The problem
English has emerged as the global language, becoming a fundamental subject in Vietnam's education system across various levels Its inclusion in high school curricula plays a crucial role in national workforce training and development However, the current effectiveness of English teaching and learning in high schools falls short of expectations To align with the demands of social development and international integration, it is essential to address the existing challenges in English education.
English is crucial not only for high school students but also for their future academic and career success Mastery of the English language equips students with essential skills, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing, which are vital for effective communication.
Each skill in language learning plays a vital role in enhancing communication competence It is essential for teachers to create opportunities that foster the development of all four English skills Historically, English teachers have been constrained by syllabi that emphasize grammar and challenging reading texts, often neglecting listening and speaking skills Consequently, the lack of assessment in these areas has led to a diminished focus on teaching speaking in high schools.
To address the challenges in English language education, the Tieng Anh 10 textbook was introduced in the 2006-2007 school year This textbook is designed to enhance all four language skills by dividing each lesson into five periods, with the final period focusing on language aspects such as pronunciation and grammar Consequently, the new curriculum effectively meets the demand for communicative English usage.
Many teachers encounter challenges with student engagement, particularly in speaking classes, where students often remain inactive Despite teachers' efforts to encourage participation, they frequently receive minimal or no responses to their questions This passivity leads to a classroom dynamic where students listen quietly and take notes, hindering their ability to practice speaking English Consequently, the lack of active involvement in classroom activities significantly restricts students' oral language development.
Creating an English-speaking environment in the classroom is crucial for English teachers to enhance students' speaking skills Effective teaching requires a blend of sub-skills, techniques, and strategies, supported by extensive research on activities that bolster oral communication Teacher talk significantly impacts students' speaking abilities, as highlighted by Ellis (1994), who notes its role in learners' comprehension and L2 acquisition Among various aspects of teacher talk, the types of questions posed by teachers are vital for language acquisition, as stated by Richards and Lockhart (1994) These questions engage students, foster interaction, elicit responses, and assess progress Consequently, researching the link between teachers' questioning strategies and students' speaking skills is essential for improving their oral communication.
Aims of the study
The aims of the study are:
• to find out whether teachers realize the importance of questioning strategies in teaching speaking skill
• to examine how questioning strategies are used in speaking classes of 10 th grade at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School
• to investigate the correlation between teachers’ questioning strategies and students’ speaking skill
• to give recommendations to improve the teaching and learning of speaking skill by using effective questioning strategies
Limitation and delimitation
This study focuses exclusively on 10th-grade English students and teachers at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School, and its findings are not intended to be generalized to all high school students.
This thesis aims to explore the effectiveness of teachers' questioning strategies in enhancing the speaking skills of students, focusing specifically on the quality of these strategies rather than all aspects of teaching and learning speaking.
One limitation of this study is the reliance on self-reported data gathered during the quasi-experiment, where the researcher also served as the teacher This dual role raises concerns about the objectivity and reliability of the reported effectiveness of the teachers’ questioning strategies.
The investigation took place during the second semester of the 2006-2007 school year, coinciding with the introduction of the new textbook Tieng Anh 10 It is anticipated that results may evolve in the coming years as experiences are gained and adaptations are made.
Methodology
The study is carried out by using:
This study employs a qualitative methodology to explore the implementation of questioning strategies in speaking classes, aiming to identify their strengths and weaknesses in enhancing speaking skills Classroom observations were conducted across three different classrooms to gather insights and address the research questions effectively.
This study employs a quantitative methodology to thoroughly analyze descriptive data related to the research questions Data collection involves administering questionnaires to eight colleagues to assess their views on the significance and challenges of using questioning strategies in teaching speaking skills Additionally, 156 tenth graders at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School will complete questionnaires regarding their attitudes and habits in responding to teachers' questions Furthermore, a quasi-experimental design will be implemented with these students, incorporating two oral tests (Pre-test and Post-test) to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed techniques outlined in the thesis.
Overview of the study
This thesis is structured into five chapters following the introduction of the problem, outlining the aims, limitations, and delimitations, as well as the methodology used and an overview of the study.
Chapter I offers essential background information for the study, presenting an overview of Nguyen Binh Khiem High School and detailing the English syllabus designed for 10th graders It also addresses the negative factors impacting students' speaking skills and highlights the significance of the research.
