INTRODUCTION
Research background and rationale
Textbooks are considered essential to English Language Teaching (ELT) programs (Sheldon, 1988), yet there are concerns regarding their use Allwright (1982) highlighted that textbooks can be prescriptive, potentially influencing classroom methods and practices.
In 2005, concerns were raised about textbooks not adequately meeting the diverse needs of all learners, highlighting the necessity for further adaptations to achieve effective learning outcomes In Vietnam, a new series of textbooks for upper secondary school students was developed to innovate and replace the outdated materials This shift underscores the critical importance of thorough evaluation and analysis of the English textbook series currently utilized in Vietnam's educational system.
The significance of writing skills in ELT has been emphasized by many researchers such as Byrne (1984), Celce-Murcia (1991), Graves (1994), Tribble
(1996), Harklau (2002), Car-valho (2005) and Graham & Perin (2007) and Nguyen
A study by Ueda (1999) highlighted that writing activities are often overlooked in classroom settings, leading to high school students lacking the writing proficiency needed for college (Kobayakawa, 2011; Chait & Venezia, 2009; Graham & Perin, 2007; Escher, 2015) This deficiency can be linked to challenges such as complex writing exercises in English textbooks and difficulties in idea generation, vocabulary use, and organization of sentences and paragraphs (Nguyen, 2015; Richard & Renandya, 2002) Many writing tasks are too intricate for students to tackle without teacher support, and a lack of background knowledge further hinders their progress (Laksmi, 2006; Monphonsri et al., 2013) Consequently, there is a pressing need for both book designers and educators to implement scaffolding techniques that aid students in transitioning from guided to independent writing performance.
Scaffolding is a supportive structure created by teachers to help students complete tasks they cannot achieve independently (Hogan & Pressley, 1997) According to Van de Pol et al (2010), there are six key scaffolding tools utilized in the classroom: modeling, giving hints, instructing, explaining, providing feedback, and questioning This framework motivates my research into the design of scaffolding activities in English textbooks and the actual practices and choices of teachers regarding scaffolding tools during English writing lessons.
Scaffolding is essential for effective learning, particularly in writing lessons, as it significantly benefits learners (Gibbons, 2002) Numerous studies highlight the positive impact of scaffolding activities in language teaching, especially for writing skills Research by Singh et al (2020) and Mohtar et al (2017) demonstrates the favorable effects of scaffolding on weak ESL learners Additionally, findings from Niu & Deng (2018) indicate that scaffolding strategies effectively enhance students' writing proficiency.
Most existing research focuses on the use of scaffolding in literacy (Clark & Graves, 2005; Smith, 2006, as cited in Van de Pol, 2012) There is a scarcity of studies investigating the types of writing activities included in English textbooks (Cho, 2014; Maher et al., 2013).
Despite the extensive literature on scaffolding, there is a notable lack of research on scaffolding activities within the context of Vietnamese English textbooks, particularly the new 10-year program Existing studies, such as those by Yu & Reynolds (2018), have not drawn definitive conclusions regarding how textbook designers implement these activities Additionally, limited research has explored the motivations behind teachers' use of scaffolding, especially in writing instruction This highlights a critical need to investigate and address this gap in the literature.
3 scaffolding tools and activities by teachers and textbook designers and reasons behind teachers’ choices of those tools in real writing lessons.
Aims and objectives of the study
The study attempts to answer the following research questions:
1 What scaffolding activities are present in the writing sections in the “English 10” textbook (10-year program)?
2 What scaffolding tools do English teachers use in writing lessons for tenth graders at Vietnamese upper-secondary schools?
3 What underlie English teachers’ employment or rejection of scaffolding tools for students in the classroom?
Significance of the study
This research aims to benefit students, teachers, textbook designers, educationalists, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), and researchers by promoting effective scaffolding techniques in EFL writing lessons The findings provide valuable insights for textbook designers and educationalists to propose necessary adjustments to the new English 10 textbook for upper secondary students, ultimately supporting EFL teachers in their professional development Additionally, the study highlights the optimal timing and methods for implementing scaffolding in writing instruction, laying the groundwork for future research in the context of Vietnamese education.
