INTRODUCTION
Statement of the research problem
The rise of technology and social media has significantly increased the visibility of transgender individuals, who identify with a gender different from their biological sex This representation is evident in various forms of media, including movies, music, and commercials, leading to more transgender people openly living as their true selves In Vietnam, a growing number of celebrities, such as Lam Khanh Chi, Cindy Thai Tai, Huong Giang Idol, Le Thien Hieu, and Lynk Lee, have publicly come out as transgender, capturing media attention and sparking discussions Despite their acceptance in the entertainment industry, these transgender celebrities often encounter prejudice and discrimination, particularly on social media, where they face judgment, mockery of their birth names, dismissal of their chosen pronouns, and ridicule regarding their sex reassignment experiences.
In 2019, I attended an exhibition by It's T Time titled "Độc mộc - Gieo neo định giới," where I was deeply moved by the powerful images, art, and stories from transgender individuals A notable display featured a wall covered with numerous petitions from transgender people seeking to change their names and genders on legal documents Despite Vietnam's recognition of transgender people's legal status at the time, their requests remained unfulfilled, as all petitions were returned The most memorable moment for me was walking through a quiet, dark room with "Thị," which left a lasting impression.
The walls are adorned with the Vietnamese middle names "Văn," symbolizing boys and girls, while individuals find themselves trapped in a cage surrounded by barbed wire They are bombarded by a barrage of irritating voices questioning their identity with phrases like, "How can a man give birth?" and "Neither male nor female."
“Đồ bê đê” (Gay) and so on Those voices kept resounding in my mind even after I
Stepping out of that room, which I found unbearable, my transgender companion shared how haunting societal sayings linger in their minds daily This powerful experience motivated me to conduct research, delve deeper into the community, and listen to participants' stories My goal is to empathize with their experiences and ensure their voices are heard.
Research on transgender identity and its social mediation is limited compared to studies on LGB individuals, leading to conflicting findings While some studies, like those by Pham, Le, and Mai (2012), suggest that transgender individuals often identify as heterosexual, Nourafshan (2017) highlights that it is not unusual for transgender people to identify as homosexual or bisexual.
Transgender individuals confront significant challenges to their sexuality and gender norms, often experiencing misunderstanding and discrimination not only from heterosexual and cisgender populations but also from within the LGBTQ+ community.
Research by Weiss (2003) indicates that American lesbian and gay individuals often harbor prejudice against bisexual and transgender people, stemming from identity politics While lesbian and gay communities strive to normalize homosexuality, bisexual and transgender individuals, who may navigate the heterosexual world, are perceived as threats to their identities This phenomenon, termed "internalized heterosexism," creates a significant divide between the lesbian and gay (LG) and bisexual and transgender (BT) members within the LGBT community.
Research on the transgender community in Vietnam is limited, with key studies including the transgender journey by Pham, Le, and Mai (2012), transgender handbooks by Luong et al (2016), and a report on transgender rights and laws by iSEE (2014) authored by Vu These publications provide valuable insights into the experiences and legal challenges faced by transgender individuals in Vietnam.
(2018) While the handbooks and reports on rights focus mostly on providing information for transgender people, the study of the transgender journey by Pham,
Le, and Mai (2012) provided some insights into the stories of transgender people,
Research on transgender individuals in Vietnam, particularly focusing on FTM (female-to-male) experiences, is limited and often presents conflicting and outdated findings While previous studies have examined healthcare conditions and the attitudes of clinical workers towards transgender people (Nguyen, 2019; Nguyen et al., 2019; Do & Nguyen, 2020), there remains a significant need for further exploration of FTM individuals' experiences regarding self-identity, coming out, and social interactions within the Vietnamese cultural context.
My personal interest in the limited understanding and acceptance of transgender individuals, coupled with the lack of literature on this topic in Vietnam, has motivated me to explore how transgender identity is perceived and expressed.
Research questions and scope of the study
This research seeks answers to the following research questions:
1 How have the participants come to identify themselves as transgender people?
2 How are their identity expressions mediated socially?
There are other definitions for the initialism T in LGBT such as Transvestite
In this study, the term "Transgender" refers to individuals whose gender identity differs from their biological sex, specifically focusing on the Female to Male (FTM) subgroup The research aims to explore the experiences of three young FTM transgender individuals in Hanoi, who were assigned female at birth but identify as men This targeted approach is necessary due to the challenges in finding transgender participants and the distinct identities and experiences within the transgender community.
Significance of the study
This study contributes original insights into the reality of what transgender people are experiencing personally and socially At a practical level, the study may
This study aims to enhance awareness of diversity in gender identity, gender expression, and sexuality, contributing valuable insights to the limited literature on the transgender experience in Vietnam Additionally, it serves as a reference for future research on related topics.
