existing "kernel theories," which researchers apply, test, and potentially modify (Walls/Widmeyer/El Sawy 1992) An ongoing assessment and refinement cycle exists between the develop/build and justify/evaluate processes, as depicted in Fig 3.
Fig 3: IS research core activities
The design science process focuses on creating and assessing artifacts to fulfill business requirements, drawing upon foundational theories and frameworks from various disciplines during the development phase of research Methods offer essential guidelines for the justification and evaluation stages, ensuring adherence to rigorous research standards (Hevner et al., 2004) There exists a close relationship between design science and behavioral sciences, as technology and behavior are intertwined in information systems, allowing for the derivation of potential methods from social science (Hevner et al., 2004).
Application in the Appropriate Environment
Additions to the Knowledge Base
Environment Relevance IS Research Rigor Knowledge Base
Design artifacts represent the key outputs of design methodologies during the build phase Instantiation involves realizing these artifacts within their specific environments To effectively evaluate an instantiation, one must consider both the efficiency and effectiveness of the artifact, as well as its impact on users, utilizing behavioral science approaches for assessment For built artifacts, the integration of data and relevant research methods is essential to comprehend and validate their theoretical aspects This analysis focuses on evaluating built artifacts based on their intended functions within their environments.
Artifact design plays a crucial role in enriching Information Systems (IS) knowledge, underscoring its significance in research (March/Smith 1995; Simon 1996) and its impact on the scientific community Design science has been effectively applied in various IS research methodologies (Walls/Widmeyer/El Sawy 1992; Markus/Majchrzak 2002; Aiken/Sheng/Vogel).
Hevner et al emphasize the importance of integrating both technology-based and people-based artifacts to effectively tackle the acceptance challenges of information technology systems Design science addresses this objective by developing innovative artifacts that aim to transform existing phenomena (Hevner et al 2004).
This study addresses the research problem by developing and evaluating artifacts through the lens of utility theory Gregor emphasizes the significance of theory in Information Systems (IS) research, noting that previous scholars like March and Smith (1995) and Hevner et al (2004) primarily associate the term with natural-science research In light of this, Gregor (2006) references Weick (1995), advocating for the broader application of theory in scholarly work, stating, “Writers should feel free to use theory whenever they are theorizing.”
Utility theory, as outlined by Venable (2006), presents a promising solution to the limitations of current methodologies by asserting that information systems (IS) can enhance problematic situations The effectiveness and efficiency of an IS system or process are crucial indicators of its utility in resolving issues A theory qualifies as a utility theory if a newly implemented technology proves to be more effective than its predecessors or leads to recognized improvements This concept aligns with the problem space defined by Hevner et al (2004), which encompasses the business needs and extends to the causal relationships among various issues within a given context.
Fig 4: Utility theories in between solution and problem space
Utility theory must clearly define the specific problems that technological solutions aim to solve, recognizing that perceptions of these problems can vary among individuals, particularly researchers The scope of the problem is ultimately shaped by the researcher conducting the analysis This theoretical framework is essential for developing a process model for solutions and for creating new applications of existing technologies (Venable 2006) Furthermore, utility theory connects technology concepts, such as NFC prototypes, to the end-user acceptance aspects of the problems they address.
A utility theory must be clearly articulated at the outset and refined throughout the research process This continuous evolution of hypotheses and redefinitions is known as emergent theory (Vaishnavi/Kuechler 2004) As artifacts are assessed for their effectiveness in addressing problems or enhancing processes, these emergent utility theories undergo further evaluation.
Theoretical speculation plays a crucial role in design research, with utility theory serving as a foundational element for the design-based research process This thesis aims to evaluate technology concerning specific problems by employing a utility theory framework, utilizing a process model grounded in established Information Systems (IS) theories The resulting design or utility theory is robustly supported, as highlighted by Goldkuhl (2004).
(5) Research process: In addition to its theoretical grounding, a research process is set up
Pfeffers et al (2006) introduce a design science research process model that integrates process elements from various information systems methodologies, drawing from the works of Archer (1965), Eekels and Roozenburg (1991), Hevner et al (2004), Nunamaker, Chen, and Purdin (1991), Takeda (1990), and Walls, Widmeyer, and El Sawy (1992).