Scope of the study
This study aimed to examine the scaffolding techniques employed by Vietnamese EFL teachers at the upper-secondary level and to assess the incorporation of scaffolding activities within the current English textbook used for 10th graders in these schools.
This research explores the use of scaffolding tasks in the English textbook "English 10" within a Vietnamese high school context, focusing on three EFL teachers It aims to analyze the reasons behind the teachers' implementation of scaffolding activities and how these techniques enhance students' writing performance.
An overview of the rest of the paper
The rest of the paper consists of four chapters as follows:
This chapter provides the background of the study, including definitions of key concepts and related studies in the field
This chapter provides information regarding setting, sampling, instruments and procedures employed in the research
Chapter IV: Findings and Discussion
This chapter presents, analyzes and discusses the findings from the data collected according to three research questions
This chapter summarizes the main issues discussed in the paper, limitations of the study as well as some suggestions for further research
Following this chapter are the References and Appendices
LITERATURE REVIEW
Writing
Writing is defined as a process involving several stages that lead to the final form of a text According to Harmer (1998), this process encompasses four key elements: planning, drafting, editing, and producing the final draft Similarly, Richard and Schmidt (2002) describe writing as the outcome of intricate processes that include planning, drafting, reviewing, and revising.
Writing is vital for both daily and academic activities, as emphasized by Dang (2019) Dwivedi (2015) asserts that students who excel in writing can maximize their language skills in their studies and future careers Additionally, with the rise of advanced technology, effective written communication has become increasingly important, as much of our information exchange now occurs through digital devices (Griffiths, 2016).
Writing approach
To effectively analyze the use of scaffolding by textbook designers and teachers in teaching writing, it is essential to understand the writing approach outlined in the English 10 textbook and its application in actual writing lessons This understanding will enable the identification of specific scaffolding activities tailored to each writing approach in the textbook Additionally, it will allow for conclusions regarding the rationale behind the selection of scaffolding tools used by teachers in real writing lessons, based on their adopted writing approaches.
The product approach to teaching writing is a traditional, prescriptive method that emphasizes a product-centered focus (Smith, 2000) This approach encourages language learners to imitate a model text, which is typically introduced and analyzed during the initial stages of learning (Hasan).
The development of writing skills is closely linked to students' ability to imitate, explore, and analyze model texts This approach highlights the importance of using appropriate vocabulary, syntax, and cohesive devices to enhance writing quality.
According to Steele (2002) and Clenton (2004), teaching writing using product approach involves four stages:
Stage one: Students are given a model text to study and mimic its highlighted features
Stage two: Students are involved in isolated controlled practice of the highlighted features
Stage three: Students work to organize ideas
Stage four: Students individually use the skills, structures and vocabulary to produce the final writing product
The process approach emphasizes the active involvement of students in communicating their ideas, feelings, and experiences (Stanley, 2002) Instead of expecting polished and error-free writing, this method prioritizes the development of language skills (Celce-Murcia, 1991) Writing is viewed as a series of stages, with teachers providing essential input and guidance to enhance students' skills and knowledge (Badger & Goodith, 2000: 160).
Steele (2002) describes process approach as follows:
Stage 1: Students brainstorm and discuss ideas Teachers provide support if needed without interrupting the flow of idea production
Stage 2: Students develop and note down their ideas, and judge the quality and usefulness of those ideas
Stage 3: Students organise ideas into a mind map, spidergram, or linear form, which would help them structure their texts
Stage 4: Students write the first draft This is done in class and frequently in pairs or groups
Stage 5: Drafts are exchanged, so that students become the readers of each other’s work This helps them develop an awareness of the fact that writers produce something to be read, and thus can improve their own drafts
Stage 6: Students return the drafts and make improvements based on peer feedback Stage 7: A final draft is written
Stage 8: Students once again exchange and read each other’s work and perhaps even write a response or a reply Finally they submit their final writing product to the teachers for assessment
Writing is recognized as a social and cultural practice within the genre-based approach, as highlighted by Husan & Akhan (2010) This approach emphasizes the importance of writing context and the conventions specific to the target discourse community Additionally, Badger and White (2000) suggest that the genre-based approach can be viewed as an extension of the product approach, sharing several similarities with it.