Organization
This research paper is structured into five chapters, beginning with an introduction that outlines the research problem, questions, scope, significance, and overall organization The second chapter, the Literature Review, offers a theoretical foundation by defining key concepts, presenting a conceptual framework, and discussing relevant studies The Methodology chapter details the research setting, participant selection, instruments used, and procedures followed Chapter 4, Findings and Discussion, analyzes the collected data to address the research questions and relates findings to existing literature Finally, the Conclusion summarizes key findings, acknowledges study limitations, and provides recommendations for future research, with References and Appendices, including the consent form and guiding interview questions, included at the end.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Transgender identity
Gender identity is an individual's personal understanding of their gender, which may align with or differ from their biological sex assigned at birth Biological sex is determined by physical attributes such as organs, hormones, and chromosomes, with females typically having a vagina, high estrogen levels, and XX chromosomes, while males have a penis, high testosterone levels, and XY chromosomes Intersex individuals possess characteristics of both sexes or have atypical chromosomal patterns Those whose gender identity does not match their biological sex are known as transgender, with Female to Male (FTM) transgender individuals identifying as male despite being assigned female at birth.
A Male to Female (MTF) transgender person is someone who is assigned male at birth but identifies as female, while cisgender individuals are those whose gender identity aligns with their biological sex.
Gender expression refers to the ways individuals convey their gender identity through clothing, behavior, and actions, often aligning with traditional roles such as feminine, masculine, or androgynous In contrast, sexual orientation pertains to the emotional and physical attraction one feels towards others based on gender A person attracted to the same gender they identify with is termed homosexual, while someone drawn to the opposite gender is classified as heterosexual.
If one is attracted to either the same or opposite gender they identify themselves as, that person is bisexual
The first term encompasses individuals with diverse gender identities, which refers to how they identify themselves, alongside their gender expression, which involves the ways they dress and behave to reflect that identity, as well as their sexual orientation, indicating the individuals they are attracted to.
In the 1860s, the concept of a "third gender" was introduced but faced limited acceptance in America (Bea, 2018) By 1988, American activists started adopting the LGBT initialism, which stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender, reflecting a broader spectrum of sexual and gender identities (Bea, 2018) This inclusive terminology gained traction during the 1990s with the bisexual, transgender, and queer movements, which challenged traditional norms surrounding gender and sexuality, viewing them as complex and fluid (Iovannone, 2018) The tragic murder of transgender man Brandon Teena in 1993 prompted activists like Kate Bornstein and Riki Wilchins to promote "Transgender" as an umbrella term for those who exist outside conventional gender binaries (Iovannone, 2018) This definition has since expanded to encompass all LGBT groups, as they collectively challenge societal expectations and norms.
“Transgender” as those whose gender identity is different from the sex they were designated at birth and this definition has remained an accepted one
The letter Q was officially added by the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation to represent Queer or Questioning individuals who do not conform to traditional gender identities and sexual orientations This inclusion creates a broader umbrella for those outside conventional norms, while the plus (+) sign acknowledges other minority sexualities, such as Intersex and Asexual As a result, various acronyms like LGBTI, LGBT+, and LGBTQIA+ have emerged, although their usage has sparked debate regarding representation Critics argue that the LGBT acronym does not equally represent its components, as LGB pertains to sexual orientation and T to gender identity Nevertheless, both scholars and the community continue to use LGBT to encompass the non-heterosexual and non-cisgender populations.
7 people who identify themselves other than heterosexual with matched gender identity and biological sex
2.1.2 Transgender identity at the intersection of sex, gender, and sexual orientation
Sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, and gender expression are interconnected yet distinct categories Sex, typically categorized as male or female, is often perceived as straightforward; however, it is complex and determined by biological traits such as genitals, reproductive organs, chromosomes, and hormones Virginia Prince (1987) states that sex is a biological aspect assigned at birth, primarily based on external reproductive organs, often overlooking other traits (Ekins & King, 2004) Intersex individuals, who possess atypical biological traits, illustrate that sex is both a physical attribute and a social construct (Dozier, 2005) Not all intersex individuals are recognized at birth, and some undergo surgeries to align their genitalia with assigned sex, potentially leading to discomfort if their gender identity differs from their assigned sex (Phornphutkul et al., 2000) Additionally, some individuals may have reproductive and genital organs that do not match their chromosomes, complicating their identification Consequently, some people may live their entire lives identifying with their appearance, only to discover through genetic analysis that their chromosomes indicate a different sex.
Concerning gender, the sociocultural construct of oneself as man or woman (Butler, 1990), people construct their gender through various acts, based on the
Gendered beliefs and norms shape societal expectations regarding how men and women should behave, as gender is a socially constructed concept The phenomenon of gender fluidity arises when individuals change their gender identity or expression, allowing them to navigate between binary gender identities or reject the binary system altogether Those who identify as gender-fluid may express and embody both masculine and feminine traits over time or adopt an androgynous appearance This evolving understanding of gender accommodates the complexities of self-identification in contemporary society.
Gender identity, sex, and sexuality are interconnected concepts that shape an individual's self-understanding Gender identity reflects how a person perceives themselves, while sex is determined by biological characteristics, and sexuality pertains to whom one is attracted Individuals often use their awareness of biological sex to navigate their gender identity, aligning their self-perception with their birth-assigned sex Additionally, one’s sexual orientation is influenced by the gender of potential partners, intertwining personal gender identity with sexual attraction Consequently, the journey of self-identification involves a complex interplay between gender and sexuality, where sexual interactions can reinforce established gender roles.
