INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Understanding reading is crucial for academic success and overall life skills At Vinh University, non-English major students often struggle with English reading comprehension due to their low proficiency levels Traditional instructional methods frequently treat reading as a product, focusing on text interpretation rather than the reading process, which involves the reader's background knowledge and interaction with the text Common teaching approaches typically have students read a text and then answer questions, emphasizing comprehension components but neglecting strategies for overcoming difficulties and constructing interpretations Recent research advocates for engaging learners in knowledge construction, highlighting the importance of strategies like self-questioning, semantic mapping, and summary writing to enhance comprehension These effective strategies enable students to monitor their learning and create meaning from texts With the right scaffolding strategies, students can receive the necessary support to tackle complex tasks and improve their reading skills.
Vacca (2008) emphasizes that with proper guidance and support, students take greater responsibility for their learning, leading to increased motivation and success Consequently, scaffolding strategies prove to be effective in teaching reading, as they foster the development of higher-order skills and functions in learners.
With more than 3 years of experience in teaching English at Vinh University,
EFL learners struggle significantly with understanding both explicit and implicit information in English texts, often failing to grasp the main ideas and the author's intent They encounter a diverse array of vocabulary, grammatical structures, cultural nuances, and resources, which complicates their ability to navigate the material Without the implementation of scaffolding strategies by teachers, more capable students may develop these skills independently, while less proficient learners are likely to experience frustration with reading.
All the aforementioned reasons urge the author to carry out the study entitled
The study examines the impact of scaffolding strategies on the English reading comprehension skills of non-English major students The findings aim to provide valuable insights for educators and researchers interested in enhancing reading proficiency among this demographic.
Aims of the study
With the presented rationale, the specific aims of the study, accordingly, are:
1) to investigate the difficulties faced by non English major students in learning reading skill?
2) to evaluate the effectiveness of the application of scaffolding strategies to improve reading comprehension for non- English major students
3) to propose some suggestions and recommendations to reading comprehension teaching and learning iii
Scope of the study
This study examines the impact of scaffolding strategies on reading comprehension skills among non-English major students at Vinh University Conducted with a sample of one hundred students, the research specifically explores various scaffolding techniques, including background knowledge activation, pre-teaching vocabulary, utilizing mind maps, information transfer, employing visual aids, and previewing texts.
Research questions
In order to serve the aforesaid aims, the research attempts to answer the following questions:
1 What difficulties do non-English major students encounter in learning reading comprehension skill?
2 How effective are scaffolding strategies in teaching English reading comprehension skills for non- English major students?
Significance of the study
This study aims to serve as a valuable resource for educators and students seeking to enhance reading comprehension skills It is anticipated that the findings will deepen the understanding of scaffolding strategies and their effectiveness in improving this essential receptive skill Additionally, the research will raise awareness among teachers and students about the importance of implementing appropriate scaffolding techniques tailored to their learning needs.
The organization of the study
The study includes five chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 – Introduction – provides the rationale, the aims of the study, the scope of the study, the research questions, the significance of the study, and the organization of the study iv
Chapter 2 – Literature Review and Theoretical Background – presents the review of previous studies related to the thesis and some concepts as theoretical basis for the study
Chapter 3 – Research Design and Methodology – describes the research design, instruments for data collection, data collection, data analysis, and research procedures, which gives details of the research method and describes how the hypothesis of the thesis is interpreted and explained
Chapter 4 – Findings and Discussions – presents the results and discussions developed after the linguistics figures are analyzed
Chapter 5 – Conclusion and Implications – summarizes the main issues touched upon in the research, the limitations of the research and some suggestions for further studies Following the chapters are the references and appendices v
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Introduction
This chapter aims to establish a theoretical foundation for the study by reviewing relevant literature and examining previous research related to the current investigation It addresses key theoretical concepts pertinent to the research, including the communication language teaching approach, the nature of reading, the learning and teaching processes of reading skills, as well as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and various scaffolding strategies.