Based on the design science research process a problem is identified for each artifact (instantiation) The objectives of the solution are stated, and artifacts are designed and
Utility theories (efficacy, efficiency in addressing problems) Problem space
The development of problem understanding is crucial in evaluating the effectiveness of artifacts in solving issues By employing a utility theory alongside various behavioral science methods, researchers can adopt an integrated multi-dimensional and multi-methodological approach, leading to valuable insights in Information Systems (IS) research Despite facing challenges related to philosophy, culture, psychology, and practical implementation, the outcomes remain promising Utilizing multiphase research designs allows for the collection of diverse data types and facilitates the assessment of phenomena from multiple perspectives.
The research process, depicted in Fig 5, begins with a theoretical background outlined in chapters 2 and 3, followed by the development of utility theory in chapter 4 This theoretical framework is essential for creating and evaluating artifacts as per Hevner's process (Hevner et al 2004) The analysis features three artifacts that address specific problems within the domain, leveraging NFC technology as part of ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp) and focusing on the end-user experience Utility theory serves as a model to connect the evaluated artifacts, each contributing to the Ubicomp knowledge base and aiding in the testing and refinement of the process model throughout the analysis.
Fig 5: Research process and incorporation of design science in the analysis
Bearing this research process in mind, the following section explains the structure of this analysis in which the three artifacts are lined up in a chapter structure.
Thesis Structure
The thesis analysis combines methodology, theory, and empirical studies Design science provides the framework for the research process, the employed methods and the case studies
Artifact I Artifact II Artifact III
Add to developing utility theory
Add knowledge to develop and build the artifacts
Add theory/methods to evaluate the artifacts
Based on the aforementioned design science process the remainder of this analysis is structured as follows (see Fig 6) 4 :
• Chapter 1 outlines the field of investigation, the research problem and objectives, relevant work in the field, and the methodology of design science
• Chapter 2 covers aspects relevant to the research problem in the ubiquitous computing field, RFID and NFC in general
• Chapter 3 expounds on the theoretical framework developed in chapter 2 and explains in more detail human computer interaction theory, as well as innovation adoption and technology acceptance models
Chapter 4 introduces a utility theory that outlines the design science research process, serving as a process model for the development and assessment of Ubicomp applications This theory forms the foundation for evaluating the artifacts discussed in Chapters 5 and 6.
Chapter 5 analyzes two artifacts from a case study, evaluating them through the lens of utility theory discussed in Chapter 4 These artifacts are currently in the early stages of prototyping.
• Chapter 6 expounds on the view of a later-stage working prototype evaluation in the field
• Chapter 7 summarizes the findings and draws conclusions In addition future research directions in the area are presented
To enhance readability, this thesis will consistently use the male pronoun "he" to refer to neutral individuals The structure of the thesis is organized as follows: chapters are indicated by a single number (Y), while subsections are denoted as Y.Y, and all other divisions are termed sections Additionally, any figures presented without a cited source are original illustrations created by the author.
Theoretical framework (Technology acceptance and HCI perspective)
Human-Computer Interaction Innovation adoption/
Field of investigation: Ubicomp Research problem
Public Transport Company (Case Study + Artifact III)
Initial idea and low-fidelity prototypes
Mobile Prosumer (Case Study +Artifact II)
This chapter aims to provide the theoretical foundation essential for understanding the characteristics of ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp) technology Its sub-goals include exploring the key principles and concepts that underpin Ubicomp, ensuring a comprehensive grasp of its implications and applications in modern technology.
• define Ubicomp and Ubicomp applications in a working definition (in Chapter 2.1),
• describe available Ubicomp technologies and attributes of the underlying technology (in Chapter 2.1),
• define building blocks of an Ubicomp infrastructure and narrow these blocks down for an initial model (in Chapter 2.1),
• and to research what the user knows about the Ubicomp technologies to look at the current state of everyday use of technologies such as RFID (in Chapter 2.2)
• Finally a conclusion is drawn (in Chapter 2.3)
Ubiquitous Computing
Definition
Ubiquitous Computing, often referred to as "Pervasive Computing" or "Calm Computing," encompasses various definitions depending on the context.