Being in a relationship plays a crucial role in helping individuals understand their sexuality and affirm their gender identity According to Schleifer (2006), sexuality shapes the meanings associated with sexed bodies and gendered identities Through sexual interactions, individuals can explore and validate the connection between their physical selves and their gender identities.
Transgender individuals can identify as heterosexual or homosexual, with a survey by James et al (2016) revealing that among 27,715 American transgender respondents, 14% identify as bisexual, 16% as homosexual, and only 15% as heterosexual, while others identify as queer, pansexual, or asexual Despite this diversity in sexual orientation, heteronormativity remains a prevalent societal norm.
9 homosexual transgender individuals are still marginalized even in the transgender or LGBT community
Transgender individuals express their gender identity primarily through gender expression, which encompasses body appearance, behaviors, and language For many transgender people, particularly FTM (female-to-male) individuals, the desire to present as male can lead to distress when faced with feminine physical traits To align their bodies with their gender identity, they may adopt various methods such as binding breasts, undergoing hormone therapy, or pursuing surgical options Additionally, they often transition from traditionally feminine clothing to masculine attire to reinforce their gender expression The extent to which transgender individuals express their gender can vary significantly based on the social contexts they navigate.
In her 1990 theory of the heterosexual matrix, Butler discusses "cultural intelligibility" through the lens of body, gender, and gender expression within a heteronormative binary system Gender and sexuality are interpreted based on physical appearance and gender performance; for instance, a feminine woman is perceived as heterosexual, while a masculine woman is seen as homosexual This framework complicates the experiences of FTM transgender individuals, who possess female bodies yet express masculine identities, leading to difficulties in how they and others perceive their gender and sexuality Their gender expression may not align with societal expectations, challenging the traditional gender binary Furthermore, the heterosexual matrix also affects gay FTM transgender individuals, as they may be misidentified as heterosexual men, raising questions about their transgender identity.
10 identity FTM transgender people, especially gay ones, struggle with the heterosexual matrix and the heteronormativity that exists in society
FTM transgender individuals face significant challenges in their quest for self-identity, a journey that often spans from childhood to adulthood and involves evolving gender expression (Pham et al., 2012) Research indicates that transgender identity development can be understood through various stages (Lev, 2004; Devor, 2004; Pollock & Eyre, 2012) Pollock and Eyre (2012) propose a three-stage model: awareness of gender, identification of transgender identity, and social adaptation The first stage involves recognizing gendered social norms and their impact on self-image, influenced by peers, puberty, and exposure to transgender communities The second stage is characterized by the acknowledgment of one's transgender identity, where individuals explore diverse gender and sexuality concepts to adopt a personal label Finally, the social adjustment stage occurs when individuals come out, transition to their desired gender, and adapt to their new identity.
In a study conducted by Gagné et al (1997), the experiences of 68 transgender individuals were examined, leading to the categorization of transgender identity into several distinct groups One of these groups, referred to as transsexuals, includes individuals who desire to permanently identify with one specific gender.
The social and legal status of transgender people in Vietnam
When searching for "người chuyển giới Việt Nam" (Vietnamese transgender people) on Google, the top results highlight lists such as “Top 5 most beautiful transgender girls” and “Top 10 most famous transgender women in showbiz,” featuring celebrities like Huong Giang Idol and Lynk Lee, who have publicly identified as transgender and undergone sex-reassignment surgery These representations often conform to traditional gender norms, showcasing MTF (male-to-female) transgender individuals as conventionally attractive, with feminine traits such as long hair, high voices, and feminine clothing In contrast, FTM (female-to-male) transgender individuals, though less visible in media, are typically perceived as masculine, characterized by features like small breasts and deep voices.
12 hair, short hairstyle, and male clothing This is a stereotype and a very narrow view of FTM people
In Vietnam, organizations like iSEE are actively advocating for LGBT rights, focusing on empowering and raising awareness within the community They conduct training, counseling, and research to support LGBT individuals Previously, FTM transgender people lacked dedicated social platforms and had to rely on gay and lesbian forums However, Facebook has become a vital communication tool, facilitating the creation of groups for the transgender community Notably, the FTM Vietnam Organisation has gained significant traction, with 11,000 likes, and its associated group has 5,900 members Additionally, events such as exhibitions and meetings for FTM transgender individuals are organized by It’s T Time, a safe space for the transgender community.
For transgender people in Vietnam, their movements had a major success in
On November 24, 2015, the revised Code of Civil was passed, taking effect on January 1, 2017, with Article 37 granting individuals the right to undergo sex reassignment in accordance with the law This landmark article also allows transitioned transgender individuals to apply for changes to their civil status, paving the way for greater legal recognition within the community However, it currently only recognizes the rights and obligations of those who have undergone surgical procedures, leaving out those who have not pursued medical interventions This limitation highlights the urgent need for legal reforms to ensure that transgender rights are upheld regardless of surgical status or gender expression.
The lack of clear legal, medical, and social procedures for transgender identification has led to the rejection of numerous petitions to change birth names and genders on identification documents To address this issue, more explicit regulations and guidelines are essential (Vu, 2018).