Chapter II reviews the literature on the use of questioning strategies in teacher talk to enhance speaking skills, organized into five key sections: (1) the concept of teacher talk; (2) the importance of speaking skills; (3) the relationship between questioning strategies and students' speaking abilities; (4) the roles of teachers within the Communicative Approach; and (5) the phenomenon of code-switching This chapter establishes the theoretical framework for the study.
Chapter III outlines the research methodology, detailing the procedures and instruments utilized, such as questionnaires distributed to 10th-grade teachers and students at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School, classroom observations, and a quasi-experiment This chapter serves as a crucial foundation for the findings presented in the subsequent chapter.
Chapter IV outlines the results and findings derived from the data analysis, contextualized by the literature review This analysis aims to uncover the attitudes of both teachers and students regarding the role of questioning in speaking classes.
(2) the reality of using questioning strategies in teacher talk in speaking classes; (3) the effectiveness of questioning strategies in teaching speaking; and (4) common problems with teachers’ questioning strategies
Chapter V presents key conclusions and offers practical recommendations for both teachers and students on effectively implementing questioning strategies to enhance the teaching and learning of speaking skills at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School in An Giang Province.
This thesis aims to provide practical benefits for teachers and students at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School by enhancing the use of questioning strategies in speaking skill instruction By identifying common challenges associated with these strategies and offering practical solutions, the study seeks to improve the effectiveness and engagement of speaking skill learning and teaching.
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Description of Nguyen Binh Khiem High School
An Giang Province, located in the Mekong Delta, comprises a city, a town, and nine districts, each featuring at least one townlet Chau Thanh District, home to Nguyen Binh Khiem High School, is the closest district to the province center Positioned on the 91st national road, just 10 kilometers from Long Xuyen City, Nguyen Binh Khiem High School is the largest high school in Chau Thanh District During the 2006-2007 academic year, the school offered ten classes for grade 10, nine for grade 11, and nine for grade 12, with all students required to study English, attending three English classes per week.
At this school, the Department of Education and Training (DOET) closely guides teaching and learning through structured training plans and effective student management Every year, all English teachers participate in seminars focused on the latest teaching methodologies, ensuring they stay informed about current practices These seminars foster collaboration among teachers, allowing them to exchange ideas and collaboratively address common challenges in their teaching Additionally, throughout the academic year, teachers engage in mutual classroom observations to enhance their teaching experiences and share valuable insights.
The English teachers' group at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School meets biweekly to discuss and address issues related to English teaching and learning However, due to time constraints, administrative matters take precedence, limiting the opportunity for meaningful sharing of teaching experiences As a result, many challenges in English education remain unresolved.
Nguyen Binh Khiem High School in An Giang Province features large classrooms with an average of 40 to 48 students per class, which poses challenges for teachers in facilitating effective speaking activities While the classrooms are spacious and well-lit, the fixed tables and chairs hinder student interaction and group discussions, ultimately limiting oral communication opportunities among students.
Nguyen Binh Khiem High School, located in the heart of Chau Thanh District, attracts students from various areas, including those residing far from the townlet This diverse student body exhibits a range of attitudes towards learning English, with some students demonstrating active enthusiasm while others remain passive and shy This variation in engagement poses challenges for teachers striving to involve all students in classroom activities.
1.2 Description of the English syllabus for the 10 graders
This section describes the English syllabus for the students of the 10 th grade at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School, concerning the aims of the syllabus and the textbook.
Description of English syllabus for the tenth graders
In the academic year 2006-2007, the new English textbook for grade 10, Tieng Anh 10, was introduced in high schools, catering to students' communicative needs There are two versions of Tieng Anh 10: the Basic edition for students majoring in natural sciences and those following a basic curriculum, and the Advanced edition for social science majors where English is a core subject While the topics in both textbooks are similar, the language proficiency requirements in Tieng Anh 10-Nâng cao are significantly higher than in the Basic version.
The textbooks consist of 16 units, with each unit featuring 5 lessons that target specific skills, culminating in a lesson dedicated to language focus, including pronunciation and grammar Among these, Tieng Anh 10 is more commonly utilized than Tieng Anh 10-Nâng cao, as few students opt for social sciences majors Consequently, students using Tieng Anh 10 are selected as the subjects for this study.
