INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
The aims of the study
This study aims to enhance English vocabulary teaching for Vietnamese learners at CFS, Nong Lam University, drawing on insights from previous research and the experiences of both colleagues and the researcher.
1) To investigate the reciprocal relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension;
2) To systematize and incorporate the two groups of discovery strategies “context analysis” and “word structure analysis” into a reading comprehension class to help students improve their reading comprehension; and
3) To suggest some implications for teaching and learning vocabulary in a TOEIC reading comprehension class.
Content and scope of the study
This study focuses on students enrolled in TOEIC preparation courses at CFS, Nong Lam University, and the findings are specifically applicable to this context Consequently, the results may not be generalized to other settings or circumstances.
This study focuses on two key discovery strategies—context analysis and word structure analysis—due to time constraints The researcher believes that these strategies can significantly enhance students' reading comprehension skills when preparing for the TOEIC test.
Significance of the study
Effective vocabulary teaching involves understanding that knowing a word encompasses more than just its meaning; it includes pronunciation, spelling, part of speech, word structure (prefixes, roots, and suffixes), multiple meanings, and the context of use Teachers must recognize the complexity of vocabulary acquisition and incorporate these various aspects when introducing new words to students.
This study examines vocabulary in reading, emphasizing its morphological, syntactic, and pragmatic aspects Understanding a word goes beyond traditional approaches that view vocabulary in isolation It explores the nature of word knowledge, including its components and the various types such as active, passive, receptive, and productive knowledge The findings aim to provide valuable insights and recommendations for both English teachers and learners.
The strategies of discovering word meanings through context analysis and word structure analysis are not new; however, they have been revitalized in their development and application within the TOEIC-oriented syllabus.
Experienced teachers recognize that vocabulary is crucial for language acquisition Mastery of grammar and pronunciation alone is insufficient; without a robust vocabulary, meaningful communication is impossible The more words students learn, the better their comprehension becomes A strong vocabulary enables access to diverse reading materials and enhances overall communication skills across reading, speaking, listening, and writing.
To master context and word structure analysis, students must enhance their linguistic knowledge and critical reading skills, leading them to engage in high-level textual analysis This process encompasses various analytical approaches, including semiotics, rhetorical analysis, ideological analysis, and psychoanalytic methods, which delve into both denotative and connotative meanings By focusing on structural characteristics such as coherence, text organization, and conceptual density, students achieve a deeper understanding of the material Ultimately, these strategies significantly enrich vocabulary and enhance reading comprehension at a profound level.
The organization of the study
The study is structured into five chapters, beginning with an introduction that outlines the study's background, purpose, significance, and organization Chapter 2 reviews the literature on vocabulary's critical role in reading comprehension, exploring the relationship between the two, the nature of vocabulary acquisition, and effective teaching methods such as context analysis and word-structure analysis, while also considering characteristics of TOEIC reading materials Chapter 3 details the study's design and methodology, including subject characteristics, instruments used, experimental teaching methods, and data collection procedures Chapter 4 presents the data analysis and discusses the findings, while Chapter 5 concludes the study and offers teaching implications and recommendations for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Reading as a process of communication
Essential factors affecting reading comprehension
Numerous variables impact reading comprehension, typically classified into two main categories: reader-related factors and text-related factors, as highlighted by Alderson (2000).
2.2.1 Factors related to the reader
Readers approach texts with varying competencies, including background knowledge, subject expertise, linguistic skills, socio-cultural understanding, and reading strategies (Alderson, 2000; RAND, 2002; Lehr & Osborn, 2005) These competencies influence the reading process at multiple levels, ranging from fundamental skills like word recognition to advanced abilities such as text analysis This section will highlight key aspects of these reading competencies.
For years, vocabulary instruction has been overlooked in favor of grammatical knowledge, often viewed merely as a tool to support grammatical structures However, recent perspectives highlight vocabulary as a crucial element in language development, underscoring its significance in effective language acquisition (Harmer, 1991).