The genre approach highlights the significance of language and discourse characteristics within specific texts, as well as the context in which they are utilized This approach prioritizes the reader's experience and emphasizes the conventions that a written work must adhere to for successful acceptance by its audience (Munice, 2002; Hasan & Akhand, 2010, p.81).
The five stages of a genre approach are (Hyland, 2007):
According to Firkins, Forey, and Sengupta (2007), three stages of a genre approach includes:
While certain approaches may offer distinct advantages in specific situations, their drawbacks can often be mitigated by the benefits of alternative methods According to Hasan & Akhand (2010), the process approach is crucial for enabling students to articulate their ideas clearly, allowing them to systematically organize their thoughts and write fluently in a foreign language Conversely, the product approach is essential for helping students assess their competence relative to the task, age, and maturity level required.
To effectively blend the careful control of language required for learners with the creative use of language by the learners themselves, the integration of structured scaffolding has become essential (Kim & Kim, 2005, pp 7-8) This approach facilitates a balanced development of language skills, supporting both product and process in language learning.
& Kim, 2005) Hasan & Akhand (2010) stated that they have integrated product- process approach in classrooms as follows:
Stage 1: Guided Brainstorming - Teachers provide students with major ideas/points and ask learners to organize subpoints
Stage 2: Top down approach in the organization of ideas is implemented Specifically, students are given a text and required to extract the important ideas/ points from the text
Stage 3: Teachers provide guided questions in different angles to help students develop ideas
Stage 4: Teachers and students discuss several aspects of the model texts such as the use of language structures, the level of formality, etc This helps students to realize
9 that language features should not be imitated randomly, but be used in certain situations
Stage 5: Teachers and students point out the difference between an essay of a good grade and that of a less better one.
Scaffolding
In second language (L2) acquisition studies, "scaffolding" has become increasingly significant, particularly following Vygotsky's (1978) concept of the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD), which highlights the gap between an individual's current abilities and their potential growth Vygotsky emphasized that the skills developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration surpass what one can achieve independently This indicates that when students encounter learning limits, they should seek support to achieve their educational goals Jaramillo (1996) noted that teachers activate the ZPD by introducing concepts that challenge students, encouraging them to progress beyond their existing skill levels.
Scaffolding refers to a temporary structure used in building construction, essential for supporting the process until completion (Gibbons, 2002) In education, scaffolding is defined as the support provided by teachers to help students master new skills, allowing them to focus on tasks within their capability (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976) This concept highlights the similarity between teaching and construction, where educators play a crucial role in guiding learners through challenging elements of their educational journey.
The level of increasing or decreasing assistance is based on the learners’ ability to perform and accomplish the targeted task on their own (Bodrova & Leong, 1998;
Scaffolding in education involves teachers providing step-by-step support to students, gradually reducing assistance to foster independent task performance This approach is essential for effective learning, as it encourages student autonomy and enhances their ability to tackle challenges independently.
Scaffolding is a temporary support system designed to motivate learners and enhance their understanding, enabling them to successfully complete tasks they could not manage independently (Hogan & Pressley, 1997) This process allows novices to tackle challenges, solve problems, and achieve goals that exceed their unassisted capabilities (Clark, 2005; Cagiltay, 2006) Additionally, scaffolding not only helps students accomplish tasks with reduced stress and time but also promotes deeper learning (Graves, 2003) Ultimately, it facilitates the enhancement of students' knowledge and skills, allowing them to reach a higher level of competence (Rogoff, 1996).