The new textbook Tieng Anh 10 is designed to enhance students' English communication skills at a basic level across listening, speaking, writing, and reading It aims to provide students with foundational, logical, and comprehensive knowledge of the English language tailored to their developmental stage and psychological traits Additionally, the textbook fosters an understanding of the cultures and customs of English-speaking countries while instilling pride in Vietnamese culture and language.
1.2.2 The syllabus of speaking lessons in the textbook Tieng Anh 10
The new English textbook Tieng Anh 10, which is theme-based designed, consists of sixteen units and six consolidation lessons The four skills in this textbook are
The "Tieng Anh 10" textbook is structured with five distinct lessons—reading, speaking, listening, writing, and language focus—each designed to integrate closely with the others This approach ensures that speaking skills receive equal emphasis alongside other language skills By the end of 10th grade, students are expected to confidently engage in various communicative situations, including asking and answering questions, making presentations, and expressing opinions The content of the speaking lessons is systematically outlined in the textbook, promoting a comprehensive understanding of the language.
The speaking lessons outlined in Table 1.1 of this textbook feature a diverse range of activities, with questions and answers being the most prominent These speaking activities have significant potential to enhance students' communicative competence in English, provided that they are fully utilized and students possess a strong foundation in the language.
Students in grades 6 to 9 primarily focus on grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension, leading to less emphasis on speaking skills As a result, many 10th graders struggle to communicate fluently in English at the start of the school year After one semester of dedicated speaking lessons, there has been some improvement in their oral communication abilities While most students still cannot engage in conversations as expected, they have made progress in discussing simple topics such as self-introductions, daily activities, and hobbies Nevertheless, their responses to teachers' questions reveal ongoing weaknesses in their speaking skills.
∗ Source: Tieng Anh 11, Teacher’s book, p.4
Hardly can the students grasp what is being asked or answer the questions correctly Therefore, the importance of teachers’ questioning strategies in teaching speaking skill calls for a careful research.
The negative factors having effects on teaching and learning
All grade 10 students have completed the same communicative English curriculum in lower secondary school, where the four language skills are integrated rather than taught in isolation As a result, these students are accustomed to engaging in speaking activities during their lessons.
Lessons tend to be lengthy, leaving little time to focus on speaking skills Consequently, exams primarily assess students' knowledge of grammar and vocabulary in isolated sentence units, rather than their ability to communicate effectively As a result, exam scores do not reliably reflect students' proficiency in spoken English for real-world communication.
Many students exhibit a negative attitude towards learning English, despite it being a fundamental and mandatory subject This disinterest often arises from their focus on major subjects for university entrance exams, leading them to prioritize natural sciences like mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology, which they believe offer greater career opportunities.
Students exhibit varied responses in English speaking activities due to their differing learning experiences; while some are enthusiastic and active, many remain passive and shy A few can engage in basic conversations, such as greetings and self-introductions, but most struggle to produce even simple responses about personal topics like age and family When discussing challenges in practicing spoken English, students often cite difficulties with grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary, as well as confusion over when to use formal, informal, or neutral language styles They also find it hard to initiate, sustain, and conclude conversations, which can be attributed to their limited communicative competence, particularly in grammar and discourse.
Creating an effective English-speaking environment in the classroom presents challenges for teachers, as they strive to encourage frequent speaking practice among students while addressing various obstacles To enhance students' speaking proficiency, it is essential to analyze the factors influencing oral communication, the components of speaking proficiency, and the specific skills or strategies employed in communication Extensive research has been conducted on the challenges of students' spoken communication, leading to numerous suggestions for improvement A critical area of focus is teacher talk, particularly questioning strategies, which play a vital role in fostering and enhancing students' communicative competence As noted by Nunan (1991), teachers' questions serve as crucial stepping stones to effective communication In many classrooms, teachers spend a significant portion of class time engaging in question-and-answer exchanges, highlighting the importance of questioning in second language acquisition Research indicates that questioning not only facilitates learner participation but also helps make the language more comprehensible and relevant to students (Richards and Lockhart 1996).
