INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Vietnam is at a pivotal point in its development, marked by remarkable economic growth over the past decade and increased integration into the global economy, highlighted by its accession to the WTO and active role in the UN Security Council To maintain this growth and elevate its international standing, the country requires a highly-skilled workforce capable of supporting its goals of modernization and industrialization A critical component of this workforce is proficiency in foreign languages, particularly English, which Vietnam’s Prime Minister Dung Tan Nguyen emphasizes as a key focus in foreign language education policy leading up to 2020.
Over the past decade, English has solidified its position as the primary foreign language in Vietnam, driven by personal and societal needs Proficiency in English is essential for job opportunities and studying abroad, with basic English skills being a prerequisite for many office positions, and certifications like TOEFL, IELTS, or TOEIC required for students pursuing education overseas Additionally, English is crucial for international cooperation, particularly in light of the Vietnamese government's recent economic policies aimed at attracting foreign investment, which have led to a significant increase in capital from predominantly capitalist countries.
Due to such necessary demands, in the last decade English has developed
Vietnam has experienced an unprecedented surge in the establishment of language centers, leading to a significant increase in English learners across the country According to the Ministry of Education and Training, approximately 90% of foreign language students are currently focused on studying English, highlighting its dominance in language education.
Despite the recent surge in English learning, many learners still lack the essential vocabulary needed to meet real-world demands (Nguyen, 1992, p 21) This vocabulary gap hinders their ability to effectively communicate, as lexical items are fundamental for labeling objects, actions, and ideas Consequently, both receptive and productive language skills suffer due to insufficient vocabulary, and even advanced learners continue to struggle without a robust lexical foundation Therefore, it is clear that a strong vocabulary is crucial for successful language acquisition.
―students with affluent vocabulary tend to have advantages in enhancing the four language skills‖ (Nguyen, 2006, p 2)
Despite its significance and high demand, vocabulary instruction in English as a second or foreign language has been largely overlooked Traditionally, vocabulary teaching was treated as a secondary concern, overshadowed by the emphasis on grammar and pronunciation This misconception is evident in the limited vocabulary instruction practices observed in many schools and universities in Vietnam, as highlighted by a recent report from the Department of Education and Training of Quang Ninh Province.
(2008) shows that the teaching of vocabulary in many schools tends to be
―conventionally restricted to translation into the mother tongue or improvised‖ (p
2) Obviously, practices such as listening to teachers, writing down the target language new words and their mother tongue equivalences, and trying to memorize
Students often engage in passive word lists, leading to boredom and difficulty in retention Nguyen (2006) highlights that outdated teaching methods contribute to negative attitudes toward vocabulary learning, resulting in poor long-term memory of new terms Furthermore, Hoang and Wright (2005) note that current vocabulary instruction strategies in Vietnam seldom occur in a communicative context, exacerbating the issue.
Recent studies have highlighted effective strategies for vocabulary instruction, including the use of games (Nguyen & Khuat, 2003; Nguyen, 2006) and creative approaches to vocabulary building (Hoang & Wright, 2005) However, there has been a lack of exploration into strategies that create mental linkages to enhance word memorization.
There is a pressing need to implement strategies that diversify lexical instruction, facilitating both easy word retrieval and a relaxed, communicative learning environment In Vietnam, the lack of research on semantic mapping and its impact on vocabulary memorization and fostering a positive learning attitude highlights the importance of this strategy, which warrants further investigation.
The expectation of effectively employing this strategy for vocabulary instruction, therefore, generated ideas from which this study came into being.
Aims of the study
This study aims to explore the effectiveness and educational benefits of using semantic mapping as a strategy for teaching vocabulary, with the goal of improving vocabulary acquisition and fostering positive attitudes among students towards learning new words.
Research questions
To achieve the aim established above, the process of researching is guided by the following main research question:
1 What is students’ vocabulary performance under the treatment of semantic mapping?
2 What are their reflections on the teacher’s application of this strategy into their learning of vocabulary?
Significance of the study
This study contributes to both theoretical and practical aspects of vocabulary acquisition for English language learners (ELLs) by exploring the concept of semantic mapping It addresses the increasing need for effective strategies to learn and memorize words, while also providing valuable insights into the characteristics and benefits of this underutilized approach in academic settings.