Scaffolding in writing is an effective technique to make use of the support provided to learners Scaffolding is advocated by some researchers such as Larkin
(2002), Hyland (2003) and Cotteral & Cohen (2003), among others Bodrova (1998) believed that potential levels of writing performance can be obtained thanks to scaffolding
Teachers must adapt their instructional methods and implement scaffolding techniques to effectively support students in reaching their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), ultimately leading to improved learning outcomes.
According to Wood et al (1976), adults can provide six types of assistance to children: fostering their interests, simplifying tasks to limit freedom, maintaining focus and direction, and highlighting key features of the task.
(5) dealing with frustration; and (6) describing or illustrating viable solutions
The success of scaffolding is considered based on these educational notions:
Intersubjectivity: the instructor and the learner collaborate to redefine the task and share an understanding of the goal to be accomplished
Effective scaffolding in education requires teachers to actively engage with learners, tailoring support to their individual levels of understanding This approach involves gradually adjusting the types and number of activities based on students' evolving capabilities Educators must possess a deep knowledge of the tasks and sub-goals, while also being responsive to learners' needs throughout the instructional process Scaffolding techniques can include modeling solutions, offering explanations, encouraging participation, demonstrating desired behaviors, and providing clarifications, all aimed at fostering a supportive learning environment (Van Lier, 2004; Wood et al., 1976; Brown, 1994; Hogan & Pressley, 1997).
On-going assessment: Van Lier (2004) believes that interactions can help the instructors to monitor students’ progress and provide sufficient and suitable support
An ongoing assessment and adaptation of assistance during interactions are necessary
Learning responsibility is a key aspect of scaffolding, which involves gradually reducing support for learners, enabling them to take charge of their own educational journey As noted by Wood et al (1976), transferring responsibility is essential, as it allows learners to not only master specific tasks but also to abstract the process, facilitating the application of their understanding to similar tasks in the future.
According to Stager & Harman (2002), scaffolding enhances self-confidence by offering temporary support that empowers learners to achieve their goals, which may be challenging without such assistance Additionally, this approach strengthens the relationship between teachers and learners, fostering a more collaborative and supportive educational environment.
Scaffolding is an effective cognitive tool that enhances critical thinking and problem-solving skills in learners According to Rogoff (1996), critical thinking involves actively applying, conceptualizing, analyzing, and evaluating information gained from experience, reflection, observation, and communication to guide actions Additionally, effective problem-solving necessitates the control and modulation of essential skills.
Scaffolding aims to enhance the learning experience by enabling teachers to actively guide students through new ideas and concepts According to Hammond (2001), effective scaffolding involves knowing when and how to intervene, ensuring that educators play a crucial role in supporting student understanding and facilitating their educational journey.
Van Lier (2004) and Walqui (2006) highlight different pedagogical aspects of scaffolding:
Continuity in learning involves interconnected tasks that are revisited with variations, promoting deeper understanding A safe and well-equipped environment is essential for effective learning, providing the necessary contextual support Additionally, fostering intersubjectivity through mutual rapport and active engagement encourages non-threatening participation, creating a supportive community of practice.
Contingency: Task procedures are well-adjusted based on learners’ actions
Contributions and utterances may be co-constructed and oriented towards each other
As learners gain confidence and skills, they should be prepared to take on tasks independently Teachers monitor their progress closely, ensuring that students are capable of handling the responsibilities on their own before fully transferring the tasks.
Flow: Challenges and skills are in balance Participants concentrate on the given tasks and are ‘in tune’ with each other
All in all, the psychological, cognitive and pedagogical aspects of scaffolding interact with each other and it is hard to characterize their features separately
Since the introduction of the concept of scaffolding, there have been many experts trying to categorize scaffolding based on a number of criteria
Hammond (2001) categorizes scaffolding into two distinct types based on the level of support: macro and micro The macro level encompasses the overall lesson design, including task sequences aimed at achieving specific educational objectives.