Investigating the relationship between teachers' questioning strategies and students' speaking skills aims to provide valuable insights that benefit both educators and learners in enhancing speaking proficiency.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Teacher Talk
Teacher talk is essential for effective classroom organization and language acquisition, as highlighted by Nunan (1991), who emphasizes its role in implementing teaching plans and providing comprehensible input for learners Research by Allwright & Bailey (1991) further underscores that teacher talk is a primary means of conveying information and managing student behavior Chaudron (1988) questions the factors that make teacher talk suitable for L2 learners, leading to investigations into various features of classroom speech, such as speech rate, syntax, and vocabulary Richard & Lockhart (1996) focus on how teachers adapt their language, utilize questions, and provide feedback, while Nunan (1989) identifies key areas of inquiry, including the types and amounts of teacher talk, speech modifications, and error correction Additionally, Sinclair & Brazil (1982) explore aspects like initiation and elicitation in classroom interactions.
In general, many researchers are interested in different issues of teacher talk They all pay attention to its quality and quantity
Nunan (1991: 89) emphasizes that in various classroom settings, including language instruction, teachers dominate the conversation, highlighting the significant role of teacher talk in the learning process.
Teachers often express surprise at the amount of time they spend talking during lessons, with some studies indicating that in language classrooms, teachers may dominate discussions for up to 89% of the available time Brown (2001) highlights the tendency for teachers to talk excessively, while Holland and Shortall (1998) note that the teacher talk in second language classrooms mirrors that of first language settings Nunan (1991) cautions that while excessive teacher talk should be avoided, the definition of "excessive" can vary He emphasizes that teacher talk is essential for providing students with crucial access to live target language input, though Brown warns that if teacher talk takes up the majority of class time, students may not receive enough opportunities to engage in conversation themselves.
While some argue that teacher talk is "bad" and should be minimized, the definition of "excessive" is subjective In many language classrooms, teacher talk plays a crucial role in delivering essential live target language input that learners may not encounter elsewhere.
When assessing the appropriate amount of teacher talk in a lesson, several key factors must be considered These include the timing of the talk within the lesson, whether it is pre-planned or spontaneous, and the effectiveness of any digressions that may arise Additionally, it is important to evaluate the potential value of the teacher's talk as beneficial input for language acquisition.
The effectiveness of language acquisition largely hinges on one's beliefs regarding the role of language input Those who advocate for learning through practice in the target language may prioritize classroom activities that increase student interaction, reducing teacher talk Conversely, individuals who view teacher talk as a crucial source of comprehensible input may be less concerned about the teacher's dominance in the classroom.
In recent discussions on teacher talk, researchers have shifted their focus from the quantity of teacher speech to its effectiveness in facilitating learning and encouraging communication in the classroom Nunan (1989) highlights the importance of how teachers engage with students through their questioning techniques, speech modifications, and responses to errors, rather than merely the amount of talk Supporting this view, Krashen (as cited in Cullen, 1998) argues that reducing teacher talk could hinder learners, as it serves as a valuable source of comprehensible input He notes that efforts to minimize teacher talking time have largely been unsuccessful, particularly in cultures where teachers are seen as primary knowledge transmitters, making such reductions both unrealistic and culturally inappropriate.
From the reasons stated above, it is more important to judge or assess teacher talk by its quality rather than its quantity
According to Nunan (1989), extensive research has focused on how teachers modify their speech, particularly when communicating with non-native speakers Studies indicate that both native-speaking teachers and non-teachers adjust their language in various ways, making it more accessible for learners These speech modifications are believed to enhance comprehension and facilitate the acquisition of the target language.
Gaies (as cited in Allwright & Bailey, 1991: 139) conducted a study involving a group of teachers-in-training, both native and non-native English speakers, and recorded their conversations in two distinct contexts: with peers and during practice teaching sessions with students The findings revealed that these teachers significantly altered their speech when interacting with learners in the classroom setting.
According to Richards and Lockhart (1996), repetition is a key strategy that teachers employ to ensure that their directions and instructions are clear to learners Additionally, they reference Chaudron's (1988) identification of various other strategies that can enhance understanding in the classroom.