Vietnamese transgender individuals face significant barriers to healthcare access, primarily due to financial constraints and the inadequate readiness of clinical facilities (Nguyen, 2019; Do & Nguyen, 2019) Additionally, healthcare professionals often harbor biases against transgender patients (Nguyen et al., 2019), complicating their ability to obtain necessary treatments, including essential medical interventions for sex reassignment.
The healthcare system in Vietnam currently does not permit sex reassignment procedures, forcing many transgender individuals to seek surgeries in countries like Thailand or Korea However, these surgeries carry significant health risks, and upon returning to Vietnam, individuals often lack access to proper post-operative care, as there are no specialized hospitals for transgender health Additionally, the use of illicit hormones among Vietnamese transgender people has resulted in tragic outcomes, including fatalities due to complications.
Transgender experiences
Compared with other groups in the LGBT community, FTM transgender people, together with bisexual people, are seriously underrepresented (NextGEN,
FTM transgender individuals often experience limited exposure to others like themselves, which is crucial for their gender-affirming journey (Pollock & Eyre, 2012) Additionally, the media frequently reinforces gender binaries, impacting the representation of transgender people (Bui, 2018).
Fourteen individuals, primarily those who have transitioned, exhibit aligned gender identities and expressions This alignment reinforces heteronormative standards and can create pressure on transgender individuals to adopt characteristics typically associated with the opposite gender.
Transgender individuals often experience gender dysphoria, which is the distress stemming from a mismatch between their gender identity and biological sex Unfortunately, a lack of familial support can hinder their access to mental health care, preventing them from seeking help to address these feelings Fear of rejection and discrimination leads many transgender people to remain in the closet, exacerbating their gender dysphoria and self-doubt over time.
The healthcare system often falls short in adequately supporting transgender individuals, and other social institutions can also be unwelcoming Recent debates surrounding transgender access to public restrooms highlight the safety concerns faced by these individuals; FTM transgender people may encounter discrimination and harassment in male bathrooms, while using female restrooms can lead to being perceived as a threat to cisgender individuals Additionally, the challenge of having identification documents that reflect their biological sex rather than their identified gender contributes to significant mental distress and various social interactions issues.
Transgender individuals face higher levels of discrimination compared to other LGBT sub-groups, both in intensity and frequency Research by Clements-Noelle et al (2006) highlights that transgender people experience “more intense discrimination and victimization” due to their challenge to societal norms surrounding sexuality and gender Additionally, a study by Su et al (2016) in Nebraska found that transgender individuals reported greater instances of discrimination, symptoms of depression, and suicide attempts than non-transgender LGB individuals, emphasizing the detrimental impact of a lack of self-acceptance within the LGBT community.
Transgender individuals in Vietnam experience significant discrimination, making them the most affected group within the LGBT community, as highlighted by Luong and Pham (2016) This persistent discrimination has led many transgender people to become desensitized to the ongoing prejudice, often ignoring the negative impacts it has on their mental health and contributing to depressive symptoms.
Despite all discussed above, it may not be fair to focus only on the challenges and discrimination faced by transgender people Acknowledging that, Riggle et al
A 2011 study explored the positive aspects of transgender self-identification, offering valuable insights into transgender identity that challenge the common stereotypes linking transgender individuals to health issues and negative experiences While acknowledging the challenges faced by participants, the research aims to present a balanced perspective by highlighting both the positive and negative aspects of their experiences.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
This study utilizes a qualitative approach to explore the experiences of FTM transgender individuals, allowing for an in-depth understanding of their unique perspectives Among various qualitative research designs, the case study method was selected, as it effectively addresses descriptive and explanatory questions while providing firsthand insights into people's experiences According to Yin (2006), the case study method is particularly beneficial for gaining rich details about participants within their specific contexts, making it an ideal choice for this research.
Selection of participants
The study involved three participants who identify as male, despite being biologically female This inclusion criteria applies regardless of the participants' sexual orientation or gender expression.
Snowball sampling was employed by reaching out to initial participants who then referred their friends and acquaintances for the research According to Young (as cited in Hua, 2016), this method is particularly convenient, cost-effective, and time-efficient for student research Most importantly, it facilitated easier access and helped establish trust with the participants.
The study involved three participants, Kei, Minh, and Mike, aged between 25 and 28, all of whom are FTM transgender individuals identifying as men despite being assigned female at birth Kei and Minh identify as gay, expressing attraction to men, while Mike is heterosexual and attracted to women Each participant has completed their college education and is currently navigating their post-college lives.
17 employed and living with their families in Hanoi They were willing to participate in the study and willing to share their stories.
Data collection and analysis
In-depth interviews were conducted to explore the personal stories of each participant, utilizing a semi-structured format that included guiding questions outlined in the appendix This approach allowed the researcher to maintain a general direction for the interview while also adapting to unexpected responses that required further inquiry Follow-up interviews were essential for gaining clarity on certain aspects that were initially unclear or inadequately addressed Each session lasted between 30 minutes and one hour and was conducted in Vietnamese to facilitate comfortable expression of ideas Interviews took place in various settings, including cafes, participants' homes, or online, based on their availability and comfort.