According to the Merriam-Webster Online dictionary, "ubiquitous" means existing everywhere simultaneously, while "pervasive" refers to something that spreads throughout every part The term "calm" implies a state free from disturbance, contrasting with agitation or violence Together, these definitions suggest that ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp) should embody a serene simplicity that is omnipresent, ultimately enhancing human life in a seamless and supportive manner.
In his writings, Mark Weiser defines ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp) as invisible computers of various sizes designed for specific tasks, emphasizing that "people will simply use them unconsciously to accomplish everyday tasks." This perspective highlights that the primary goal of Ubicomp is to be human-centered, aiming to seamlessly integrate computing into daily life.
F Resatsch, Ubiquitous Computing, DOI 10.1007/ 978-3-8349-8683-2_ , © Gabler Verlag | Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH 2010
Ubiquitous computing refers to technology that allows human interaction beyond a single workstation, enabling machines to adapt to human needs rather than the other way around, as defined by Abowd in 1996.
The term "Internet of Things" refers to a network of interconnected objects that can communicate and interact with one another, as outlined by various researchers (Fleisch/Mattern 2005; Gershenfeld/Krikorian/Cohen 2004; Leimeister/Krcmar 2005; Mattern 2003a) This concept represents a key aspect of the broader vision for technological integration and connectivity.
The National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST, 2001) defines ubiquitous computing as a system characterized by a multitude of easily accessible and often invisible computing devices These devices are typically mobile or integrated into the surrounding environment, enhancing user interaction and connectivity.
(3) connected to an increasingly ubiquitous network structure
Ubiquitous computing emphasizes the pervasive yet often unnoticed presence of computers, while mobile computing highlights the mobility of devices like mobile phones Although mobile phones are not invisible themselves, their data transfer actions occur seamlessly, making them less noticeable According to Pfaff and Skiera (2005), mobile computing is a subset of ubiquitous computing, where users directly interact with mobile devices In contrast, some forms of ubiquitous computing do not require interaction with a single device The significance of adequate infrastructure cannot be overstated, as it is essential for enabling connected devices and integrating desired services into daily life.
The concept of invisibility in ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp) emphasizes simplicity of use rather than the literal invisibility of computers Mark Weiser described computers as an "invisible part of the way people live their lives," suggesting that they will seamlessly integrate into daily activities (Weiser 1991, 2) He further noted that computers would become "invisible to common awareness," allowing users to engage with technology unconsciously while completing everyday tasks (Weiser 1991, 2) Ultimately, ease of use and unconscious interaction are central to the essence of Ubicomp.
As for today, further wireless technologies can also be part of Ubicomp To sum up, the working definition of Ubiquitous Computing for this study is:
Ubiquitous network and communication infrastructures consist of various miniaturized and often invisible technologies that seamlessly integrate into everyday human activities, facilitating applications and interactions with ease of use.
This article centers on applications within the Ubicomp domain, emphasizing the importance of understanding the term "application" in this context To clarify its meaning, a precise definition of application is essential for the discussion.
Here a Ubicomp application is defined as an application that:
• functions as an information technology system for end users
• features relevant hardware (infrastructure plus networked technology)
• features software (interaction, communication, services and process)
• is in the everyday range of human beings
According to IBM, an application is defined as "the use to which an information processing system is put," emphasizing the user’s perspective In this context, the term application encompasses both the software and hardware components of the NFC-based Ubicomp system, including its infrastructure, which is central to the development of computing systems The application program, or software application, is the coded element that governs system operations Understanding this distinction is crucial for evaluating the applications developed during the analysis.
Building Blocks
Fleisch and Thiesse state a list of smart object functionalities, that can also be extended to a list of building blocks in the Ubicomp context (Fleisch/Thiesse 2007):
• Identification Objects need to be uniquely identified This identification alone allows the object to be linked with services and information which are stored in the network
• Memory The device needs storage capacity so that it can carry information about its past or future
Smart objects can autonomously make decisions without relying on a central planning authority For instance, an industrial container can independently determine its route within the supply chain.