Researchers emphasize that vocabulary is essential to language, serving as its core components While grammatical structures are significant, the effective use of vocabulary can often compensate for structural errors For instance, a student might incorrectly say, “Yesterday, I have seen him yesterday,” demonstrating a serious mistake in English tenses; however, the meaning remains clear due to the vocabulary used.
Grammatical knowledge enables us to construct sentences, but it is equally important to have clear ideas to communicate We need a rich vocabulary to accurately express these thoughts For instance, when describing our current emotions, we must choose the right words that capture the nuances of our feelings.
Research by methodologists and linguists indicates a strong correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension, highlighting the critical role vocabulary plays in understanding texts (Alderson, 2000).
A strong vocabulary is essential for reading comprehension, as proficient readers often possess a rich vocabulary Understanding a text requires knowledge of individual word meanings, enabling readers to construct meaning by interpreting the words Consequently, insufficient vocabulary knowledge presents a significant barrier to the reading comprehension process (Nagy, 1988:1).
Research indicates a strong connection between syntax and reading comprehension Schmitt (1997) emphasizes that grammar knowledge is crucial for fluent reading abilities, a view supported by Alderson (2000), who also highlights the correlation between grammar and reading skills In second language contexts, studies on syntactic processing reveal significant relationships between syntactic analysis and reading comprehension (Grabe, 2005) Furthermore, Nuttall (1996) notes that complex sentences and challenging syntax can hinder understanding, even when the vocabulary is known.
Grammar plays a crucial role in reading comprehension, as highlighted by Grabe (2005:131-132), who notes that when a reader engages with a text, visual word recognition and the extraction of syntactic information occur simultaneously This syntactic parsing is essential for constructing meaningful phrases and clauses, which in turn aids in the formation of semantic propositions and helps clarify ambiguities in the text.
“when words are recognized and syntax is being parsing, the meaning of clauses and sentences is being constructed.”
About the contribution of grammar to reading comprehension, Grabe
Grammatical word order limits the potential for alternative meanings, while grammatical structure categorizes parts of speech and clarifies the semantic roles of noun phrases in relation to verbs Additionally, it differentiates between main and subordinate information, enabling readers to identify key referents in the text through elements like demonstrative determiners and relative clauses.
Effective information processing abilities are crucial for comprehension According to Alderson (2000), while readers may possess relevant knowledge, they often lack the skills necessary to effectively process text To understand printed materials, it is essential for readers to acquire fundamental reading skills, such as skimming for general ideas and scanning for specific facts (Gebhard, 1996) Additionally, developing metacognitive skills is vital, including the ability to identify key information, adjust reading speed, preview content, use context to clarify misunderstandings, and formulate questions regarding the material (Alderson, 2000).
Numerous studies have sought to catalog reading skills and their interrelationships, though the findings are still debated Nonetheless, experts generally concur that specific strategies are commonly employed by readers when engaging with various text types.
In his work, Nunan (1999) quotes a list of reading strategies developed by the teachers in the ELTU at Chinese University (Table 2.1)
He believes that by choosing the best strategies for different texts and different purposes, second language readers can significantly increase both their reading speed as well as their comprehension
Improving reading comprehension is best achieved through consistent practice, emphasizing the importance of reading regularly Teachers should focus on developing practical strategies rather than solely theoretical approaches (Nuttall, 1996), as these strategies are interconnected The reading process inherently involves multiple strategies working together (Alderson, 2000).