The transition of responsibility from teachers to students is crucial for fostering independence in learning At a micro level, this involves ongoing support from teachers and peers during lessons To enhance students' comprehension of tasks, educators and classmates can utilize scaffolding techniques, including targeted questioning and recasting students' prior experiences.
Regarding the functions and mechanisms of scaffolding, Hannafin et al
METHODOLOGY
Research approach
A case study, as defined by Yin (1984), is an empirical inquiry that explores contemporary phenomena within their real-life contexts, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not distinctly defined, utilizing multiple sources of evidence (p 23) Baxter & Jack (2008) further describe it as a research approach that allows for the exploration of a phenomenon within its context through diverse data sources, revealing multiple facets of the issue (p 544) This study focuses on the use of scaffolding activities in teaching writing from the English 10 textbook for Vietnamese upper-secondary school students, necessitating a combination of various data sources for comprehensive insights Zainal (2007) emphasizes that case study methods enable researchers to transcend quantitative results and understand behavioral conditions from the actors' perspectives This research aims to uncover teachers' actual practices of scaffolding techniques in English writing instruction, highlighting the need for a "holistic, in-depth investigation" (Zainal, 2007).
This study utilizes multiple case analyses for several key reasons Firstly, Bogdan & Biklen (2003) argue that this approach can effectively address the issue of generalizability Additionally, Yin (1994) suggests that evidence gathered from various sources across multiple cases is perceived as more credible These factors underscore the value of employing multiple case analyses in research.
This study employs a multiple case study approach, allowing for the examination of similarities and differences within and between cases (Baxter & Jack, 2008) It focuses on three single cases, as defined by Merriam (1998), who describes a case as a distinct entity with defined boundaries, which can include individuals, groups, or specific institutions Specifically, this research investigates three English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers working in a school setting.
A are regarded as three cases.
The research design
This section outlines the rationale for employing a qualitative multiple case study approach, beginning with an overview of the data collection sites It then details the criteria for participant selection and concludes with an explanation of the data collection procedures implemented during the study.
The study was conducted at School A, a prestigious public high school for gifted students in Hanoi, Vietnam, known for its exceptional facilities and teaching excellence since its establishment in the late 1960s All students at School A successfully pass the National University Entrance Examination, with many achieving outstanding academic records, including high awards in international competitions and admission to top universities worldwide As one of the oldest high schools in Vietnam and part of the Hanoi University of Education system, School A was chosen for this research due to its highly competitive English language environment, offering convenience and feasibility for the study within the constraints of limited time and resources.
In this study, four English teachers from the department of English in School
Only three teachers accepted the invitation to participate in the interview and observation process, while the others declined As noted by Yin (2003), careful selection is essential when choosing cases for a multiple case study.
This study employs purposive sampling to identify individuals based on their relevant experiences and practices, allowing for in-depth insights into specific issues (Ball, 1990) The selection process is guided by two criteria that ensure participants possess significant knowledge pertinent to the study's focus.
The initial sampling criterion for this study involves evaluating teachers' prior experience with the English 10 textbook, which is part of a 10-year program for upper secondary students Since the research emphasizes the scaffolding activities employed by teachers in writing instruction, it is essential to consider the number of years of teaching experience in this context.
The second criterion for sampling involves the institutions where the subjects practice, which serve as the research sites According to Lantolf (2004), the motivations of the subjects are shaped by social and historical contexts, making the teachers' working environments a critical factor in case selection.
Based on the sampling criteria, four cases were initially selected from the school, including two experienced teachers from various working environments and two with limited teaching experience in fewer institutions The selection also took into account the diversity of participants' backgrounds, including gender, years of experience, and work settings However, due to one teacher's refusal to participate, the final number of participants was three.