Literature review
Reading is a crucial element in teaching and learning English as a foreign language, as it provides essential language input Recognizing its significance, educators and scholars have increasingly focused on reading comprehension, exploring factors that influence it and proposing strategies for enhancement Techniques suggested by Stauffer (1976) emphasize teaching reading as a thinking process, including the Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA), which encourages purposeful reading and develops critical thinking skills through prediction Collins and Smith (1980) argue that many current methods prioritize the outcomes of comprehension while overlooking the underlying processes They advocate for teaching comprehension monitoring and hypothesis formation skills to improve overall reading comprehension.
Numerous studies have explored effective models for scaffolding reading comprehension skills Arthur N Langer and Judith A Langer (2003) proposed a model where skilled language users support new language activities in context, highlighting the importance of balanced instructional scaffolding in classroom activities In "Scaffolding Reading Experiences: Designs for Student Success," Michael and Bonnie Graves provide practical examples, quality children's literature, and activities tailored for K-8 learners, focusing on pre-reading, during-reading, and post-reading strategies Margaret M William (2013) emphasized the complexities of learning to read and comprehend both fiction and non-fiction texts in a foreign language, advocating for scaffolding strategies that assist English language learners, such as activating prior knowledge, using read-alouds to enhance comprehension, and making learning tangible.
A more specific study of scaffolding is presented by Donovan and Smolkin
In their 2002 study, Donovan and Smolkin critically examine the impact of scaffolding on children's writing, exploring various levels of support from minimal to high, including contextual and visual aids They identify "direct instruction with revision" as the highest level of scaffolding, yet their findings indicate that while scaffolding can aid children's understanding of genre, it may also inhibit their ability to fully express their knowledge This raises concerns about the potential counterproductive nature of viewing scaffolding solely as direct instruction, a perspective also echoed in pre-service educator texts (Berk, 2000).
Scaffolding techniques serve as essential forms of adult support in education, including demonstration, task simplification, guideline provision, and attention maintenance (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2002) Additionally, breaking content into manageable pieces is a key aspect of scaffolding highlighted in various studies (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2002; Krause et al., 2003).
Recent research by Pishghadam and Ghardiri (2011) examined the impact of Symmetrical (S) and Asymmetrical (AS) scaffolding on reading comprehension among 52 adult learners of English as a foreign language in Mashhad, Iran The findings indicated that students who received AS scaffolding outperformed those in the S group on reading comprehension post-tests Interviews with participants revealed a strong preference for pair reading, citing psychological benefits and a belief that collaboration enhances learning However, some respondents acknowledged the value of working with less capable peers to share knowledge and experiences.
In can be seen that most researchers mentioned focused on studying how scaffolding strategies are effectively used in teaching reading comprehension skills
In conclusion, scaffolding literacy significantly boosts students' self-confidence and self-regulation, while also enhancing critical thinking and higher-order skills, ultimately leading to improved student progress and effective teaching practices.
In Vietnam, research has highlighted the importance of teaching and learning reading skills Huynh Thi Mong Thuong (2009) examined the effects of pre-reading strategies, such as semantic mapping and skimming, on reading comprehension among students at Hung Vuong High School, finding that these strategies significantly enhance reading skills Similarly, Nguyen Thi Trinh Huyen (2009) explored the reading strategies employed by non-major English students at An Giang University, revealing that these students often neglect effective strategies during their reading comprehension process Huyen also proposed various reading strategies aimed at improving comprehension skills among these learners.
In conclusion, while previous researchers have significantly enhanced the teaching and learning of reading skills, there remains a gap in studies exploring the impact of scaffolding strategies on reading comprehension Consequently, the researcher of this thesis deems it crucial to investigate this area further.
Theoretical Background
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), also known as the Communicative Approach, emphasizes interaction as both the means and ultimate goal of learning a second or foreign language Emerging as a response to the Audio-Lingual Method and Situational Language Teaching, CLT gained prominence in the 1960s when linguists like Chomsky challenged the structuralist view of language Chomsky distinguished between linguistic performance and competence, focusing on the ability to produce grammatically correct sentences In contrast, Dell Hymes argued for a broader understanding of linguistic theory that includes communication competence, defining what speakers need to know to communicate effectively within their speech community Later, Canale and Swain (1980) outlined four dimensions of communicative competence, further shaping the framework of CLT.