1 Having a purpose It is important for students to have a clear purpose and to keep in mind what they want to gain from the text
2 Previewing Conducting a quick survey of the text to identify the topic, the main idea, and the organization of the text
3 Skimming Looking quickly through the text to get a general idea of what it is about
4 Scanning Looking quickly through the text in order to locate specific information
5 Clustering Reading clusters of words as a unit
6 Avoiding bad habits Avoiding bad habits such as reading word-by-word
7 Predicting Anticipating what is to come
8 Reading actively Asking questions and then reading for answers
9 Inferring Identifying ideas that are not explicitly stated
10 Identifying genres Identifying the overall organizational pattern of a text
Identifying the organizational structure of a paragraph, for example, whether it follows an inductive or deductive pattern
Identifying the subject and main verb in complex sentences
Assigning correct referents to proforms, and identifying the function of conjunctions
Using context as well as parts of words (e.g., prefixes, suffixes, and stems) to work out the meaning of unknown words
Understanding the use of figurative language and metaphors
Using what one already knows to understand new ideas
17 Identifying style and its purpose
Understanding the writer’s purpose in using different stylistic devices, such as a series of short or long sentences
18 Evaluating Reading critically and assessing the truth value of textual information
19 Integrating information Tracking ideas that are developed across the text through techniques such as highlighting and note taking
20 Reviewing Looking back over a text and summarizing it
21 Reading to present Understanding the text fully and then presenting it to others
Table 2.1: A typology of reading strategies (Nunan, 1999:265-266)
A seminal study by Steffensen (1981) examined the impact of socio-cultural backgrounds on reading comprehension by comparing North American and Indian readers Participants read texts about a North American wedding and an Indian wedding, revealing that North American readers comprehended the North American wedding passage better, while Indian readers excelled with the Indian wedding text (Nunan, 1999).
Reading is not only a cognitive skill but also a cultural and social activity that reflects the diverse environments in which students grow up According to Lehr and Osborn (2005), the varying reading abilities among students often mirror the different social and cultural contexts of their lives This perspective is echoed by Catherine Snow (RAND, 2002), emphasizing the influence of these factors on literacy development.
“reader variability is a product of the fact that children come from and learn to read in varying socio-cultural contexts.”
The reciprocal relationship between vocabulary
Research indicates a significant link between vocabulary instruction and reading comprehension; a larger vocabulary—whether spoken or written—facilitates better understanding of texts (National Reading Panel, 2000).
Hsueh-chao and Nation (2000) highlight the intricate and evolving relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension This relationship can be understood through two main perspectives: the impact of vocabulary knowledge on reading comprehension and the influence of reading comprehension on the growth of vocabulary knowledge Before delving into these dimensions, it is essential to consider a fundamental element: the interaction between the writer and the reader.
2.3.1 The relationship between the writer and the reader
Traditionally, we believe that meaning resides within the text, waiting to be uncovered However, this perspective is only partially accurate, as readers actively play a role in shaping the meaning they extract from the text (Nuttall, 1996:18).
The role of readers in the reading process raises important questions, such as whether different interpretations of a text imply a singular "real" meaning and if we should consult the author for clarification (Nuttall, 1996:18) Numerous studies have explored these inquiries, yet providing a definitive answer remains complex and elusive.
A text serves as a purposeful interaction between writers and readers, as defined by Hoey (2001:13) Writers create texts with specific goals in mind, while readers approach these texts with their own objectives To successfully achieve their intentions, writers must address the needs of their readers, who often have questions they seek answers to It is crucial for writers to recognize that if their content fails to satisfy these needs, readers may disengage at any moment.
Hoey (2001) emphasizes that texts result from an interaction among four key participants: the author, the writer, the audience, and the reader The author establishes the text's authority and is accountable for its intended message, which can come from either an individual or an organization; often, the author and the writer are the same Meanwhile, the writer is tasked with composing the text and ensuring the language effectively conveys the intended ideas.
The terms "author" and "writer" are often confused, as the author is typically the one who creates the text The audience refers to the intended readership, which is ultimately a construct of the writer's imagination, as no writer can fully grasp the thoughts and needs of others Consequently, the audience represents an ideal reader envisioned by the writer during the creation process In contrast, the reader is the individual who engages with and interprets the text.
The relationships between the author, writer, audience, and reader are intricate and dynamic The author intends to convey a specific message to the audience, empowering the writer to create a text that fulfills this goal Meanwhile, the writer crafts the text with an intended audience in mind, which may differ from the actual readers Additionally, readers approach the text with their own objectives, highlighting the interplay between writer and reader, akin to dancers synchronizing their movements.