To protect their identities, from now on the participants will be addressed by pseudonyms as described in Table 3.1 below:
Pseudonym Gender Qualification Graduation year
Tracy, an English teacher at School A for nearly nineteen years, graduated with honors from University A in 2002 Known for her calm demeanor and passion for teaching, she views her role as both a profession and a beloved hobby Her extensive experience at School A has enriched her teaching practice significantly.
Penny, the youngest teacher at School A, has been teaching English for four years at various English centers A graduate of University A in 2020, she joined School A just last year With a high level of proficiency in English, Penny achieved an impressive band 8 on the IELTS test.
Since 2011, Rosie has been teaching English at her designated research setting after completing a four-year program at University A With extensive experience and a deep passion for teaching, she has established herself as a competent educator Additionally, Rosie has earned numerous recognized qualifications in both studying and teaching English.
Data collection procedure
The data collection process spanned approximately one month and utilized various methods to gain comprehensive insights into the research questions Specifically, to address the second question regarding the scaffolding tools used by teachers in English writing lessons for tenth graders in Vietnamese upper-secondary schools, as well as the third question concerning the factors influencing English teachers' decisions to employ or reject scaffolding activities, pre-teaching and post-teaching interviews, along with classroom observations, were conducted.
The chart below illustrates four steps of data collection procedure (Figure 3.1):
Prior to the data collection process, each participant was provided with a consent form that outlined essential details, including information about the researcher, the study's objectives, the data collection methods, potential inconveniences, and the benefits of participation.
Participants were provided with a consent form, allowing them time to read and sign it before agreeing to participate in the study Following this, the researcher coordinated the scheduling and logistics for the research interviews and observations with the participants.
The research began with a preliminary interview lasting approximately 20 minutes to gather insights into teachers' backgrounds and their motivations for using scaffolding tools in English lessons Following this, a pre-teaching interview of 15-20 minutes was conducted to identify the specific scaffolding tools employed by teachers during writing lessons Finally, after each lesson, post-teaching interviews were held to assess any changes in the application of scaffolding tools for students in the classroom.
Data sources and focus of data collection and analysis are shown in the table 3.2
Data sources Focus of data collection analysis
Preliminary interviews with individual teacher (N=3)
Personal background Experience as a language teacher/ tutor/ teaching assistant
Perceptions of the English 10 textbook Perceptions of the use of scaffolding
Pre-teaching interviews (N=3) Lesson objectives
Intention of applying scaffolding tools
Classroom observations (N=3) Use of scaffolding tools
Social context of teaching Teacher - student interaction
Post-teaching interviews (N=3) Changes in the use of scaffolding tools
Table 3.2 Data sources and focus of data collection and analysis
Research instrument
Three data collection instructions including documents, interviews and observations were employed in this study Each instrument is specified in the following sections
The study investigates the scaffolding activities present in the writing sections of the "English 10" textbook, utilizing a textbook analysis approach as the most suitable method This approach serves as a means of triangulation and is often combined with other instruments to explore the phenomenon effectively Additionally, it facilitates the extraction of empirical knowledge from the documents through thorough data analysis and interpretation.
Rationales for using non-participant observation
Regarding the second research question “What scaffolding tools do teachers use in
In a study exploring English writing lessons for tenth graders in Vietnamese upper-secondary schools, non-participant observation was utilized to gather data on teachers' use of scaffolding activities Defined by Berg (2001) as a “non-invasive and objective examination,” this method enabled the researcher to observe one English writing lesson for each participant, allowing for an in-depth analysis of teacher behavior in its natural context without altering the classroom conditions (Parke & Griffiths, 2008).
To enhance observation quality, a two-part checklist was utilized for each lesson The first section gathers essential details about the teacher and the class, while the second section enables the researcher to document the use of scaffolding tools and various teaching and learning activities observed during the lesson (refer to Appendix C).
During the classroom observation, I quietly observed the teachers' interactions from the back of the class, ensuring that the teaching process was not disrupted Since the teachers did not permit visual recording of the lessons, I meticulously documented my observations for later data analysis Prior to the observation, all participants signed a consent form.