Smart objects possess networking capabilities that allow them to connect with various resources and communicate with each other through ad-hoc networking, enabling the mutual sharing of data and services.
• Sensor technology The object collects information about its environment (temperature, light conditions, other objects, etc.), records it and/or reacts to it (referred to as context awareness)
5 http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/printer/v1r1/index.jsp?topic= /com.ibm.printers.ip4100 opguide/ic3o0mst218.htm - Accessed 25.02.08
The integration of computer technology with physical objects introduces new challenges for user interfaces, necessitating innovative solutions This evolution requires approaches akin to the mouse and desktop metaphor of graphical user interfaces, such as the development of haptic interfaces.
• Location & tracking Smart objects know their position (location) or can be located by others (tracking), for example at the global level by GPS or inside buildings by ultrasound
A Ubicomp application does not necessarily include all these building blocks, but the list shows the relevance (and complexity) of Ubicomp systems.
Technologies
Ubicomp is fundamentally driven by the integration of various miniaturized and often invisible technologies that operate seamlessly within our daily lives This concept emphasizes the importance of unobtrusive wireless technology, which is essential for its functionality An overview of current wireless technologies, including the role of NFC, is provided in Table 1 (Fine et al 2006).
Technology Frequency Typical Range Data Range
13.56 MHz (HF) 400-930 MHz (UF) 2.5 GHz & 5 GHz (microwave)
Ultra-Wideband 802.15.3a 3.1 GHz 10 meters, 2 meters 110, 480 Mbps
GPRS 900, 1800, 1900 MHz National Network 160 kbps
EDGE 900, 1800, 1900 MHz National Network 160 kbps
UMTS 900, 1800, 1900 MHz In selected cities 2 Mbps
CDMA2000/1XRTT 1900 MHz, others National Network 156-307.2 kbps CDMA2000/1xEV DO 1900 MHz, others In selected cities 2.4 Mbps
Table 1: Overview on wireless technologies
RFID and Near Field Communication (NFC) are characterized by their very short communication ranges, while Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technologies like Zigbee and Bluetooth 1.1 and 2.0, as well as Ultra-Wideband, offer slightly extended ranges Following these are Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN), which operate at various frequencies for broader coverage At the far end of the spectrum, Wireless Wide Area Networks (WWAN) encompass mobile phone network technologies, including GPRS, EDGE, UMTS, and CDMA, providing extensive connectivity options.
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology is a key driver of ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp), as it aligns with the concept of integrating small, miniaturized microchips into everyday life While Near Field Communication (NFC) operates at the same frequency as RFID, it serves distinct purposes and adheres to different standards This analysis specifically examines the role of RFID in the development of NFC, particularly in the context of mobile phones equipped with RFID reader capabilities.
Ubiquitous computing encompasses various technologies that connect virtual data with real-world objects This concept, highlighted by Nicolai, Resatsch, and Michelis in 2005, has led to the integration of barcodes in Ubicomp applications, as noted by Adelmann, Langheinrich, and Flürkemeier in 2006 This practice is often referred to as "tagging," a term popularized by Thiesse.
2007), is shown in Fig 7 as the bigger tagging picture
Tag data is physically stored on tags in the form of text or codes, including various data standards like UPC, ISO, EPC, URL, IP addresses, or uCodes These codes can be embedded in RFID chips or represented through optical systems, such as barcodes.
RFID tags come in three types: passive, semi-passive (or semi-active), and active, utilizing radio frequency transmission at various frequencies for reading by RFID readers In contrast, optical systems employ barcodes—linear, composite, or matrix—that are scanned using visible light or infrared by optical scanners, including cashier systems.
Services / Content / Enterprise applications Applications
LAN WLAN WiMax Mobile phone network (GPRS, UMTS, EDGE)
Rad io sys te m Optical sy stem
Proprietary ISO EPC NFC Bluetooth WiFI ZigBee
Object data scanners, including RFID readers and optical scanners, facilitate the transfer of data from tags to the reader This data is then transmitted to a computer system via wired or wireless networks, utilizing technologies like LAN, WLAN, WiMAX, GPRS, UMTS, and EDGE The applications associated with this data match the code or ID, enabling the initiation of web services, accessing additional object data, or integrating with enterprise applications.