• Grammatical competence: refers to what Chomsky calls linguistic competence, in other words, the speaker is able to use a structured comprehensible utterance (including grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling)
• Sociolinguistic competence: refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place (role relationships, shared beliefs and information between participants …)
• Discourse competence: refers to the interpretation of individual messsage elements in terms of their interconnectedness and how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text
• Strategic competence: refers to the coping strategies that participants use to initiate terminate, maintain, repair and redirect communication
At the level of language theory, CLT has a rich theoretical base Some of the characteristics of this communicative view of language can be outlined as follows:
1 Language is a system for the expression of meaning
2 The primary function of language is to allow interactions and communication
3 The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses
4 The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse
Nunan (1991) gave a list of most recognized five features of CLT:
1 An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language
2 The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation
3 The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning process itself x
4 An enhancement of the learner‘s own experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning
5 An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside classroom
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has become widely accepted in language education, as it thrives when teachers recognize the importance of grammar's structural role When implemented by a balanced educator, CLT can invigorate the classroom experience, making it a vital approach to language learning.
Being considered a receptive language skill, reading, according to Goodman
Reading comprehension is an active psycholinguistic process where readers reconstruct messages encoded by writers, as noted by (1971, p 135) Unlike traditional views that regarded reading as passive, current perspectives emphasize the importance of readers' background knowledge and strategies in understanding texts Comprehension results from the interaction between world knowledge and language skills, making it essential for readers to retain information effectively Grellet (1981, p 34) defines reading comprehension as the ability to extract necessary information from a text efficiently, highlighting the role of individual background knowledge Similarly, Swan points out that proficient comprehension involves reading accurately and efficiently to maximize information gained with minimal effort.
(Swan, 1975, p 1) This means that the student can show his understanding by re- expressing the content of the text in many ways such as summarizing the text, answering questions, etc
2.3.2.2 The process of teaching and learning reading comprehension skills
2.3.2.2.1 The bottom –up reading process
Bottom-up theories of reading suggest that children learn to read by starting with individual language components, such as letters, and gradually building up to comprehend entire texts This process resembles solving a jigsaw puzzle, where readers examine each piece before assembling them to form a complete picture Notable bottom-up theories include Gough's (1972) One Second of Reading, which describes reading as a sequential process of translating letters into sounds, forming words, and ultimately understanding the author's message Educators who subscribe to this approach often focus on teaching subskills, beginning with letter recognition and progressing to word pronunciation and meaning comprehension However, while bottom-up theories effectively address the decoding aspect of reading, they overlook the importance of background knowledge and context in understanding texts Critics like Stanovich (1980) and Swan (1973) argue that these models fail to account for the reader's role in making predictions and processing information, emphasizing that reading is a complex, interactive process Goodman (1970) further notes that reading involves risk and inference, highlighting the necessity of top-down processing, where readers utilize their intelligence and experiences to derive meaning from the text.
2.3.2.2.2 The top- down reading process
Top-down reading models focus on teaching students to understand literature as a whole rather than decoding individual words By having teachers read entire passages, students learn to use context clues to interpret unfamiliar words According to the National Capital Language Research Center, this approach is particularly beneficial for second language learners, as it encourages them to grasp the overall meaning of a text Additionally, it aids beginner readers who rely on prior knowledge to make sense of new material This reading strategy starts with the reader's predictions about the content, which are then confirmed or adjusted as they read Consequently, top-down reading emphasizes interpretation over mere decoding, positioning the reader as an active participant in the process, contrasting with earlier views that regarded reading as a passive decoding task.