2.3.2 How can vocabulary learning improve reading comprehension?
Recent studies have highlighted the strong correlation between vocabulary learning and reading comprehension, focusing on key aspects such as the number of words needed for effective reading in a foreign language, the rate of vocabulary acquisition through reading, and the frequency of exposure required to learn a word Researchers, including Waring and Nation (2004), have concluded that a robust vocabulary is essential for enhancing reading comprehension skills.
The National Reading Panel analyzed 45 studies on vocabulary instruction and found that it significantly enhances reading achievement, as indicated by improved performance on reading comprehension tests (Shanahan, 2006) Understanding word meanings and efficiently accessing this knowledge are crucial for both reading and listening comprehension (Chall, 1983, as cited in Curtis and Longo).
Increasing vocabulary knowledge is essential for education, as a lack of adequate vocabulary can significantly hinder students' learning (Nagy, 1988) While it may seem straightforward that teaching more words will enhance text comprehension, not all vocabulary instruction effectively contributes to this goal Research indicates that many commonly used methods do not lead to improved reading comprehension.
Vocabulary knowledge plays a crucial role in both formal and informal speaking and writing, significantly impacting language output Researchers and theorists in education widely recognize the strong connection between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension, as numerous studies have demonstrated their correlation (Baker, 1995; Nagy, 1998; Nelson-Herber, 1986).
Marcella Hu Hsueh-chao and Paul Nation (2000:404) mention two viewpoints on the relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension:
(1) The “instrumentalist view” sees vocabulary as being a major causative factor in comprehension Good vocabulary knowledge supports good comprehension Diagrammatically, this viewpoint can be represented as follows:
The "knowledge view" posits that vocabulary reflects a person's understanding of the world, which is essential for reading comprehension A reader must contribute their existing knowledge to fully grasp the information presented in a text For instance, comprehending astrophysics is challenging without prior knowledge of the subject.
Research consistently indicates that a robust vocabulary is vital for reading fluency and comprehension Anderson and Freebody (1981) highlight that a reader's vocabulary knowledge is the strongest predictor of text understanding Essentially, without a solid grasp of word meanings, readers struggle to comprehend what they read Additionally, studies emphasize the importance of exposing students to diverse reading materials to facilitate essential vocabulary development.
2.3.3 How can reading enrich vocabulary?
Recent studies have validated the common belief that second language learners can effectively acquire vocabulary through reading These findings highlight that vocabulary acquisition is a gradual and time-intensive process Consequently, it raises important questions about the methods of vocabulary growth and the extent of growth achieved through reading (Grabe, 1991).
Knowledge and experience Reading comprehension
The vocabulary acquisition
Acquiring vocabulary in a second language (L2) is a multifaceted process that encompasses various aspects beyond mere recognition of a word's written form It requires comprehension of spelling, pronunciation, grammatical usage, appropriate context, collocations, frequency of use, and meaning (Schmitt, 2000; Nation, 2001).
Second language vocabulary acquisition is influenced by a variety of factors, including the learner's first language (L1), age, level of exposure, motivation, and cultural background As Schmitt (2000:116) points out, these diverse variables make it challenging to develop a comprehensive theory that encompasses all aspects of vocabulary learning.
The distinction between receptive and productive language skills mirrors the differences between listening and reading (receptive) and speaking and writing (productive) Receptive skills involve receiving and comprehending language input, while productive skills focus on generating language to communicate messages Although "passive" and "active" are sometimes used to describe these skills, they are misleading; receptive skills also include productive elements, as meaning is actively constructed during listening and reading Consequently, listening and reading should be recognized as active processes rather than merely passive ones (Nation, 2001:24).