Barcodes, when compared to RFID technology, exhibit significant technical limitations, primarily requiring a line of sight for scanning This necessity makes barcodes more obtrusive and less seamlessly integrated into everyday life, in contrast to the more versatile and contactless nature of NFC Consequently, this article focuses on the application of RFID in ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp) scenarios.
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
An RFID system consists of the following components (see Fig 8) (Fine et al 2006):
Fig 8: Components of an RFID system
RFID systems utilize tags that store data, with transmission occurring via electromagnetic waves whose reach varies by frequency and magnetic field RFID readers are capable of both reading from and writing data to these tags Connectivity between readers and applications is facilitated through Wireless LAN, Bluetooth, or wired connections Within a database, the information stored on the tag is linked to specific data points.
This article explores RFID technology from an Information Systems perspective, covering key aspects such as industry standards, the functionality of RFID tags and data management, and the technology's capacity It also examines the various shapes and forms of RFID tags, their operating frequencies, transmission methods, and the role of RFID readers and connectivity in the system Additionally, the discussion includes an analysis of the costs associated with implementing RFID solutions.
Various organizations play a crucial role in the development and definition of RFID standards, including the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), EPCglobal Inc., the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) These standards encompass hardware specifications, which establish the air interface protocol and tag data format, as well as Tag ID standards that define the coding system or namespace Additionally, application standards outline the data handling processes within RFID services (Fine et al 2006) In Germany, specific standards are applicable, as detailed in Table 2.
Tag + data Transmissio n Reader Connectivity
RFID readers Wired/wireless networks RFID applications
Auto-ID Class 0 / Class 1 Air Interface Communication 860 – 930 MHz
EPCglobal Gen 2 New standard for Air Interface
ISO 14443 Air Interface and Identification for
ISO 15993-2 Air Interface and Identification 13.56 MHz
ISO 15993-3 Air Interface, Anti-collision and transmitter protocol
ISO 18000 RFID Air Interface Standard; New standard – ranges from 18000-1 (Generic parameters for the Air Interface for globally accepted frequencies) to 18000-
ISO 18092 Also ECMA 340; Near Field
Table 2: ISO and EPCglobal standards
RFID tags consist of a microchip and a transponder and can be classified as either active or passive Active RFID tags require a power source, such as an integrated battery or external power, which limits their battery life based on read operations and stored energy These tags can transmit signals over several hundred meters due to their power source, making them larger and more expensive than passive tags Consequently, active RFID tags are typically utilized for tracking high-value items over long distances.
Passive RFID tags are advantageous for low-value products and retail trade as they do not require batteries or maintenance, offering an indefinite operational life These tags can be conveniently printed into adhesive labels, consisting of an antenna and a conductor chip, with optional encapsulation for added protection.
The conductor chip retains data associated with its attached object or tag, which can be programmed during manufacturing or updated by the end user in the field.
The tags can be read-only, write-once, read many (WORM), or read/write:
• Read-only: At the point of manufacture, an n bit serial identification number is assigned to the chip Information related to the identification number is stored in a central database
• WORM: WORM tags allow one writing procedure and an infinite number of reading processes
• Read/Write: Data can be written and read
Semi-passive tag systems utilize battery power for chip logic while relying on harvested energy for communication Although they offer a greater reading range compared to passive tags, their lifespan is limited by battery longevity (Ward/Kranenburg/Backhouse 2006).
Passive tags can store from 64 bits up to 64KB of non-volatile memory Active tags have a larger memory
RFID tags come in many shapes and sizes (see Fig 9)
Fig 9: Different shapes of RFID tags
Source: transponder.de; RFIDJournal.com, 2006
Tags are utilized in diverse applications, including a creative experiment by Fine et al (2006), where pigeons were tracked after ingesting a tag Common uses of tagging include animal tracking (Informationsforum-RFID 2006b) and monitoring at ski lifts (Informationsforum-RFID 2006a).