Reading is an active predictive process, but as Stanovich (1980) points out, readers often lack prior knowledge of a topic, hindering their ability to make predictions Even skilled readers may find that generating predictions takes longer than simply recognizing words Strang (1984) argues that the top-down model of reading primarily applies to fluent readers and fails to address the needs of students developing their reading skills To address these limitations, reading specialists advocate for an interactive reading approach, which combines both top-down and bottom-up processing This method is essential for effective teaching, as it allows readers to fluidly shift between predicting meanings and verifying them against the text, as noted by Nuttall (1996).
2.3.3 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and Scaffolding
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), a key concept in Vygotskian socio-cultural psychology, refers to the gap between a child's current independent problem-solving abilities and their potential development when guided by an adult or collaborating with more capable peers Vygotsky emphasized that assessments should focus not only on a child's existing achievements but primarily on their potential for future growth The actual development level reflects past accomplishments, while the level of assisted performance reveals what a child can achieve in the near future Therefore, the ZPD highlights the difference between what a learner can accomplish alone versus with support, illustrating the importance of guidance in fostering development.
(nearby) indicates that the assistance provided goes just slightly beyond the learner‘s current competence complementing and building on their existing abilities (Cole & Cole, 2001)
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is best understood within the broader framework of Vygotskian theory, as failing to recognize this connection can lead to confusion between ZPD and general instructional techniques According to Cole and Cole (2001), without this context, it becomes challenging to distinguish Vygotsky's unique concept from any method that involves guiding children through a series of steps in skill acquisition with adult assistance.
Vygotskian socio-cultural psychology and the zone of proximal development are fundamental to the concept of scaffolding (Berk, 2001; Daniels, 2001; Wells, 2001; McDevitt & Ormrod, 2002) Interpretations of how scaffolding relates to this concept vary, with some viewing it as a direct application of Vygotsky's teaching methods within the zone of proximal development (Wells, 1999), while others argue that scaffolding only partially captures the complexity of Vygotsky's original idea (Daniels, 2001).
According to Mercer and Fisher (1993, in Wells, 1999), the primary objective of scaffolding in education is to transfer responsibility for tasks to students For an educational event to qualify as scaffolding, it must: a) empower learners to complete tasks they could not handle independently; b) aim to develop the learner's competence to eventually perform such tasks autonomously; and c) result in observable evidence of the learner's increased independent competence following the scaffolding experience.
1999, p 221) The emphasis of their definition is on the collaboration between the teacher and the learner in constructing knowledge and skill in the former xv
Field (2004) highlights the connection between scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), emphasizing that adults assist children by directing their attention, guiding them toward suitable objectives, identifying key task features, and demonstrating relevant strategies Scaffolding is crucial for helping children advance within their ZPD, offering educators a straightforward framework for supporting learners at various stages of development.
Scaffolding in education encompasses various instructional techniques aimed at guiding students toward a deeper understanding and greater independence in their learning journey This concept likens teaching support to physical scaffolding, where educators provide temporary assistance to help students achieve higher levels of comprehension and skill that they couldn't reach alone As students progress, these supportive strategies are gradually withdrawn, allowing teachers to transfer more responsibility for the learning process to the students themselves.
Scaffolding is a crucial component of effective teaching, utilized by educators to varying degrees It serves to bridge learning gaps, helping students transition from their current knowledge to the expected competencies at different educational stages For instance, when students struggle with reading comprehension, teachers can implement instructional scaffolding to gradually enhance their reading skills, enabling them to tackle challenging texts independently A key objective of scaffolding is to alleviate negative emotions and self-perceptions, reducing feelings of frustration and discouragement that arise when students face difficult tasks without adequate support.
Scaffolding, as defined by Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976), is a process that enables children or novices to solve problems and achieve goals that exceed their independent capabilities This metaphor highlights how adults, peers, or more knowledgeable individuals assist learners in tasks beyond their current abilities The concept has gained traction among educational specialists to describe the guiding role of more experienced individuals in children's learning (Stone, 1998; Wells, 1999; Hammond, 2002) Rooted in Vygotsky's (1978) idea of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), scaffolding emphasizes the importance of support in the learning process, ensuring that teaching is responsive to learners' understanding In the context of computer-mediated technologies, scaffolding can be provided by human tutors, peer students, or intelligent agents, facilitating the acquisition of new skills and knowledge (Mc Loughlin, 2004).