After participants signed the consent form, they were interviewed, with each session recorded and securely stored post-transcription The transcripts were labeled sequentially (Interview #1, Interview #2, Interview #3), ensuring the removal of identifying information To facilitate ongoing analysis, follow-up interviews were conducted simultaneously with the initial analysis process.
I analyzed each interview using thematic analysis Emerging themes were classified, content thus described and interpreted The major themes relating to
The study focused on 18 aspects of identity and its mediation, categorizing them to explore body modification and language choice in relation to the first research question Additionally, it examined self-expression through communication and interaction with others, addressing the second research question A literature review provided the framework for analyzing the data and interpreting the findings.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
General information
Kei, a 25-year-old office worker, has identified as a gay FTM transgender person for over five years With an introverted personality, he maintains a close-knit circle of friends and is currently in a relationship with another gay FTM Kei finds satisfaction in his life, supported by a stable job, a caring family, and a compassionate partner Although he actively participated in LGBT pride and rights activities for three to four years, he has since stepped back to concentrate on his studies and work His involvement in these organizations deepened his understanding of gender and sexuality diversity, solidifying his identity as a gay FTM transgender individual.
Minh, a 27-year-old introverted gay FTM transgender individual, is thriving as an online retailer, selling products on various platforms He is in a fulfilling relationship with another gay FTM transgender person and has found contentment in his life, having overcome severe gender dysphoria With the support of his family and partner, Minh earns a sufficient income to cover his expenses and remains indifferent to others' opinions regarding his gender expression.
He has been expressing his gender identity as man since middle school
Mike, a 28-year-old FTM, maintains an optimistic outlook despite facing gender dysphoria and discrimination He finds solace in his work, which helps him focus on his passions rather than his body Enjoying a sense of privacy and freedom in expressing his gender, Mike is currently single and not actively seeking a partner, citing limited opportunities and personal standards as challenges Reflecting on his school days, he acknowledges that he did not engage in discussions about his identity, viewing himself as just a normal person His involvement in LGBT pride and rights organizations allowed him to explore his identity and embrace being FTM.
20 transgender person Yet he dropped out when he got a job that kept him occupied
He is satisfied with his job as his promotion opportunity is promising.
Self-identification as a transgender person
4.2.1 Initial self-awareness and body modification
The self-perception of sex, gender, and sexuality is intricately linked to the relationship individuals have with their bodies For Minh, his identification as a boy has been steadfast since childhood, despite being assigned female at birth He recalls moments from his early years, such as shopping trips with his mother, where he expressed his desire to align his physical appearance with his gender identity, asking questions like, “Where can I buy a penis to stick on?”
If I have a penis, I would be a boy, right?” He thought that a phallus was what made someone a boy so he wanted to have it too in order to be a boy He could not refuse when made to wear a dress as a uniform in primary school While Pham et al (2012) found out that differences in gender expression and identity for transgender people emerged early in childhood, only Minh shares the same story Kei and Mike’s sense of body and gendered self fully emerged at secondary and high school They had a feeling of difference from their same-sex peers, hence, they wanted to present a gender different from their sex This feeling of difference either comes from the difference in sexuality (shared by Kei) or in behaviors (shared by Mike) Kei shares that in secondary schools, his female classmates all talked about boys, commented on handsome ones, and shared their likings for them Meanwhile, Kei only liked manly girls, so he knew he was marginalized in these conversations for he had nothing in common with them Mike felt like he could not fit in female roles as he preferred male roles and activities for male students such as giving women gifts, doing heavy work, and wanted to be regarded as masculine
All three participants’ gender dysphoria was at the highest during puberty They disliked their sexed bodies and wanted their bodies to align with a different
The interviewees have made significant changes to their bodies to express their true gender identity, aiming for societal recognition of their desired gender All three individuals utilize binders to conceal their breasts, with Mike adopting a hunchback posture for additional concealment They have opted for short haircuts and have abandoned traditionally feminine clothing, such as dresses and skirts, in favor of male-coded attire Kei and Minh specifically wore male uniforms at school, reflecting their commitment to presenting as male.
Society often imposes the expectation that transgender individuals must conform to traditional gender expressions, with trans men expected to appear masculine and trans women feminine Kei and Mike have not pursued medical interventions, while Minh has used hormone therapy, starting in 2014 to deepen his voice Although Minh plans to continue testosterone therapy, he is not considering sex-reassignment surgery due to mild gender dysphoria and financial concerns Mike, now focused on work, avoids thinking about his feminine features to lessen his dysphoria, and is cautious about the potential risks of surgery affecting his job Similarly, Kei experiences less severe dysphoria than in high school and embraces his natural traits while avoiding his body to mitigate discomfort Both Kei and Mike currently prefer to forgo medical interventions, despite their personal feelings about their bodies.
22 health requires careful checkups, careful sex-reassignment procedures, and postoperative care
All three FTM transgender individuals desire recognition as male, yet they find comfort in their sexed bodies, which may retain some feminine characteristics, as a space to express their gender identity While they agree that sex reassignment surgeries are preferable, they also acknowledge that these procedures are not essential for their identity.