This study aims to offer valuable insights into various types of semantic mapping and provide clear guidelines for teachers to effectively implement this strategy for vocabulary enhancement By doing so, it seeks to improve English teaching practices overall Additionally, the research intends to equip learners with practical instructions to utilize semantic mapping as an effective tool for self-directed vocabulary learning.
Organization of the study
The study is structured into five chapters, beginning with Chapter 1, which introduces the topic by outlining its context, objectives, research questions, significance, and overall structure Chapter 2 reviews key theories related to vocabulary and semantic mapping, categorized into five areas: definitions, typologies, empirical research applications, roles in language pedagogy, and implications for teaching practices In Chapter 3, the design and methods of investigation are justified, focusing on the setting, participants, data types, methods of data collection, and analytical framework Finally, Chapter 4 offers a comprehensive analysis and interpretation of data from three sources: experiments, journals, and additional findings.
Chapter 5 presents a thorough analysis of the findings from the 13-question questionnaire, addressing the previously discussed data It concludes by directly answering the research questions, offering recommendations for English language practitioners, and suggesting potential topics for future research.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
What is vocabulary?
Vocabulary refers to the collection of words within a specific language or individual language units that convey meaning (McCarthy, 1990) According to Penny Ur (1996), vocabulary encompasses the words taught in a foreign language, which can include not only single words but also compounds (such as "post office" or "mother-in-law") and multi-word idioms (like "call it a day").
Vocabulary encompasses the knowledge of words and their meanings, as defined by Lehr et al (2004) However, this definition overlooks the complexity of vocabulary, which includes both oral forms—words recognized and used in listening and speaking—and print forms—words recognized and utilized in reading and writing.
Vocabulary encompasses two types: receptive and productive Receptive vocabulary includes words recognized during reading and listening, while productive vocabulary consists of words actively used in speaking and writing (Lehr et al., 2004) Understanding vocabulary involves knowledge of word spelling, pronunciation, collocations, and appropriateness (Nation, 1990) Pyles (1970) emphasized that vocabulary is central to language, as the interplay of sounds and meanings enables effective communication.
Vocabulary encompasses the words, phrases, and idioms within a language, along with their meanings and proper usage in context In this study, vocabulary is defined as the collection of words and expressions that facilitate effective communication, both orally and in writing Understanding vocabulary is essential for conveying and interpreting information accurately.
The importance of vocabulary
Regarding the importance of vocabulary, Krashen (1989) pointed out that ―a large vocabulary is, of course, essential for mastery of a language‖(pp 73, 440-463) as without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed (Wilkins, 1972)
Vocabulary is essential for effective communication in a foreign language, as highlighted by Rubin and Thompson (1994), who assert that mastering a language requires a substantial vocabulary Nguyen and Khuat (2003) further emphasize its critical role in language acquisition, noting that vocabulary connects the four key skills: speaking, listening, reading, and writing According to Richards and Renandya (2002), vocabulary is a fundamental component of language proficiency, significantly influencing learners' abilities in all aspects of language use.
In fact, vocabulary is a means to support communication It is a necessary component of language instruction In order to communicate well in a foreign
Acquiring a sufficient vocabulary is crucial for language learners, as it significantly impacts their ability to communicate effectively Della and Hocking (1992) emphasize that while basic grammar can facilitate some communication, a lack of vocabulary hinders understanding and expression Thus, good grammatical structures alone are not enough for successful communication; without an adequate vocabulary, conveying information becomes challenging A strong vocabulary instills confidence in learners and enhances their communicative success This raises the important question of which words are essential for learners to master and effective strategies for retaining them.
Approaches to teaching vocabulary
The two most common ways in which the meaning of view items is conveyed as follows: General traditional methods and communicative method of teaching vocabulary
The former includes various approach such as: grammar – translation method, direct method, audio- lingual method, suggestopedia method
In the scope of thesis, I only focus on three major traditional methods: the grammar-translation method; the direct method and the audio-lingual method
The grammar-translation method is the oldest approach to teaching foreign languages, originating from the classical method used for teaching Greek and Latin This traditional method has been employed since ancient times to facilitate the translation of classical languages, often referred to as the Classical method.
The direct method of teaching foreign languages, sometimes called the natural method, refrains from using the learners' native language and uses only the
The direct method emerged as a response to the limitations of the traditional grammar-translation approach, which emphasizes written language through direct translations of grammar and vocabulary.