A responsible teacher often wonders about the most effective strategies to support struggling readers Implementing a variety of scaffolding techniques in reading instruction can significantly enhance students' reading abilities The essential approach is to consistently and creatively apply these strategies New reading skills should be taught through a scaffolding method that includes modeling, guided practice, and independent application Since students have diverse reading styles, not all strategies will resonate equally; what benefits one student may be ineffective for another Therefore, explicit instruction in reading strategies should incorporate opportunities for students to evaluate the effectiveness of each strategy, encouraging them to reflect on their experiences.
- How does this strategy help me to understand the text?
- How does this strategy relate to something I already do or don't do as a reader?
Summary
This chapter provides a theoretical foundation for teaching reading skills and outlines scaffolding strategies aimed at enhancing reading comprehension for non-English major students While significant international research exists on improving reading skills, there is a notable lack of studies in Vietnam focusing on scaffolding strategies for non-English majors, particularly those with lower proficiency levels Consequently, this research aims to explore effective scaffolding techniques and assess their impact on the reading comprehension abilities of non-English major students The following chapter will detail the methodology for conducting this study.
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter outlines the methodology for the study, detailing the participants, instruments, and procedures involved in data collection and analysis, following the contextual and theoretical background summarized in the previous chapter.
Research methods
This study investigates the impact of scaffolding strategies on the reading comprehension skills of non-English major students, employing a mixed-methods approach that combines both quantitative and qualitative research Data were collected through the Preliminary English Test (PET) reading test (B1 level), questionnaires, and interviews to identify the challenges faced by these students in developing reading skills As highlighted by Condelli and Wrigley (2003), a mixed research design effectively reveals not only what works but also how it works, aligning with Bryman's (1988) advocacy for integrating qualitative and quantitative methods The quantitative approach offers reliable, generalizable data suitable for needs assessments, while qualitative methods provide insights into the perspectives of the target audience through immersive interaction The study utilized a quasi-experimental design with an experimental group taught using scaffolding strategies and a control group taught without them, ensuring equivalence through a pre-test conducted prior to the treatment.
(students achievement in reading comprehension) as well as to identify students‘ difficulties in order to apply appropriate scaffolding reading strategies
The study examined two key variables: the independent variable was the teaching method for reading skills, specifically comparing scaffolding strategies to those without scaffolding The dependent variable focused on students' achievement as measured by their performance on a reading comprehension posttest.
The researcher aims to leverage the benefits of both methods and employ a quasi-experimental design to effectively address the research questions, ensuring that scaffolding reading strategies are appropriately applied for non-English major students.
Participants
A study involving 100 first-year non-English major students at Vinh University in Nghe An province, Vietnam, included 53 females and 47 males, divided into a control group of 52 students and an experimental group of 48 students This quasi-experimental design ensured that both groups were approximately equal in English proficiency, as assessed by their English placement test scores and pretest results in reading comprehension The participants, aged 19 to 22, predominantly hail from Nghe An, Ha Tinh, and Thanh Hoa provinces, and while they have studied English as a foreign language for seven years, their actual proficiency is at the elementary level, despite expectations of a pre-intermediate level Some students also attend additional English classes at various language centers.
6 hours per week Some started learning English at the age of eight xxxv
Research Instruments
In order to obtain a sufficient collection of reliable and valid data for the study, a reading comprehension test at PET B1 level, questionnaires, and interviews were employed
In this study, a reading comprehension pretest at PET B1 level was held at the first week of February when nothing taught The pretest consists of 5 parts with
35 reading questions aimed to assess the performance of the study groups in reading comprehension as well as to identify students‘ difficulties in learning reading skills
To ensure suitable readability for students, a pretest was selected from the Cambridge Preliminary English Test This assessment aids the researcher in implementing effective scaffolding strategies Additionally, the pretest results are compared with posttest outcomes to evaluate the impact of these strategies on reading comprehension among non-English major students.