All three participants faced challenges in identifying the right label for themselves, particularly struggling with the term "lesbian," especially "SB" (soft butch) Many transgender individuals initially misidentify as gay or lesbian before understanding their true gender identity Research indicates that prior to discovering the definition of transgender, they often feel disconnected from heterosexual norms and mistakenly adopt labels that don't fit However, exposure to transgender terminology and concepts can help clarify their feelings and alleviate dysphoria regarding their identities and bodies.
For gay FTM transgender individuals like Kei and Minh, self-identification can be particularly challenging due to societal expectations of heterosexuality among FTM individuals Their experiences of discrimination contributed to their self-doubt until they discovered the rich diversity of gender identities and sexualities Exposure to varied representations within their communities ultimately helped them embrace their identities as gay FTM transgender people with greater confidence.
Mediation of identity expressions
Participants navigate their identity performance based on their social context and interactions, leading to varying degrees of self-representation Their mediation strategies include avoidance, compliance, and ambivalence, influenced by the responses and attitudes of others Individual differences are evident, as Minh consistently asserts his male gender identity, while Kei and Mike exhibit more flexibility in social settings They feel most authentic in family, romantic relationships, and offline LGBT events, but face challenges in expressing their identities in public or online due to societal perceptions, legal documents, and their physical appearance.
The participants usually express their gender identity freely at home as family is considered a generally safe place for identity expressions
All three informants have come out to family members, primarily their mothers and sisters, while fathers often deduce their children's identities from behavior Most family members have accepted their gender identity and expression, with Minh enjoying strong support from his mother and sister In contrast, Kei's and Mike's mothers are more passive, accepting their identities but not fully embracing their expressions Kei's mother defends him against mockery but humorously suggests traditional gender roles, hoping he will eventually conform to a heterosexual lifestyle despite not interfering in his relationships Meanwhile, Kei's younger sister has shown initial confusion about his identity.
Mike's mother acknowledges his gender identity and ultimately learns to accept and support his journey However, she remains opposed to his decision to undergo sex-reassignment surgery and marry a woman, indicating a distinction between accepting his identity and fully endorsing his gender expressions.
The participants have not disclosed their gender identities to their fathers, who continue to view them as daughters Mike's father remains uninvolved in his gender expression, lacking support, yet Mike still looks up to him as a model of masculinity Minh's father has distanced himself by referring to Minh as a relative instead of his son when questioned Similarly, Kei's father, who is less involved in family matters and relies on his wife, still identifies Kei as his daughter when asked.
Distant family members exhibit mixed attitudes towards the identities of Kei, Mike, and Minh, yet all three express their identities freely Kei navigates varying perceptions, with some relatives recognizing him as male while others do not; however, his mother and sister affirm his identity regardless of external opinions Mike enjoys supportive family dynamics, choosing to come out only when directly asked by cousins, while adults generally refrain from questioning his gender Despite occasional pressure to conform to traditional gender roles, he appreciates the privacy and acceptance he receives from his family In contrast, Minh experiences greater support from his maternal relatives, leading him to distance himself from his father's side of the family.
The participants, whose birth names are feminine, each seek to change their names, though their approaches differ based on family dynamics and personal connections to their names Mike desires a new masculine name from his mother, but she has declined to provide one He expresses respect for her decision and values the name given to him by his parents, emphasizing that his identity encompasses more than just his name.
Kei values his identity beyond just his name and is reluctant to change it without his parents' consent He has considered adopting a masculine name that retains the initials of his birth name, honoring the legacy left by his grandfather Both Kei and Mike have intentionally selected nicknames for their social circles Meanwhile, Minh has received support from his mother and sister in his decision to change his name, allowing him to use the new name socially while still adhering to his birth name on official documents.
All participants benefit from having their own bedrooms, providing them with personal space to express themselves authentically Minh recalls sharing a room with family members but notes that it did not hinder his gender expression; however, having a private room enhances his comfort In contrast, Mike felt that sharing a space limited his ability to express his gender identity, finding true comfort only in his bedroom Kei also experienced inconvenience sharing a room with his younger sister, despite having separate workspaces Upon gaining his own room, he felt a sense of joy and freedom to fully embrace his identity.
4.3.2 Working environment and social relationship – ambivalent self- representation
In a diverse workplace, self-representation varies among individuals Minh, an online retailer, enjoys the freedom to express his identity as a gay FTM transgender person without much direct interaction This authenticity extends back to his part-time roles in coffee shops and homestays Conversely, Mike and Kei, who hold white-collar positions, experience a different dynamic Mike notes that his colleagues have embraced his transgender identity, allowing him to navigate the workplace with greater confidence.
Mike, a male uniformed employee, typically declines gifts on Women’s Day, but his experience shifts during a visit to a factory where colleagues question his gender and make bets on it He perceives a lack of empathy towards non-heterosexual and non-cisgender individuals in this diverse environment, often responding briefly or ignoring gossip Conversely, Kei works in a clothing-regulated agency where he can wear male attire but has not come out to his colleagues due to fears of discrimination Officially identified as female, he is referred to as “chị” (a Vietnamese term for women) while he uses gender-neutral pronouns like “tôi” for self-reference Although he receives Women’s Day gifts from his company, he chooses to give them to his mother and sister In their predominantly work-focused interactions, the office culture allows for a degree of ambiguity regarding gender identity.