The audio-lingual method, also known as the Army Method or New Key, gained popularity in the United States and other countries during the 1950s and 1960s, having been developed in the U.S during World War II The method arose from the urgent need for language personnel, leading to the establishment of a specialized language-training program Rooted in behaviorist theory, the audio-lingual method emphasizes that language skills can be acquired through reinforcement, where correct usage is rewarded with positive feedback, while incorrect usage receives negative feedback.
The audio-lingual method of language learning shares similarities with the earlier direct method by advocating for direct instruction in the target language without reliance on the students' native language However, it distinguishes itself by emphasizing grammar drills over vocabulary acquisition, focusing on the structural aspects of the language rather than word learning.
In summary, traditional vocabulary teaching methods often rely on translation, presenting a list of words with their meanings at the start or providing translations at the end of lessons This approach can create confusion for learners and is not an effective practice for vocabulary acquisition.
2.3.2 Communicative approach to teaching vocabulary
The communicative approach emerged as a response from educators and linguists dissatisfied with traditional audio-lingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language teaching This approach emphasizes the importance of effective communication, as it became clear that students were not achieving the desired proficiency levels through these conventional techniques.
In the 1970s, there was a significant shift towards communicative-style teaching, emphasizing the importance of realistic, whole language learning Many students struggled to communicate effectively within the cultural context of the language they were studying, lacking the necessary social language, gestures, and expressions This growing interest in authentic language use fostered classroom interactions where students actively engaged in meaningful communication with one another.
Over the years, the communicative approach has evolved across various educational levels, from elementary to post-secondary This foundational philosophy has led to the development of diverse teaching methods, which are recognized by several names, such as notional-functional, teaching for proficiency, proficiency-based instruction, and communicative language teaching.
The Communicative Approach primarily focuses on enhancing students' listening and speaking skills, often neglecting the essential training in reading and writing Proficiency in reading and writing is crucial for students aiming to attend universities, study abroad, engage with original texts, navigate international information sources, and produce academic papers in English To address the limitations of the Communicative Approach, incorporating "extensive reading" can effectively complement its methods, allowing both strategies to coexist and support comprehensive language development.
There are a lot of techniques to teach vocabulary in language learning in communication method
Using real objects or models significantly enhances understanding and meaning in educational settings However, teachers must approach the use of these materials practically and avoid unnecessary complexity.
Images in various types and colors effectively convey the meanings of words and sentences Additionally, handmade pictures are a viable option, as they do not require exceptional artistic skills.
Drawings can be used to explain the meaning of things, actions, qualities, and relations A line drawing of a head, for example, provides many useful nouns and verbs
Utilizing videos to teach vocabulary is an effective method, especially those that demonstrate the words in context Videos designed for English language learners are particularly beneficial for younger students who may not be familiar with certain terms A great resource for safe classroom video content is the Language Arts section on YouTube, which offers a variety of educational materials.
Understanding one member of a pair of opposites facilitates the comprehension of the other, allowing students to grasp the nuanced meanings of words more effectively.
Using synonyms can enhance a student's understanding of nuanced meanings, especially when the synonym is more familiar than the target word Additionally, synonyms enrich a student's vocabulary and offer immediate alternatives for expression.
Building vocabulary relies on the connection between new and familiar words, making it an effective teaching strategy Educators who encourage students to link unfamiliar terms to words they already understand significantly enhance long-term retention.
Semantic mapping
To know how to apply it into practice effectively to solve the problem of vocabulary teaching, a theory of semantic mapping needs to be carefully worked out
As cited in Buis (2004, p 18), such researchers as Nagy (1988), Biemiller
Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2002) emphasize that effective vocabulary instruction requires a deeper engagement with words to ensure they are retained They advocate for the creation of associative links between words as a powerful method for enhancing vocabulary retention Additionally, their research suggests that associative vocabulary instruction is more beneficial for learning than traditional methods that merely expose students to definitions in context.
Since its introduction in the early 1980s, semantic mapping has garnered significant attention due to its innovative approach To fully grasp this concept, it is crucial to explore the foundational elements that support it.