Informal interviews and discussions were conducted with students after the posttest and questionnaire B to gather insights on the effects of scaffolding strategies on reading comprehension skills The interviews revealed that students' motivation in learning reading comprehension was positively influenced by these strategies, confirming their effectiveness for non-English major students Newman (2002) highlights that face-to-face interviews yield high response rates, while Nunan (1998) notes that unstructured interviews resemble natural conversations, allowing students to express themselves freely in a comfortable setting Conducting the interviews in Vietnamese ensured that students fully understood the questions, facilitating open communication The interviews took place during school breaks and were recorded for later analysis.
According to McMillan and Schumacher (1993), questionnaires are a highly effective method for gathering information from participants Researchers recognize several advantages of using questionnaires in language research, including the ability to distribute them to a large number of students simultaneously and their self-administered nature Additionally, to maintain privacy and fairness, the absence of participants' names on the questionnaire encourages more honest responses, even regarding sensitive topics The simultaneous administration of the questionnaire also enhances the accuracy of the collected data Consequently, the survey questionnaire was designed as a primary data collection tool, allowing the researcher to assess the effectiveness of scaffolding strategies through two distinct sets of questionnaires, A and B.
Questionnaire A was administered to both experimental and control group students, comprising two main sections The first section gathered personal information, including optional details like name, age, gender, duration of English study, and placement test scores The second section included six questions, with five focusing on students' challenges in reading comprehension, such as vocabulary, grammar, text discourse, background knowledge, and reading strategies The sixth question explored students' expectations regarding teaching methodologies To facilitate understanding for non-English major students with limited English proficiency, Questionnaire A was presented in both English and Vietnamese.
The experimental group of students completed Questionnaire B, which consists of two sections The first section gathers personal information, including the students' names (optional) and their English marks from both the pretest and posttest The second section evaluates students' appreciation for six scaffolding strategies employed by the teacher to enhance reading skills To ensure clarity, the questionnaire was designed in Vietnamese, utilizing straightforward syntax and vocabulary.
The survey questionnaire and posttest results provided compelling evidence that scaffolding strategies significantly enhance reading comprehension Additionally, the researcher's ability to gather data from a large population quickly streamlined the analysis process, as all participants responded to the same questions.
A questionnaire was utilized in this study due to its effectiveness and high response rates among individuals with a strong interest in the topic Specifically, it was administered to students in the experimental group who had completed three months of reading skill development using scaffolding strategies, followed by a PET posttest on reading proficiency The questionnaire aimed to gather students' evaluations of the scaffolding strategies and their insights on how these strategies enhanced their reading comprehension skills.
To guarantee the reliability of the data collected, informants were interviewed during their free time A pilot questionnaire was tested on select students to identify potential issues, and their feedback offered valuable insights for revisions Following these trial and revision phases, the finalized questionnaire was officially distributed to the study participants.
The posttest was administered during the last week of May, marking 11 weeks since the lessons began Similar to the pretest, it was derived from the Cambridge Preliminary English Test, consisting of five reading sections and a total of 35 questions Students were allotted 60 minutes to complete the test, with the teacher emphasizing that the results would not impact their overall grades The primary aim of this assessment is to ensure that students do not collaborate during the test, allowing for accurate survey results Both the pretest and posttest are included in the appendix.
The study focused on five units from the Target PET course book, utilized for non-English major students since the 2013-2014 academic year Instruction was delivered through two distinct methods: the control group received traditional instruction without scaffolding strategies, while the experimental group benefited from scaffolding instructional techniques For a detailed example of the scaffolding approach, refer to Appendix 2, which includes a sample lesson plan.
The researcher developed a lesson plan for each unit, informed by a thorough review of literature on scaffolding strategies and the teacher's guide By aligning with the content of each unit and the associated reading text, several effective scaffolding strategies were implemented to enhance learning.