Conventional RFID tags are primarily silicon-based and rely on attachment technologies or fluidic self-assembly to connect to their antennas However, these methods are not cost-effective for large-scale production A promising solution for reducing the cost of RFID tags involves the use of printed electronic technologies, specifically organic electronics.
Projected costs for high-throughput printed RFID tags are anticipated to be significantly lower than current RFID technology due to the removal of lithography and vacuum processing requirements These printed tags may operate at a frequency of 13.56MHz; however, their current performance is insufficient for practical applications Ongoing improvements are necessary to achieve fully printed RFID tags, which are not yet available on a large scale and thus not utilized in existing case studies.
RFID technology operates within frequency ranges of 300 kHz to 3 GHz, varying by country regulations Radio frequencies are categorized into low frequency (LF), high frequency (HF), ultra-high frequency (UHF), and microwave Notably, active RFID tags transmit solely at higher frequencies, while passive tags are capable of transmitting across all frequency ranges.
3 shows the communication range of different frequency bands and system types
Frequency band System type Communication Range
Legend: =Widely available = Available = Not available
Table 3: Communication range of RFID systems
Table 4 lists typical applications relevant to the available frequencies (see Table 3):
Point-of-sale theft prevention; access control;
400 MHz: Car key remote control;
915 MHz: toll collection; pallet tracking;
Supply chain management, container, toll collection, ISM (industrial, scientific, medical)
Data rate less than 1 kilobit per second (kbit/s) approx 25 kbit/s 30 kbit/s 100 kbit /s
Ability to read near metal or wet surfaces
Coupling Inductive Inductive Backscatter Backscatter
Maturity Very mature Established New In development
Table 4: Typical applications and characteristics
Source: adapted from (Fine et al 2006, 8; BITKOM 2005; Ward/Kranenburg/Backhouse 2006; Dressen
As with every technology, the quality of RFID tags increases over time Physical constraints cannot be overcome, but tag readability and data rates are improved and costs are dropping
There are two primary RFID design approaches for transferring energy from the reader to the tag: magnetic induction and electromagnetic wave capture These designs operate in either near field or far field configurations By utilizing modulation techniques, RFID systems can effectively transmit and receive data.
The electromagnetic wave capture is also called back scatter transmission (Want 2006)
A distinction is made between the (1) far-field RFID and the (2) near-field RFID:
(1) Far-field RFID: Tags using far-field principles operate above 100 MHz, typically in the
Backscatter technology operates within the 865 MHz to 2.45 GHz range, utilizing reflected signals to transmit data by modulating the reader's signal The effective range of this system is influenced by the energy transmitted from the reader, but advancements in semiconductor manufacturing have reduced the energy required to power tags, resulting in increased operational distances of up to 3 meters The EPCglobal Class-1 generation 96-bit tag has garnered significant attention and has been showcased by major retailers like Wal-Mart and Tesco, as well as the Metro Future Store in Germany, which implemented UHF technology.
(2) Near-field RFID: Near-field RFID uses magnetic induction between a reader and a tag
Near-field induction is illustrated in Fig 10, where an RFID reader generates a magnetic field by passing alternating current through a reading coil When an RFID tag with a smaller coil is within the reader's range, it experiences an induced alternating voltage, which is influenced by the tag's data This voltage is then rectified to power the tag's chip, enabling it to send data back to the reader through load modulation.
Fig 10: Using induction in the near field region
When a current flows through the tag coil in a passive RFID system, it generates a magnetic field that opposes the reader's field, which the reader coil can detect Various modulation techniques can be utilized based on the required number of bits and data transfer rates Initially, near-field coupling was the primary method for implementing passive RFID systems; however, its physical limitations restricted certain applications The range of magnetic induction is approximately |r| = c/2πf, where c represents the speed of light and f denotes frequency As the frequency increases, the effective range of near-field coupling decreases, and energy constraints further limit applications requiring higher power.