Pikulski and Templeton (2004) explore the distinction between "vocabulary" and "vocabularies," proposing that expressive vocabulary pertains to speaking and writing, while receptive vocabulary relates to listening and reading They further categorize spoken vocabulary as the integration of listening and speaking vocabularies, and written vocabulary as the combination of reading and writing vocabularies This framework highlights the multifaceted nature of vocabulary acquisition and usage.
Knowing a word encompasses more than just its spoken or written form and meaning; it involves a comprehensive understanding of both receptive and productive aspects of the word (Nation, 2001).
According to Miller (1999), the learning of word forms and meanings typically occurs simultaneously, establishing a connection between a word's meaning and its form A word is considered polysemous when a single form has multiple meanings, while synonyms refer to different forms that convey the same meaning.
Words are interconnected elements of language that operate within various systems and levels (Nation, 2001) Understanding a word involves exploring its multiple facets, as illustrated in the accompanying table.
R What does the word sound like?
P How is the word pronounced?
R What does the word look like? written P How is the word written and spelled?
R What parts are recognizable in this word? word parts
P What word parts are needed to express the meaning?
R What meaning does this word form signal? form and meaning P What word form can be used to express this meaning?
R What is included in the concept? concept and referents P What items can the concept refer to?
R What other words does this make us think of?
MEANI NG association P What other words could we use instead of this one?
R In what patterns does the word occur? grammatical functions P In what patterns must we use this word?
R What words or type of words occur with this one? collocations P What words or types of words must we use with this one?
R Where, when, and how often would we expect to meet this word?
USE constraints on use (frequency) P Where, when, and how often can we use this word?
Table 2.2 What is involved in knowing a word (Nation, 2001:27)
Schmitt (2000) emphasizes the importance of recognizing the multiple dimensions of vocabulary knowledge, which extend beyond just meaning and form Many individuals may mistakenly view vocabulary as a simple binary concept, but in reality, understanding a word involves a complex array of facets.
Traditionally, the meaning of a word has been viewed as the most crucial element in vocabulary acquisition, while orthographical knowledge was regarded as a lower-level skill However, recent research highlights the significance of orthography as a vital component of vocabulary knowledge and overall language processing (Schmitt, 2000) Studies on reading comprehension indicate that a primary reason for unsuccessful contextual guessing is the confusion of unknown words with orthographically similar ones (Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997; Nation & Carter, 1989; Nation, 2001).
Nation (2001) emphasizes that familiarity with written words includes mastering spelling, which is crucial for effective writing He notes that poor spelling can hinder learners, leading them to adopt strategies such as limiting their vocabulary, opting for easier words, and steering clear of complex spellings.
Historically, research has focused more on written vocabulary than on spoken vocabulary, creating an imbalance in studies However, in the past two decades, the significance of spoken language in language teaching has grown, emphasizing communication While written language continues to be a crucial resource for language learning, the availability and importance of spoken input, especially through multimedia, have increased significantly (Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997).
Phonological knowledge, as defined by Schmitt (2000), encompasses the ability to discern and articulate a word's acoustic representation within continuous speech This skill requires a comprehensive understanding of both the overall sound of the word and its individual components It is essential to recognize the distinct phonemes, their combined sounds, the syllable structure, and the stress pattern in polysyllabic words.
Learners face challenges not only in pronunciation but also in listening comprehension, as they have limited control over the speed of audio input Unlike reading, where they can take their time or revisit the text, listening requires them to process information in real-time, making it a more demanding task.
To effectively teach a new vocabulary word, educators should provide phonological details, including stress patterns, by pronouncing the word both in isolation and within a broader context, such as a phrase or sentence.
“This allows students to hear the more natural intonation that comes from speaking in connected speech.” (Schmitt, 2000:58)
Words are often defined by dictionary entries, but their meanings extend beyond these definitions A deeper exploration of word meanings reveals intriguing complexities and nuances.
Strategies in teaching and learning vocabulary
There is no universally "right" or "best" method for teaching vocabulary, as effective practices vary based on student characteristics, curriculum goals, and other factors Vocabulary teaching strategies can be broadly categorized into two types: discovery strategies and consolidation strategies, as noted by Schmitt (1997; 2000).