Data Analysis
The analysis of data, derived from interviews and questionnaires, utilized both qualitative and quantitative methods Pre and post-test reading results, along with questionnaire data, were quantitatively analyzed using statistical frequency percentages, presented through tables and charts created with Excel formulas Additionally, the information gathered from interviews was articulated and documented in descriptive text.
Data Collection Procedures
The researcher collected information in the academic year 2013-2014 The procedure of the research includes the following steps: xxxix
1 Gathering information and reviewing the previous research related to the study
2 Administrating reading proficiency pre test at PET B1 level
3 Collecting the data from the results of the pretest, designing questions for the questionnaire A and then delivering the questionnaire to the students
4 Analyzing data from the results of the pretest and the questionnaire, and then implementing a scaffolding reading program for 3 months
5 Administrating reading proficiency posttest at PET B1 level, designing questionnaire B and then delivering questionnaire to students
6 Collecting and analyzing the data from the results of the posttest and questionnaire
7 Conducting statistical analysis and data tabulations
8 Explaining and interpreting the collected data presented in tables and charts.
Summary xxxix CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS xl 4.1 Introduction xl 4.2 English reading proficiency of non-English major students at Vinh University xl 4.3 Difficulties encountered by non-English major students in learning reading skills xlii 4.3.1 Students‘ difficulties with Vocabulary xlii 4.3.2 Students‘ difficulties with Grammar xliii 4.3.3 Students‘ difficulties with Discourse Structure xlv 4.3.4 Students‘ difficulties related to Background Knowledge xlvi 4.3.5 Students‘ difficulties related to Reading Strategies and Reading Skills xlvii
This study utilized a comprehensive research approach involving non-English major students and teachers at Vinh University It detailed the subjects and participants, data collection instruments, procedures, and analysis methods The data collected was crucial in confirming the effectiveness of scaffolding strategies in enhancing reading skills and refining pedagogical methods to optimize student learning outcomes.
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Introduction
This chapter analyzes data collected from pre- and posttests administered to non-English major students at Vinh University, alongside questionnaires and informal interviews The findings are presented with the researcher’s interpretations and evaluations, aiming to confirm the impact of scaffolding strategies on improving reading comprehension skills among non-English major students.
4.2 English reading proficiency of non-English major students at Vinh
The assessment of students' reading comprehension proficiency was conducted using the PET reading test, which includes five parts designed to evaluate the understanding of various reading materials The highest possible score on this test is 35 Both control and experimental groups at Vinh University participated in the assessment, with their pretest scores displayed in Figure 2 below.
Figure 4.1: Reading pretest results by band scores
(Note: In Figure 2: 1-10= a poor score; 11-16= below average; 17-21: average; 22-29= good, 30-35: an excellent score) xli
The pretest results on reading comprehension revealed significant challenges for both the experimental and control groups at Vinh University In the experimental group, 59.61% scored below average, while only 34.61% achieved an average or good score Conversely, the control group fared slightly worse with 64.58% scoring below average and 45.83% attaining an average or good score Notably, none in the experimental group reached an excellent score, whereas 5.76% of the control group did Overall, the performance of both groups was similar, indicating that non-English major students struggle with reading comprehension despite extensive English study This deficiency may hinder their ability to reach the B1 level mandated by Vietnam's Ministry of Education and Training, which requires understanding routine and some non-routine information in familiar contexts, as defined by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages.
As an independent user, I can comprehend texts that primarily feature high-frequency everyday or job-related language, as well as personal letters describing events, feelings, and wishes However, there is a significant gap between my current proficiency level and the target B1 level, necessitating scaffolded support to help me progress within my Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
The results of the pretest prompted the researcher to explore the challenges faced by non-English major students in developing reading comprehension skills, with the aim of suggesting effective scaffolding strategies.