The notion of semantic mapping dates back to the dyad Johnson and Pearson
In 1978, a groundbreaking categorical model of information was introduced as a graphic classroom strategy aimed at enhancing vocabulary knowledge This innovative approach not only allowed for the analysis and categorization of words within a text but also facilitated the creation of links within the lexical network that describes them, ultimately providing visual displays to illustrate their relationships.
This strategy is fundamentally rooted in Chomsky's mentalism doctrine from the 1960s, which highlights the inherent capacity for human language learning (Pateman, 1987, p 120) Consequently, language learning is viewed as an active mental process, emphasizing the importance of cognitive engagement in the acquisition of language skills.
Chomskyan doctrine in this strategy lies in the creation of links to connect related information, thus activating the mentally acquired process about the language more favorably
Johnson, Heimlich, and Pittelman (1986) highlight the significance of semantic mapping as a visual representation that links a word or concept to related ideas This method leverages students' existing knowledge to clarify connections between new vocabulary and familiar terms By establishing these relationships, students enhance their understanding of the words they learn.
By focusing on the links between students' existing vocabulary and new terms, this approach enhances understanding and sets it apart from Johnson and Pearson's perspective, which emphasizes only the relationships among new words within a text.
Nagy (1988, p 10) simplifies the concept of semantic mapping, defining it as a classroom activity that integrates taught vocabulary with existing knowledge This definition merges two perspectives on semantic mapping, highlighting how the comprehension of new words is linked to both prior and new information.
Semantic mapping is a powerful strategy that highlights the innate ability to create associations in knowledge through various forms of expression This approach, rooted in the mentalist perspective, suggests that language is a behavior influenced by biologically determined perceptions and categorization mechanisms (Brown, 1980) By utilizing semantic mapping, one can effectively connect and integrate words and concepts within the context of a text, enhancing comprehension and retention.
The perspective that knowledge builds upon previous understanding garnered significant attention, especially as researchers emphasized the importance of fundamentally associative strategies in learning.
While some researchers explore the mentalist aspect of semantic mapping, Braden (1982, p 10) offers a more straightforward perspective, defining semantic mapping as a schema overview He describes it as a structural representation consisting of labeled nodes linked by unlabeled lines.
Semantic mapping can be understood from two key perspectives: the mentalist and the structural From a mentalist viewpoint, it serves as a strategy that fosters associations in knowledge acquisition by linking related concepts, facilitating an active and connective learning process Conversely, the structural perspective views semantic mapping as an organizational tool that connects nodes and lines, highlighting its operational essence and formal description Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of semantic mapping encompasses both of these aspects.
Semantic mapping, as described by Buis (2004), encompasses various formats such as charts, boxes, outlines, webs, mappings, clusters, networks, and graphic organizers, tailored to the key terms and genre of the text being studied Furthermore, Buis emphasizes that the types within each format are limitless, allowing for diverse presentations.
This study focuses on three specific types of mapping techniques for teaching reading texts: word mapping, story mapping, and concept mapping Concept mapping further includes two sub-types: Double Cell Diagram and Project Concept Mapping.
Word mapping is ―a visual display through which the understanding of key words is clarified by graphically mapping them‖ (Masters, Mori & Mori, 1993, p
In this mapping technique, the central keyword is positioned at the center, with branches extending outward to illustrate its characteristics or attributes When a branch concludes or an idea becomes irrelevant, new branches are generated This word mapping model is visually represented in Figures 2.1 and 2.2 below.
Figure 2.1: Model of a word mapping (Source: http:// graphic.org)
Semantic mapping is a word association technique that visually organizes words into a diagram It features a central key concept, with related words and ideas connected to it through lines or arrows This method enhances understanding and retention of information by illustrating the relationships between concepts.
Types fins Fish freshwat er halibut saltwater sockeye salmon
Sayings Habitat Over fishing fish or cut bait smells fishy king
Figure 2.2: Items in bedroom (Gairns and Redman, 1986)
The roles of semantic mapping in EFL classrooms
Semantic mapping is an exceptionally effective strategy that significantly enhances students' performance and positively influences their learning attitudes.
2.5.1 Improvement in success and rate of foreign language acquisition
Remarkable progress of the students exposed to the use of this strategy is manifested through more positive results from a number of research works
For instance, in the research by Margosein, Pascarella and Pflaum (1982) the students experienced semantic mapping obtained better results on the final test than those being instructed with contextual clues
Research by Joseph (2002) demonstrated that concept mapping significantly enhances reading comprehension, as evidenced by improved performance in both groups A and B following a cross-comparison analysis.