FTM transgender individuals navigate their identities in public spaces in various ways Kei refrains from speaking to strangers to prevent them from recognizing his high voice and misidentifying him as a woman, choosing silence to reinforce his male identity Similarly, Mike, who has a deeper voice, previously avoided crowded environments, fearing that increased interaction would reveal his female past Minh, being more introverted, typically shies away from conversations with others, further highlighting the diverse experiences of FTM transgender people in social settings.
In Vietnamese communication, participants often use neutral pronouns like "bạn - mình" (equivalent to "I - you") to avoid gender indicators Minh prefers to refer to himself as "em," a neutral pronoun, while addressing others as "anh/ chị," which are terms used by younger individuals for older counterparts In contrast, Kei and Mike opt for "tôi/ mình," also neutral, regardless of the age of the person they are speaking to Despite their desire to be recognized as men, their physical appearance and expressions may not fully correspond with traditional gender expectations.
Neutral pronouns serve as an essential means for individuals to express their identities without causing discomfort for others Mike highlights that using neutral pronouns or simply names allows him to communicate effectively, irrespective of others' acceptance of his gender identity Similarly, Kei prefers neutral pronouns to prevent the discomfort of having his pronouns corrected by others.
4.3.3 Institutional places – negotiating heteronormative and cisnormative expectations
Schools served as a vital environment for fostering gender awareness and expression among students Through the experience of wearing uniforms and engaging with peers, participants began to recognize gender differences and embrace their gender identities Many opted for male or gender-neutral uniforms and short hairstyles, with some, like Minh, having an early awareness of these distinctions, while others, such as Mike and Kei, became conscious of them during secondary school They discovered their interests diverged from those of their female classmates, favoring male clothing and roles, such as organizing events for Women’s Day, and were attracted to girls Fortunately, the supportive and tolerant attitudes of their classmates and teachers contributed to a positive school experience for them.
Using public restrooms can be a strategic challenge for individuals navigating gender identity Mike prefers the female restroom to avoid the discomfort of urinals and potential harassment in male facilities, often waiting until it's empty to enter He feels the need to adopt a more feminine demeanor in public spaces to prevent doubts about his gender Conversely, Kei and Minh opt for the male restroom, with Minh's deeper voice allowing him to blend in more seamlessly without revealing his female identity.
Discussion
Three preoperative transsexual participants face significant obstacles, including financial constraints, medical conditions, and legal issues, that hinder their ability to undergo sex reassignment surgery (Gagné et al, 1997) These challenges are common among transgender individuals seeking medical interventions Additionally, Vietnamese healthcare professionals are often ill-equipped to address the complex health needs of transgender patients, as many lack knowledge about gender and sexuality (Do & Nguyen, 2020) This gap in understanding leads to misconceptions, with some healthcare workers perceiving transgender identities as treatable mental health issues and showing reluctance to provide care (Nguyen et al, 2019) Consequently, Vietnamese transgender individuals frequently rely on conventional hormone therapy and surgical options, guided by the experiences and support of their peers (Nguyen).
Many individuals seeking gender-affirming surgery abroad often settle for basic services due to budget constraints, which can lead to serious health risks associated with inadequate medical interventions (Nguyen, 2019) Acknowledging these dangers, some, like Mike and Kei, chose to forgo any medical procedures without adequate healthcare services and legal recognition In contrast, Minh opted to use hormones to deepen his voice with support from an FTM transgender friend Improved healthcare systems in Vietnam and enhanced training for clinical workers could boost confidence among transgender individuals considering surgery Additionally, comprehensive legal guidelines are essential to protect the rights of those wishing to align their bodies with their gender identity.
The heterosexual matrix results in gender binaries that forge heterosexual stereotypes towards gender expression Gender binaries are portrayed and
Heteronormativity shapes societal expectations of masculinity, emphasizing traits such as a muscular physique, male attire, deep voice, and traditional male roles (Bui, 2018) Participants in this study actively modified their bodies and behaviors to align with these masculine ideals, utilizing binders to conceal their breasts, opting for short haircuts, and wearing male clothing Many employed deliberate strategies to mitigate gender dysphoria, focusing on aspects of their identity rather than their physical bodies While they may not embody all masculine traits without surgical intervention, these individuals have found a level of contentment in how their gender expression reflects their gender identity through these strategic practices.
Participants faced challenges in identifying their transgender identity due to a lack of information and exposure Pollock and Eyre (2021) noted that youth often relate to others' experiences Increased exposure to fellow transgender individuals is crucial for helping them understand their feelings of difference and dysphoria, ultimately affirming their identities as FTM transgender men, particularly among gay individuals Minh and Kei experienced self-doubt, but seeing greater representation of gay FTM transgender people in a Facebook group and in-person interactions helped them connect with like-minded individuals, reinforcing their sense of identity.
The narratives of the three participants highlight their desire to be recognized as male, aligning with Ekins and King’s (1999) theory of gender identity migration While they embrace a male identity, they do not identify as fluid or non-binary The participants' experiences reflect a migration narrative, providing them with a sense of comfort even without surgical intervention Despite acknowledging the gender binary, they face legal, medical, and social barriers that hinder their recognition as the opposite gender Consequently, they actively mediate their identity to assert their gender in social contexts.