• Speak slowly: When teachers speak to language learners in the classroom, they often use a slower rate of speech than they would use in other situations
Teachers often utilize longer pauses when instructing language learners, especially those at lower proficiency levels These intentional pauses allow students additional time to process the information presented, thereby enhancing their overall comprehension.
Teachers often adjust their pronunciation during lessons by using clearer articulation and a more standard speech style This involves minimizing reductions and contractions that are typically used in casual conversation For instance, instead of casually asking, "couldja read that line, Juan?" a teacher would enunciate more carefully to ensure better understanding.
Teachers frequently simplify vocabulary by substituting challenging words with more familiar alternatives For instance, instead of asking, "What do you think this picture depicts?", a teacher might say, "What do you think the picture shows?" This approach helps enhance student comprehension and engagement.
Teachers often unintentionally make vocabulary more complex instead of simplifying it For instance, when asking students about a picture, they might say, "What do you think this picture is about?" This phrasing uses an idiomatic expression rather than a clearer, simpler alternative for the word "depicts."
Language teachers frequently simplify grammatical structures in the classroom, opting for fewer subordinate clauses and avoiding complex tenses to enhance student understanding.
• Modifying discourse: Teachers may repeat themselves or answer their own questions in order to make themselves understood
Speaking Skill
2.2.1 The role of speaking in the four language skills
Speaking is a crucial skill among the four language abilities, as highlighted by researchers like Brown (1994), Ur (1999), and Bygate (1997) These studies indicate that speaking not only holds significant value in society but also influences interpersonal relationships Bygate (1997) emphasizes that speaking is the primary skill through which individuals are assessed and can either gain or lose friends Additionally, Brown and Levinson (cited in Hudson, 1991) affirm that speech is essential for shaping personal image, impacting how others perceive us based on both content and delivery.
In second or foreign language learning, the speaking skill is closely linked to other language skills, as productive and receptive skills are interdependent, much like two sides of a coin (Brown, 1994) The relationship between spoken and written language is significant, with each skill reinforcing the other; we learn to speak by modeling what we hear and to write by analyzing what we read Brumfit et al (1980) emphasize that students cannot produce sounds or natural sentences without first having a model to emulate Therefore, reading, writing, and listening are essential for enhancing oral fluency and accuracy.
In fact, speaking skill has been proven necessity and relevance not only in speaking classes but also in other classes of teaching language skills Brumfit et al
(1980: 66) claim that preceding oral discussion in the classroom is always needed to achieve the success in the other skills
Speaking skills hold significant importance in language proficiency, as emphasized by Ur (1999: 120), who states that among the four essential skills—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—speaking is often perceived as the most crucial This perception arises from the fact that individuals who are proficient in a language are commonly identified by their ability to communicate verbally.
“speaker” of that language, as if speaking included all other kinds of knowing; and that most foreign language learners are primarily interested in learning to speak”
Native speakers possess communicative competence, which is an innate understanding of language use and discourse, as noted by Harmer (1991) This competence encompasses not only grammatical knowledge, including grammar and vocabulary, but also the ability to use language appropriately in various contexts Richards et al (1997) further elaborate that communicative competence involves applying grammatical rules to create correct sentences while also understanding the appropriate contexts and audiences for their use.
Various authors have proposed different models of communicative competence Brown (1994) references Chomsky's model, which emphasizes linguistic competence and the cognitive aspects of language acquisition, distinguishing between competence—an individual's underlying knowledge of a language—and performance, which is the actual use of language in specific contexts Additionally, Hymes (as cited in Brown, 1994) broadened Chomsky's concept by integrating both grammatical rules and the rules governing language use.
According to Richards et al (1997), communicative competence comprises four key components: an understanding of grammar and vocabulary, familiarity with speaking rules, the ability to effectively use and respond to various speech acts (including requests, apologies, thanks, and invitations), and the skill to use language appropriately in different contexts.
Communicative competence plays a crucial role in determining speaking proficiency, despite varying opinions on its components Scarcella and Oxford (1992) highlight that the key abilities contributing to speaking proficiency include grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competences.
Grammatical competence encompasses a deep understanding of grammar, including morphology, syntax, vocabulary, and mechanics Mastery of these elements allows speakers to accurately and confidently utilize grammatical structures, ultimately enhancing their fluency in communication.