36 stages Specifically, in the first stage when neither group was instructed to devise a concept mapping from the reading, group A read article 1 and group B read article
2 They were both tested for comprehension by the use of a teacher-made test devised particularly for each article In contrast, in the second stage when both were instructed with a concept mapping to help them understand related ideas and concepts from their article, group A read article 2 and group B read article 1 Both groups were also given another teacher-made test that examined the comprehension for the article they read The results indicate that ―with the aids of this strategy, group A scored higher than group B on article 2, and group B scored higher than group A on article 1‖ (ibid., para 15)
Research by Salameh (2006) reveals that the use of semantic mapping significantly enhances students' reading comprehension, as evidenced by the experimental group achieving notably higher mean scores on post-tests compared to the control group.
Thus, it can be asserted that semantic mapping contributed much to the improvement in students’ performance
2.5.2 Improvement in attitudes towards foreign language acquisition
Beside its significant contribution to the progress of students’ performance, this strategy creates positive effects on their attitudes, thus facilitating the learning
According to Heimlich and Pittelman (1986), ―semantic mapping appears to motivate students of all age levels and to involve them actively in the thinking- reading process‖ (p 34)
Zaid (1995) highlights the integration of semantic mapping within Communicative Language Teaching, emphasizing its significant benefits for students This interactive approach encourages collaboration, as students engage with one another during the creation of the map, ensuring their full involvement and active participation throughout the process.
Engaging students through predictive activities stimulates their curiosity and enthusiasm for lessons By allowing students to control the input during the map-building process, the approach becomes student-centered, minimizing the passivity often found in traditional language classrooms Additionally, this method enables teachers to discreetly assess students' readiness for assignments, fostering a supportive and comfortable learning environment.
In addition, this strategy promotes the ability of working in groups for students which involves them in an active learning process, as stated by Harmon
In group sessions, students enhanced their vocabulary and engaged collaboratively, leading to the development of independent word learning strategies and the sharing of meanings This interaction fostered stimulating discussions that not only varied word meanings but also generated excitement for learning new words.
Semantic mapping enhances vocabulary learning by making it more meaningful and memorable, as noted by Brassel (2003) This method offers advantages over traditional linear word lists, allowing for a deeper understanding and retention of vocabulary.
In summary, semantic mapping is a significant innovation in language education, particularly in vocabulary teaching and learning It enhances students' performance and cultivates a positive learning environment, which is crucial for effectively understanding and retaining new words.
Implications for English vocabulary teaching practices
Previous research supports the idea that this strategy can enhance vocabulary teaching Based on the earlier discussion, this section outlines a comprehensive process consisting of four essential stages for creating a semantic map.
According to Beers (2003), teachers can effectively introduce a lesson by drawing a large oval on the blackboard and writing the key concept at its center, or by using an overhead projector Alternatively, as demonstrated by Hunter et al (2007), displaying relevant pictures, cards, or real objects can engage students and stimulate brainstorming, enhancing their connection to the topic.
According to Johnson, Heimlich, and Pittelman (1986), brainstorming is primarily a student-driven activity When a teacher introduces a key word or concept, students are encouraged to generate and share related words, ideas, characteristics, and examples in small groups The teacher should promptly record these contributions, ideally listing them alongside the blackboard for later use in comprehensive semantic mapping.
Once the word list is finalized, the teacher organizes the words into categories, prompting students to explore the connections between their suggestions By facilitating discussions on why certain words are grouped together, the teacher enhances their understanding Following the methods suggested by Englert and Mariage (1991) and Olson and Gee (1991), the teacher, along with the class, utilizes different colored chalk to illustrate secondary-level nodes in distinct shapes, while assigning appropriate category names.
The reading text provided to the class offers additional information about the topic, surpassing what students initially noted on their pre-reading maps This prompts ongoing group discussions where students are encouraged to revise their maps by adding or removing details As a result, new information is seamlessly integrated with their existing knowledge.
The map undergoes continuous modifications as groups organize and integrate individual suggestions, leading to a collective decision on its final shape The updated version, featuring various colors and shapes, emphasizes the evolution of their understanding from the initial concepts to the knowledge gained through the assignment.