4.3 Difficulties encountered by non-English major students in learning reading skills
The initial question in the questionnaire addresses the challenges students face with vocabulary Participants are instructed to select the relevant boxes that reflect their difficulties in vocabulary while developing reading comprehension skills The collected responses are subsequently analyzed and presented in terms of both numerical values (N) and percentages (%), as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Students’ difficulties with Vocabulary
Question 1: It is difficult for you to understand a reading text if:
1a.There are many new words in the reading text 97 97%
1b There are phrasal verbs or idiomatic expressions of which you don‘t know the meaning 75 75%
1c When a word has many meanings, you don‘t know which meaning is used in the reading text 69 69%
Table 4.1 reveals that nearly all students struggle with reading comprehension when encountering numerous unfamiliar words Research by Laufer (1989) and Liu and Nation (1985) indicates that readers need to recognize about 95% of the vocabulary in a text to understand it adequately and infer meanings from context Supporting this, Osborn and Hiebert (2004) emphasize the strong correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension Beatrice S Mikulecky (1990) also highlights that a larger vocabulary enables readers to make quicker and more accurate connections with prior knowledge, enhancing comprehension Furthermore, 75% of students reported difficulties with texts containing phrasal verbs and idiomatic expressions, which often leads to misunderstandings An example from Unit 4, Lesson 2 illustrates this, as students misinterpreted the idiom "under the weather" due to unfamiliarity Additionally, 69% of students noted challenges when a word has multiple meanings, indicating that limited vocabulary hampers their ability to discern the correct definition in context, often resulting in incorrect answers on comprehension questions.
The second question of the questionnaire explores the reasons behind the grammar difficulties encountered by non-English major students Similar to the first question, participants are asked to select the box that best represents their experiences The results are summarized and presented in Table 3.2 below.
Table 4.2: Students’ difficulties with Grammar
Question 2: It is difficult for you to understand a reading text if:
2.a.There are many new grammar structures in the reading text 23 23 %
1b There are many long sentences which are difficult for you to understand their meanings 35 35 %
A recent study revealed that only 23% of students believed that new grammar structures aid in understanding reading texts, surprising the researcher Traditionally, reading specialists have maintained that simplifying syntax enhances text readability However, research by Strother and Ulijin (1987) showed no significant difference in reading comprehension between native and non-native speakers when comparing original texts to syntactically simplified ones Their findings indicate that simplifying syntax does not inherently improve readability, suggesting that a conceptual approach is more effective This conclusion aligns with earlier studies by Berman (1984) and Schlesinger (1968), which also found that syntax plays a minimal role in text comprehension.
Item 2b received the highest number of responses among the two items, with 34% of students struggling to identify elements of complex sentences and comprehend their relationships This aligns with Berman's findings.
In her analysis of syntactic features that challenge non-native English readers, the author (1984, p 23-32) emphasizes that kernel sentences, which follow the straightforward subject-verb-object (SVO) structure, are significantly easier to comprehend than complex sentences with altered syntax Consequently, shifts in SVO ordering can hinder foreign language readers' understanding of English texts.
4.3.3 Students’ difficulties with Discourse Structure
The third question in the questionnaire aims to identify the factors that hinder reading comprehension related to Discourse Structure, with the findings presented in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Students’ difficulties with Discourse Structure
Question 3: Which difficulties do you encounter with
3a I don‘t understand how a reading text is organized and this makes it difficult to understand the content of the text 89 89%
3b I don‘t understand how a paragraph is organized and this makes it difficult to understand the paragraph 73 73%
3c I cannot find which is the most important sentence in each paragraph 71 71%
3d I have problems understanding how meaning of different sentences are linked together 86 86%
From Table 4.3, it can be seen that all items received a rather high percentage of responses This means that students had difficulties in all aspects related to Discourse Structure
Item 3a, indicating a lack of understanding of reading text organization, received the highest response rate at 89% This aligns with Carrell's findings (1984, p 87-113), which suggest that the overall structure of a text, such as compare-contrast or problem-solution formats, significantly impacts comprehension.
Cultural differences in paragraph structures can lead to reading difficulties, as highlighted by the high percentages of students struggling with paragraph organization (73%) and identifying key sentences (71%) Our teaching experience indicates a strong correlation between these challenges; students who lack understanding of paragraph organization often find it difficult to pinpoint the most important sentence within each paragraph.