Near Field Communication (NFC)
Near Field Communication (NFC) is a standardized technology that facilitates data exchange between electronic devices like mobile phones, PCs, and RFID tags By bringing NFC-compatible devices close together, they can recognize each other and determine data transfer methods This technology can be integrated into various user devices, including personal digital assistants and televisions NFC, related to RFID, has a maximum operational distance of about 10 cm, though practical experience suggests it often works best within 1 to 2 cm NFC is standardized under ISO 18092 (ECMA 340).
The NFC Forum has specified a general architecture for various end user devices, such as smart cards as well as mobile phones
Fig 11: NFC Forum technology architecture
Source: © 2006 by NFC Forum (nfc-forum.org)
The NFC Forum establishes standards for three modes of NFC operation: peer-to-peer, read/write, and card emulation, spanning from application to radio frequency (RF) layers The RF layer adheres to the NFC forum tag specification, facilitating various applications In peer-to-peer mode, the Logical Link Control Protocol (LLCP) connects to the RF layer, while read/write mode utilizes Record Type Definitions (RTD) and NFC Data Exchange Format (NDEF) Additionally, the card emulation mode serves as a specialized protocol for mobile devices, enabling functionalities such as payment processing and public ticket services.
In the realm of radio frequency applications, selecting the appropriate technology can be challenging Decisions often rely on previously gathered data from RF signals or assumptions about the technology in use However, uninformed choices may lead to trial-and-error methods, resulting in slower transaction times and a diminished user experience For readers supporting multiple contactless technologies, an ineffective selection algorithm can cause deadlocks To mitigate this issue, an anti-collision and initialization procedure is essential.
The technology architecture encompasses the NFC Data Exchange Format (NDEF) and three Record Type Definitions (RTDs) tailored for specific applications, as detailed in NFC Forum publications NDEF serves as the standard exchange format, comprising messages, records, and payloads Each NDEF message can contain multiple records, with each record defined by its type and type format.
RF Layer ISO 18092 + ISO 14443 Type A, Type B + Felica
Smart Card Capability for Mobile Devices
The article discusses various NFC modes, including peer-to-peer, read/write, and card emulation modes, highlighting the significance of the payload, which consists of application data within the NDEF record It also mentions the RTD, a specific record type for NFC, and emphasizes that different communication and interaction styles can be achieved based on the underlying architecture.
NFC devices, including NFC readers, facilitate bi-directional information transfer between devices When integrated into mobile phones, NFC enables various interactions, such as between a phone and a tag, smart card and reader, or between two NFC devices This article focuses on the interaction between an NFC-enabled mobile phone and an NFC tag, highlighting the importance of understanding mobile NFC architecture to grasp its complexity.
Figure 13 (Fig 13) shows the reference mobile NFC architecture as defined by the GSM Association
6 Source: http://mobilezoo.biz/jsr/257/javax/microedition/contactless/ndef/NDEFRecord.html - accessed 11.02.2009
7 Source: http://java.sun.com/developer/technicalArticles/javame/nfc/ - accessed 11.02.2009
Fig 13: Mobile NFC technical architecture
The mobile NFC architecture comprises several essential components, including the mobile phone's operating system, applications (potentially residing on the SIM card), and a contactless interface A merchant's Point-of-Sale (PoS) system connects to the application owner, which may be separate from the service provider A trusted service manager facilitates a contactless service management platform through Over-the-Air NFC service management The card issuer, typically the Mobile Network Operator (MNO), oversees the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card management system, linked to the SIM card's pre-configuration by the manufacturer To effectively develop NFC applications and establish a robust NFC ecosystem, it is crucial to focus on the surrounding ecosystem more than in traditional mobile service architectures.
Several NFC phones are currently available in the market: In the first case studies the Nokia
The Nokia 3220 was initially tested with an NFC shell that enhances the standard phone cover by incorporating an NFC reader/writer antenna This shell features a pre-installed Java Service Discovery application, enabling users to create shortcuts for actions like dialing calls, sending SMS, and browsing the web When the NFC device is in proximity to the tag, these shortcuts automatically launch the corresponding applications Subsequently, the Nokia 6131 NFC was utilized in further case studies, showcasing the integration of NFC technology in mobile devices.