Summary
Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive exploration of vocabulary and semantic mapping, beginning with definitions and teaching methods for vocabulary It then defines semantic mapping and outlines its three relevant types The chapter discusses the application of semantic mapping as a classroom strategy supported by empirical research, highlighting its impact on EFL classrooms in terms of effectiveness, success rates, and student attitudes Concluding with a detailed process for constructing semantic maps, the chapter offers practical implications for vocabulary instruction.
METHODOLOGY
Study setting
The study was conducted at Nghe An Trading and Tourism Vocational College, which specializes in training professionals such as accountants, chefs, tour guides, hotel managers, and business managers for Nghe An and surrounding regions The college comprises six departments: Food Processing, Economics and Business, Tourism, Basic Education, Foreign Languages, and Informatics At the time of the study, the institution employed 170 staff members and catered to 2,180 students through both in-service and regular training programs.
Participants
The study involved 87 freshmen in food processing, all of whom were non-native English speakers These students were divided into two classes, 18B5 and 18B6, which were randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a control group Class 18B6 participated in an eight-week traditional vocabulary instruction program based on a specific word list, while Class 18B5 served as the control group.
The experimental group, labeled as Group 41, received a unique treatment that incorporated semantic mapping (S.M.) as a strategy for vocabulary instruction.
The details about these two groups are presented in the sub-sections of 3.1 and 3.2 below
The Control Group was described in terms of gender, age and English- learning experience and summarized in the table below:
Table 3.1: The Control Group’s background information
Likewise, the Experimental Group was described in terms of gender, age and English-learning experience and recapped in the table below:
Table 3.2: The Experimental Group’s background information
The data presented for the two groups indicates a significant similarity across four key variables: the number of students, gender distribution, age range, and English-learning experience.
42 was approximately the same number of the students in both groups, the females in each group outnumbered the males four times, most of them were quite young.
Data types of methods of data collection
This section justifies the data types and collection methods used in the study, which focused on the experimental teaching of semantic mapping Data were gathered in two stages: students' performances were assessed through pre- and post-tests, while their reflections on the strategy were collected through interviews and questionnaires.
The researcher aimed to determine if S.M treatment influenced the lexical knowledge of the group exposed to it, and whether any observed differences were due to this intervention This type of research is best suited for an experimental design, necessitating a theoretical examination of the methodology to assess its relevance to the problem being studied Taylor, Kermode, and Roberts (2006) provide a detailed explanation of conducting experiments in research.
The classical pre-test, post-test experimental design involves exposing one group of subjects to a treatment while another group receives an inert intervention The effectiveness of the treatment is assessed by comparing the responses of both groups Initially, pre-test measurements are analyzed to confirm the groups' equivalence Following the treatment, post-test measurements are compared to the pre-test results to determine if any changes occurred and to identify the direction of those changes.
As such, the pre- and post-test experimental design was judged promisingly to investigate the feasibility and effects of this strategy on the teaching of
The improvement in vocabulary within the Experimental Group is primarily attributed to the use of semantic mapping This research design is optimal as it allows the researcher to control variables, enhancing the accuracy of assessing individual variable effects and interactions between them.
The researcher was convinced that the design would effectively demonstrate the strategy's effectiveness, leading to an eight-week experiment conducted from March 16 to May 4, 2014 The details of the experiment's three stages are outlined below.
The pre-test, designed to assess vocabulary knowledge acquired during the first semester, lasted for 30 minutes and was administered to both groups The researcher personally supervised and graded the tests, ensuring consistency in the evaluation process.
Over the course of eight weeks, each group participated in eight 60-minute meetings focused on reading comprehension The experimental teaching was designed to enhance vocabulary at the pre-reading stage, preparing students for effective reading This approach consisted of two primary components.
The researcher selected eight reading texts from the book "English for Food Processing," used as the official textbook for Food Processing classes at Nghe An Trading and Tourism Vocational College These texts were chosen for their potential value to students, as they contain words with strong lexical links Following the theory outlined in the previous chapter, the researcher ensured that the maps created from each reading text were not overly detailed.