To effectively understand new vocabulary, learners should employ various discovery strategies, including analyzing parts of speech, examining affixes and roots, inferring meanings from context, consulting dictionaries, seeking L1 translations or paraphrases from teachers, and collaborating with classmates These techniques enhance vocabulary acquisition and comprehension.
Discovery strategies for vocabulary acquisition are divided into two main categories: determination strategies and social strategies Determination strategies involve individual efforts to understand new words independently, utilizing tools like dictionaries, context analysis, and word structure examination In contrast, social strategies entail interaction with others, where students seek clarification from teachers or classmates regarding unfamiliar words These interactions can yield various forms of responses, including synonyms, paraphrases, or translations, enhancing the learning process (Schmitt, 2000).
After students learn a new word, it is essential for them to actively engage in strategies that enhance retention for future use Effective consolidation strategies include written and verbal repetition, studying word lists, utilizing semantic maps, learning idiomatic expressions in context, and taking class notes These strategies can be categorized into four main types: social (SOC), memory (MEM), cognitive (COG), and metacognitive (MET) (Schmitt, 1997).
Consolidation strategies, as noted by Schmitt (2000), engage in elaborative mental processing that enhances long-term retention, moving beyond mere rote memorization to ensure information is retained for future application This highlights the importance of focusing on both vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary competence for effective learning.
Discovery strategies commonly used in reading classes
To help students grasp the meanings of new words, educators can employ various strategies, including demonstrating actions, displaying relevant subjects, using pictures or diagrams, and providing definitions in both the first and second languages Additionally, offering contextual clues and analyzing the structure of words can further enhance understanding.
In this section, we just review some commonly used strategies, especially the two groups of strategies: context analysis and word structure analysis
2.6.1 Teaching and learning from definitions
It is helpful to provide learners with definitions of the unfamiliar words found in the reading selection However, the most important question is how teachers should explain unfamiliar words
Common definitions are often expressed through synonyms or paraphrases, but there are various methods to convey meaning Researchers propose several types of definitions to enhance understanding.
2 A NTONYM young means not old
3 A NALYTIC DEFINITION An X is a Y which…
4 T AXONOMIC DEFINITION autumn is a season
5 D EFINITION BY EXAMPLIFICATION furniture – something like a chair, sofa, etc
6 D EFINITION BY FUNCTION pen – use it to write
7 G RAMMATICAL DEFINITION worse – comparison form of bad
8 D EFINITION OF ASSOCIATION danger – lives have not been protected
9 D EFINITION BY CLASSIFICATION family – a group of people
A significant drawback of learning vocabulary in isolation is the lack of context, which complicates deep understanding and retention of words Critics argue that this method of vocabulary acquisition is disconnected from practical language use (Schmitt, 2000; Nation, 2001).
2.6.2 Using actions, objects, pictures or diagrams
Using actions, real objects, pictures, and diagrams is an effective method for conveying word meanings, as these visual aids help learners better remember concepts This approach facilitates "dual encoding," where meanings are stored both linguistically and visually However, caution is needed, as it may result in misinterpretations of abstract words and fail to capture their precise underlying concepts (Nation, 2001).
L2-L1 translation often faces criticism for promoting the misconception of exact word equivalence between languages Michael Swan (1997:158-159) points out that different languages organize meanings uniquely, meaning a single lexical item in one language can correspond to multiple equivalents in another.
Languages often have direct translation equivalents for words in their primary meanings; however, this clarity diminishes when words are used in metaphorical or less common contexts Additionally, cultural differences can lead to varied classifications of concepts, complicating the establishment of cross-linguistic equivalences.
The Vietnamese language features a complex system of addressing individuals, as demonstrated by the English word "uncle," which has at least three distinct equivalents in Vietnamese: "bác," "chú," and "cậu."