The findings indicate that social interactions do not erase individual identities but influence how they are expressed Participants exhibit varied identity expressions based on the social contexts they face, navigating the assumptions others make about their gender and sexuality In gendered spaces like restrooms, individuals often adjust their appearance—such as Mike adopting a more feminine look for the female restroom or Kei appearing more masculine for the male restroom This conscious modification of gender expression highlights the adaptability required in different situations Conversely, Minh, who has undergone hormone therapy, feels more at ease presenting his gender identity without concern for external expectations.
Acceptance and support within family and intimate relationships play a vital role in an individual's gender expression They feel most at ease in personal spaces, like their private bedrooms, where they can freely present themselves In public, individuals often navigate their gender identity with neutrality and ambiguity to remain understandable to others, typically refraining from coming out to strangers Their decision to disclose their gender identity depends on the perceived attitude of the person asking; if they sense hostility or discrimination, they may respond as male or choose not to engage at all While they are open to questions stemming from curiosity, they do not tolerate jokes or negative attitudes regarding their gender identity when interacting with strangers.
Heteronormativity facilitates acceptance for transgender individuals like Minh, whose appearance and traits align with traditional masculinity, allowing him to be recognized as a man However, the experiences of people like Mike and Kei highlight the challenges posed by their assigned sex at birth, particularly in situations that require the disclosure of identification documents that reflect their birth name and sex This requirement forces them to navigate a complex social landscape where they must conform to their biological sex while simultaneously expressing their true gender identity.
In numerous instances, mismatches in gender identity can create confusion among service providers, resulting in discrimination, as evidenced by bank clerks and SIM card providers denying services This highlights the ongoing presence of prejudices rooted in heteronormativity, which remain deeply ingrained in society.
There are certain unique insights from the findings that are possibly particular to the Vietnamese context
Confucianism plays a significant role in shaping Vietnamese culture, particularly in defining gender roles and expectations regarding marriage and family (Nguyen & Angelique, 2017) This sociopolitical ideology often leads to distress among individuals as they navigate their identities, prompting them to mediate self-expression to align with societal norms while ensuring personal safety In many families, the pressure to marry and have children is prevalent, reinforcing the notion of maintaining family honor (Ha, 2013) While some mothers may accept their children's gender identity, they often struggle with decisions related to medical interventions or non-heterosexual relationships, desiring traditional family structures For instance, Mike's mother may face disappointment as he plans to marry a woman, while Kei's mother holds hope for a future marriage to a cis male Both mothers view their children's bodies as naturally given, leading to disapproval of sex-reassignment surgeries due to concerns about infertility.
FTM transgender individuals often experience less discrimination related to gender expression compared to MTF transgender individuals in Vietnam This is largely due to the strong association of masculinity with traditional Confucian values in the Vietnamese patriarchal society, which places a high emphasis on the male image Consequently, MTF transgender individuals who challenge these masculine norms may be perceived as a threat to established societal standards.
Recent influences from K-pop have led Vietnamese youth to embrace androgyny, with many favoring the image of manly girls or tomboys, especially since the 2000s (Pham & Dong, 2015; Hoang, 2020) Tomboys, characterized by short hair and masculine clothing, are often viewed as "cool" and more socially acceptable than their girly counterparts (Pham, 2014) This cultural shift has resulted in easier experiences for FTM (female-to-male) participants in various settings, as they may be perceived as tomboys rather than transgender individuals However, this acceptance of gender expression can complicate their ability to come out as transgender, as others may not fully acknowledge their gender identity despite accepting their outward appearance.
Vietnamese educational system has not had adequate sex education Additionally, family members hardly discuss sexuality with each other (Horton,
In Vietnam, the exploration of gender and sexuality among participants largely stems from peer observations, online information, and insights from social organizations Historically, discussions surrounding LGBT, sexuality, and gender diversity were not prevalent, and even as these topics gained visibility, dedicated forums for transgender issues remained scarce The LGBT community's exposure is crucial for self-identification, while the internet plays a vital role in fostering and strengthening communities for FTM transgender individuals Additionally, the rise of social media has empowered trans men by providing a platform for self-affirmation and increased representation.
Birth names globally can reflect gender, a consideration for Vietnamese individuals who face legal name change restrictions The Vietnamese language, characterized by its gendered pronouns, presents distinct challenges and opportunities for transgender individuals in daily interactions Unlike English, which uses "you" and "I" as its primary second and first person pronouns, Vietnamese features a more intricate pronoun system, influencing how participants navigate their identities.
39 gender-neutral pronouns (em/ mình/ tôi/ tớ) to avoid awkwardness in every communication, to both express themselves and respect others’ perceptions Though
FTM transgender individuals often prefer to be identified as male and may use masculine pronouns; however, some feel more comfortable with gender-neutral pronouns such as em, mình, tôi, or tớ To foster respectful communication, it's important to use the pronouns that transgender individuals prefer, particularly when they choose gender-neutral options When initiating a conversation, it's best to ask which pronoun they would like to use rather than making assumptions about their gender.