Sociolinguistic competence focuses on the relationships between sentences, emphasizing the importance of cohesion and coherence in communication For EFL learners, developing discourse competence is essential to adapt their speech according to the context, whether for interactional purposes—such as building social connections—or transactional purposes—like conveying information and completing tasks Additionally, learners must discern when to employ formal, informal, or neutral language styles, enabling them to adjust their language use effectively.
Discourse competence enables speakers to effectively manage turn-taking in conversations, including taking, holding, and relinquishing turns It also allows them to initiate and conclude discussions, maintain the flow of conversation, and address any communication issues that arise Additionally, speakers must possess a diverse range of discourse markers to enhance their conversational skills.
Understanding strategic competence enables individuals to employ communicative strategies such as paraphrasing, circumlocution, lexical approximation, and mime These strategies facilitate effective communication in a new language, even when one has limited or imperfect knowledge of it.
The correlation between questioning strategies and speaking proficiency 32
The ability to ask and answer questions is fundamental to the learning process, with questioning recognized as a key strategy in education Teachers often dedicate a significant portion of class time to this exchange, emphasizing its importance in engaging students According to Wajnryb (1988), questioning not only facilitates the gathering of students' facts, ideas, and opinions but also encourages active participation, particularly among weaker students Furthermore, research indicates that questions are vital in language acquisition, enabling learners to remain engaged in discussions and enhancing the comprehensibility and relevance of the language used (Richard & Lockhart, 1996).
Fluency, as defined by Brown (2001), is the ability to engage in conversation and produce utterances, which can also occur in shorter segments Establishing a smooth flow of language from the outset is crucial, necessitating the use of stimuli such as questioning strategies to encourage students to create brief utterances At the beginner level, students often possess limited knowledge of the target language, making it essential to present materials in simple, digestible segments to avoid overwhelming them By implementing questioning strategies, teachers can foster interaction among students and enhance their communicative skills.
Teacher roles in Communicative Approach
Teaching, particularly foreign language instruction, is an art form, with the teacher serving as a crucial artist in the learning process The teacher's role significantly influences student success, emphasizing the importance of fostering a student-centered environment in the language classroom While the teacher is not the sole focus of class activities, they are responsible for enhancing students' engagement and participation.
In the Communicative Approach, teachers assume multiple essential roles as outlined by Breen and Candlin (1980) Firstly, they facilitate communication among all classroom participants and between these participants and various activities and texts Secondly, teachers act as independent participants within the learning-teaching group Lastly, they take on the role of researchers and learners, contributing valuable knowledge, experiences, and organizational skills that enhance the learning process.
In a communicative classroom, teachers assume various roles, including controller, assessor, organizer, prompter, participant, resource, tutor, and investigator (Harmer, 1991) As controllers, teachers manage student activities and language use, while their role as assessors is vital for providing corrections and feedback The organizer role is particularly crucial, as effective classroom management directly influences the success of activities, requiring clear instructions and structured tasks Teachers must also encourage students when confusion arises, acting as prompters to stimulate discussion Participation in activities fosters a friendly atmosphere and allows students to practice their English with a proficient speaker Additionally, teachers serve as resource centers, offering guidance and support, especially at higher levels where they can tutor students on maximizing their learning Lastly, as investigators, teachers observe and evaluate classroom dynamics, experimenting with new techniques to enhance the learning experience, ultimately promoting student autonomy.
Byrne (1986: 1) emphasizes the multifaceted role of the teacher, highlighting that their primary responsibility is to establish optimal learning conditions This involves the teacher assuming various roles throughout different stages of the learning process to effectively facilitate student development.
During the presentation stage of introducing new concepts, the teacher acts as an informant, utilizing their language expertise to carefully select and present materials in a clear and memorable manner Although the teacher takes center stage at this point, it's crucial to limit the presentation time to ensure students have ample opportunity to practice the language in subsequent stages.
During the practice stage, the teacher assumes the role of a conductor and monitor, allowing students to take the lead in their learning The primary responsibility of the teacher is to facilitate ample, meaningful, and memorable practice opportunities while minimizing their own talking By skillfully guiding the students, the teacher ensures that each learner has the chance to participate and monitors their performance to maintain quality and satisfaction.