(perfomed by MNO or Trusted Third Party)
SIM Card Management System (CMS)
The Conta ctl ess Interfac e is an operating system that is seamlessly integrated into mobile phones, featuring automatic NFC tag recognition A notable advancement in this technology was the introduction of the Nokia 6131 NFC in 2007, which marked a significant step forward in mobile communication capabilities.
6212 NFC introduced to the market in late 2008 (see Fig 14)
Fig 14: NFC and Felica™ phones
Early Nokia NFC phones included a Nokia NFC shell, a pad extender for connectivity, and a pre-installed Java application for Service Discovery, enabling shortcuts for calls, SMS, and web browsing, along with NXP MIFARE® 1K Standard RFID sticker tags for object and task identification In contrast, newer models feature a seamlessly integrated NFC antenna and tag.
NFC technology presents a distinct approach compared to traditional RFID systems, primarily focusing on the interaction between a user's mobile phone and stationary NFC tags It operates in two modes: active, where both devices create a radio field for data transfer, and passive, where only one device generates the field, typically a tag, while the other modulates it This design minimizes infrastructure costs, as NFC requires fewer readers compared to RFID, allowing users to conveniently access services through widely distributed NFC tags.
Chipset manufacturers are integrating NFC technology into existing Bluetooth chipsets to reduce unit costs This integration involves implementing NFC as a System-on-Chip (SoC), leveraging existing RF-based technology components such as antennas, power, clocks, and data buses By treating NFC as a peripheral within a host system, manufacturers can achieve significant cost savings and efficient integration in high-volume products, ultimately requiring less space, processing power, and energy.
Mobile handset manufacturers are advancing NFC technology by offering various Software Development Kits (SDKs) One notable example is the Nokia 6131 NFC SDK, which enables the emulation of Java applications, known as MIDlets, specifically designed for the Nokia 6131 NFC mobile phone.
6212 NFC SDK may be used for the new 6212
To develop Java applications for Symbian mobile phones, developers can utilize Java Platform Micro Edition (Java ME), which is a subset of standard Java that includes mobile-specific Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) Alternatively, Flash Lite can be used for mobile development For Java ME development, a Java SE Development Kit (JDK) is essential, along with a wireless toolkit and a mobile-phone SDK, such as the Nokia Symbian OS SDK for Java or the Nokia NFC SDK Additionally, an integrated development environment (IDE) and a Java add-on are required to facilitate the development process.
ME development (EclipseME or NetBeans can be used)
Developing NFC applications for Java handsets utilizes the contactless API (JSR-257) and the Mobile Information Device Profile (MIDP), enabling developers to create applications for network-connectable mobile devices For security-related applications, the security and trust API for J2ME (JSR-177) is employed Additionally, various Java Specification Requests (JSR) will soon be integrated into the Mobile Service Architecture (MSA) specification.
RFID and NFC Information Systems
The system outlined in section 2.12 integrates several essential functions, including identification, memory, processing logic, networking, sensor technology, user interface, and location tracking At the core of this RFID and NFC-based system is the user, whose RFID chip, embedded with a unique identification number, is read by a mobile phone equipped with memory capabilities A user-friendly Graphical User Interface (GUI) facilitates interaction with the system, while an application on the phone processes the ID through various methods, including HTTP or app routing Optional sensor technology can be incorporated into the RFID chip, and networking relies on connecting frequencies such as GSM, UMTS, or Bluetooth Additionally, a backend framework links the ID to specific services, including third-party options, through its service management component, effectively matching tag data with user information.
This analysis explores the application of ubiquitous computing technology and its interface with users through Near Field Communication (NFC) It encompasses key areas such as human-computer interaction, technology acceptance in application development and evaluation, and the integration of Ubicomp technology within an NFC system, including NFC phones, chips, and their surrounding environment.
Fig 16: NFC information systems structure
Research on RFID systems has been conducted at an academic level, highlighting the need for companies to gain a deeper understanding of end-users for effective planning This article explores current consumer perceptions of RFID technology and draws insights that can inform the development of NFC as its successor.