“aunt” also has at least 3 equivalents “bác”, “cô”, “dì” Semantically, each word has its own features, and these features may vary from one language to another
Laufer (1997) and Nation (2003) emphasize the necessity of maximizing L2 usage in the classroom for learners with limited opportunities to practice outside of it Nonetheless, the strategic use of L1 can also yield beneficial outcomes in the language learning process.
There are various effective methods for conveying the meaning of unfamiliar words, including definitions in a second language, demonstrations, images, real objects, context clues, and L1 translations While no single method is universally superior, research consistently shows that L1 translations are the most effective for learning vocabulary, as they are clear, concise, and familiar (Lado, Baldwin, and Lobo 1967; Mishima 1967; Laufer and Shmueli 1997) Despite common criticisms of learning L1-L2 word pairs, studies indicate that using word cards with L1 translations is a highly effective vocabulary acquisition strategy (Nation, 2003:2-3).
While the L1 can be a valuable resource in language learning, it is essential to avoid excessive reliance on L2-L1 translation A balanced approach that acknowledges the role of L1 while prioritizing the use of L2 is crucial for effective foreign language instruction (Nation, 2001, 2003; Laufer, 1997).
Numerous studies have examined the effectiveness of context analysis versus traditional vocabulary teaching methods, which often rely on rote memorization of dictionary definitions and sentences Researchers, including Shanahan (2006), have found that these conventional strategies are largely ineffective in enhancing learners' vocabulary competence.
Understanding the meaning of unfamiliar words through context clues is a vital skill for enhancing reading comprehension This ability allows readers to infer meanings and improve their overall understanding of the text.
The relationship between a learner's reading ability and vocabulary is closely intertwined; as reading enhances vocabulary, this growth in vocabulary, in turn, boosts reading skills Additionally, the ability to infer meaning from context plays a crucial role in this dynamic connection.
According to Hosenfeld, in order to become successful contextual guessers, readers should:
(1) Keep the meaning of a passage in mind while reading and use it to predict meaning
(2) Skip unfamiliar words and guess their meaning from remaining words in a sentence or later sentences
(3) Circle back in the text to bring to mind previous context to decode an unfamiliar word
(4) Identify the grammatical function of an unfamiliar word before guessing its meaning
(6) Examine the illustration and use information contained in it in decoding
(7) Read the title and draw inferences from it
(8) Refer to the side gloss
(13) Use knowledge of the world to decode an unfamiliar word
(14) Skip words that may add relatively little to total meaning
(Hosenfeld, 1987:24 as cited in Anderson 2000:310)
Many researchers (Dunmore, 1989, Schmitt, 2000; Laufer and Yano,
Experts agree that using context analysis to infer the meaning of unfamiliar words is a key strategy for tackling low-frequency vocabulary However, this process is complex, and we cannot expect learners to be successful without guidance Factors influencing context analysis include various elements that affect comprehension and word recognition (Schmitt, 1997; Nation, 2001).
Effective context is essential for deducing a word's meaning, but often, it lacks sufficient clues As a result, context analysis may not be suitable for every scenario.
Some characteristics of reading materials in TOEIC tests
This chapter outlines the methodology employed in the study, following the theoretical framework established in Chapter 2 To assess the effectiveness of two strategies—context analysis and word structure analysis for discovering word meanings—the research primarily utilizes (1) questionnaires distributed to teachers and students at CFS, Nong Lam University, (2) observations made during experimental teaching sessions in TOEIC preparation classes, and (3) discussions with colleagues.
This study focuses on exploring vocabulary acquisition processes and developing effective strategies for teaching vocabulary to enhance learners' reading comprehension To achieve these objectives, the research is guided by specific questions that drive the investigation.
1) To what extent does English vocabulary affect the learners’ reading ability when they deal with the reading comprehension section in TOEIC test?
2) What are the appropriate discovery strategies in teaching and learning vocabulary that can be used to help the learners improve their reading comprehension?
3) How can the two groups of discovery strategies “context analysis” and “word structure analysis” help students become more self-confident and independent in discovering the meaning of unfamiliar words and thus improve their reading comprehension?