During the production stage of language learning, teachers assume the roles of managers and guides, allowing students to work independently Unfortunately, language learning often halts at the practice stage, which is crucial for students to freely use the language Providing opportunities for self-expression helps students recognize the personal value of their learning, motivating them to continue their studies To maintain interest in language learning, teachers design engaging activities that promote free expression while discreetly observing students as they participate This approach reinforces the teacher's role as a manager, guide, and adviser in the learning process.
The teacher's role as a motivator is essential in a communicative classroom, as emphasized by Byrne (1986) He asserts that a teacher's ability to engage students and spark their interest is crucial for effective learning Key elements contributing to this motivation include the teacher's preparation, mastery of teaching skills, and the thoughtful selection and presentation of topics and activities Additionally, a teacher's personality should balance authority with friendliness to foster a positive learning environment.
Code switching
Code switching is a prevalent aspect of bilingual communication, defined by Richards et al (1997) as the transition from one language or language variety to another by a speaker or writer This phenomenon often occurs in conversations, where one participant may respond in a different language than the one used by the other Individuals may switch languages mid-speech or even within a single sentence, showcasing the fluidity and adaptability of bilingual speech (Nunan and Carter, 2001).
275) briefly define code switching as a phenomenon of switching from one language to another in the same discourse
Code switching plays a significant role in bilingual communities, allowing speakers to manipulate situations and convey subtle meanings and personal intentions (Trudgill, 2000: 105) This linguistic strategy serves as a powerful tool for self-expression, enabling individuals to modify their language to align with their personal goals and intentions.
A language classroom functions as a social group, making the dynamics of daily discourse relevant to its environment Consequently, the natural occurrences of code switching in everyday contexts can be mirrored in foreign language classrooms, where teachers may employ this technique unconsciously According to Mattson and Burenhult (1999), the functions of a teacher's code switching include facilitating topic transitions, expressing emotions, and reinforcing learning through repetition.
In topic switch cases, teachers adapt their language based on the subject matter, often using students' mother tongue during grammar instruction to enhance understanding and engagement This code-switching directs students' attention to new concepts while fostering emotional connections and solidarity in the classroom Additionally, code-switching serves a repetitive function, allowing teachers to clarify instructions by translating key points into the native language, thereby emphasizing the importance of the target language for effective comprehension However, over-reliance on native language translations may lead to disengagement, as students might become less attentive to foreign language instructions, resulting in limited exposure to the target language and potential negative academic outcomes.
Nunan (1991) observed that both teachers and learners in foreign language classrooms often rely more on their mother tongue than the target language Zilm's research, referenced by Nunan, indicated that various factors influence code-switching in German language classes.
• The nature of the activity
• The teacher’s perceptions of how the students learn
• Teacher perceptions of the role and functions of the native and target language (for example: English was used exclusively for disciplining student)
Students perceive the target language, German, as an endpoint rather than a tool for learning, often valuing its application primarily in structured settings like specific tasks and drills.
• The use of English by the teacher
A significant finding emerged regarding the correlation between a teacher's use of the target language and students' language usage In a subsequent action research project, Zilm observed that an increase in her use of German during lessons led to a proportional rise in her students' use of German, the target language.
Skiba (1997) argues that code switching, when used due to expression limitations, facilitates continuity in speech rather than causing language interference This linguistic strategy enhances communication and social interaction by serving as a tool for conveying meaning Consequently, code switching acts as a bridge between familiar and unfamiliar concepts, making it a valuable asset in language teaching when applied effectively.
In language classrooms, code switching should not be seen as a barrier or weakness in language learning; rather, it is an effective strategy for enhancing classroom interaction By utilizing code switching, educators can clarify meanings and facilitate the transfer of knowledge to students more effectively.
Summary
This chapter highlights the significance of teacher talk in language education, focusing on the use of questioning strategies to enhance spoken English It examines critical factors that contribute to effective questioning, including modifications, wait-time, feedback, and code-switching The importance of speaking skills among the four language competencies is emphasized, along with the various roles teachers play in facilitating speaking classes Additionally, the correlation between teachers' questioning strategies and students' speaking abilities is thoroughly discussed The following chapter will outline the research methodology employed in this study.