44 from seven to eleven new words which were not limited in parts of speech providing that they could reflect the topics of the reading texts
Second, ―as the treatments given to the groups are different, the number of groups should be equal to the number of treatments‖ (Isaac & Michael, 1983, p 92)
This study involved two groups, each receiving distinct treatment strategies: word lists and semantic mapping To ensure an objective evaluation of these approaches, it was crucial to provide both groups with equal access to reading materials, consistent teacher input, balanced peer interaction, and equal class time dedicated to each treatment method.
The primary aim of the word list treatment was to connect form and meaning by providing English definitions of target words alongside their usage analysis Definitions were presented through English synonyms and paraphrases, with examples sourced from Oxford.
In a study referenced in the Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1992), students participated in activities designed to provide them with the same exposure to material as the Experimental Group Following peer checks, answers were reviewed collectively with the instructor to clarify any misunderstandings The treatment duration for these activities was set at 20 minutes.
At the outset of the treatment, the teacher introduced the key concept of "The Sultan of Brunei" at the center of a map, surrounded by circular nodes containing relevant teaching words that connected to supporting information Subsequently, students were given a framework featuring only the key concept and empty circular nodes for further exploration.
Students were tasked with creating a concept map that visually represents subordinate ideas clarifying the main concept, with designated strands from each node They received a list of words and ideas related to the key concept and worked in groups to fill in the empty nodes of the map Following this, they were given a model map to analyze and explain the connections between the concepts.
Finally, the students were asked to make up a story related to the key concept The time located for this treatment was 20 minutes, too
The post-test served as a review of the vocabulary taught during the experimental teaching, allowing the researcher to evaluate the effectiveness of two treatments on the vocabulary learning of two groups It was designed in the same format as the pre-test to maintain consistency To ensure objectivity and minimize bias, a colleague from the Faculty, who holds a B.A in English from Vinh University, was commissioned to invigilate and score the tests for both groups, with the results subsequently returned to the researcher.
The study utilized a questionnaire to gather in-depth insights into students' attitudes and interests, but recognized its limitations in exploring complex data To enhance the research, interviews were incorporated as a vital qualitative data collection tool, allowing for the investigation of phenomena such as learners' self-reported perceptions and attitudes (Gass & Mackey, 2000) Through face-to-face interactions, the interviews enabled the researcher to obtain detailed responses and clarify questions, focusing on students' attitudes towards the semantic mapping technique Following the treatment, interviews were conducted with nine students selected based on their questionnaire results, representing a range of performance changes.
Analytical framework
The study utilized both quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods Quantitative analysis focuses on measuring data through numerical values and statistical techniques (Creswell, 1994) In contrast, qualitative analysis involves organizing and interpreting textual data to identify relationships and patterns (Neuman, 1997) This process includes developing concepts based on established categories, which may be newly formed or refined concepts grounded in the data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).
The following sub-sections present the application of the above theories into shaping the analytical framework employed to analyze different types of data in this study
3.4.1 Quantitative analysis of pre- and post-tests
The quantitative analysis utilized pre- and post-test results from both groups, calculating the mean, standard deviation, range, and score frequency for each group's tests These statistical values were processed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows.
The researcher gains insights into the average test scores, the variability around the mean, and the distribution of scores, as highlighted by Brown (2005) and Hatch & Farhady (1982, p 57) This analysis includes understanding the spread and frequency of the scores.
Students were assigned codes based on gender (e.g., A1 or A5), and their reflections were examined for themes related to their impressions of semantic mapping This analysis included their feelings, thoughts, and evaluations regarding the strategy, as well as its effects and potential limitations for vocabulary instruction.
For most questions in the questionnaire, descriptive statistics such as percentage and frequency counts were calculated and presented in tables or charts
To assist the researcher in data collection, the responses to each sub-question were categorized by common themes during the interviews and simultaneously analyzed for central tendency.
In this thesis, each of the five response options in the questionnaire—strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree—was assigned a specific numerical value to facilitate the calculation of the average score for each item.
The average responses of students to each sub-question were calculated using the specified formula and subsequently compared to the mean of the five choices presented in the tables.
Chapter 3 outlines essential methodological aspects of the study, including the setting, participant selection, data types, and collection methods, as well as the analytical framework for evaluating pre- and post-tests, interviews, and questionnaires Following these methodological guidelines, data collection was carried out, and the upcoming chapter will focus on analyzing and interpreting the results.