Due to the sudden outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic in various Vietnamese cities, each teacher was observed only once, resulting in numerous skipped lessons, including writing classes Writing instruction was deprioritized as it is not a primary focus of the university entrance exam, allowing more time for other language skills Table 3.3 below provides specific details of each participant's observation session.
Tracy Unit 6 Lesson 1 Writing a paragraph about disadvantages of working mothers
Writing an email to give health advice
Rosie Unit 8 Lesson 1 Writing an essay about the advantages of electronic devices as learning tools
To address the second and third research questions, semi-structured interviews were utilized for data collection Boyce & Neale (2006) highlight that these interviews offer a relaxed environment, encouraging participants to share detailed insights relevant to the research This format guides both interviewers and interviewees, ensuring that data collected aligns with the research topic while also obtaining participant consent (Jacob & Furgerson, 2012) Additionally, Knox & Burkard (2009) emphasize that semi-structured interviews provide essential instructions for conducting the interviews, making them particularly beneficial for novice researchers with limited experience.
The interview protocols used in this research, detailed in Appendix D, were designed to guide discussions while allowing flexibility (Gill et al., 2008) The preliminary interview focused on understanding teachers' backgrounds and their motivations for using scaffolding tools in English lessons The pre-teaching interview explored teachers' plans for English writing lessons, while the post-teaching interview assessed changes in the use of scaffolding tools in the classroom Initially drafted, the interview questions were refined based on feedback from a TESOL expert, leading to clearer versions Throughout the process, adherence to the interview protocols ensured the collection of necessary data for the study.
The table 3.4 below demonstrates the specific details of each participant’s interview:
All interviews were conducted using Vietnamese to provide comfort for the participants to express themselves.
Data analysis method
Thematic analysis, as outlined by Braun & Clarke (2006), serves as a foundational method for qualitative analysis, effectively organizing and describing qualitative data in rich detail This approach allows researchers to capture and report the experiences, meanings, and realities of participants, drawing insights from interviews and field research notes.
& Clarke, 2006, p.81) I followed the guide through “a six phase approach to thematic analysis” (p.87) by Braun and Clark (2006) to carry out this method
In the initial phase of data familiarization, I meticulously transcribed the interview data and conducted a thorough reading of the transcripts, observation notes, and relevant documents This process allowed me to make margin notes and effectively identify the key information necessary to address the research questions.
In the next phase of producing initial codes, I carefully re-examined the transcript, notes, and relevant documents This systematic approach allowed me to generate initial codes that effectively identified both the semantic and latent levels of data meaning The semantic level pertains to what is directly observable in the information, while the latent level reveals the underlying phenomena (DeSantis & Ugarriza, 2000, p.52).
In the third phase of categorizing the relevant codes into potential themes, I conducted a cross-analysis among the themes of three participants to find out the recurring ones
The study enhanced its validity and reliability by triangulating data from observation notes, relevant documents, and interview responses, as suggested by Baxter and Jack (2008).
Data analysis procedure
To analyze data from the textbook, I coded each writing activity in the English 10
(10-year-program) for Vietnamese upper secondary school students based on the framework of scaffolding proposed by Walqui (2006): modelling, bridging, contextualizing, scheme building, developing metacognition, representing text
Analyzing the English 10 textbook through specific criteria uncovered the foundational writing approach utilized and demonstrated the interconnectedness of writing tasks The structured matrix employed for this data analysis was informed by Walqui's framework.
(2006) classification of scaffolding types Table 3.5 illustrates the coding framework for six scaffolding types:
Modelling Textbook designers provide sample products containing explicit guidelines and standards for students’ outcomes
Bridging Textbook designers create a connection between students’ previous knowledge and the novel piece of knowledge
Contextualizing Textbook designers embed language in certain contexts by utilizing different tools like pictures, videos, realia or analogies
Scheme building Textbook designers organize students’ knowledge and establish connections among different concepts
Developing metacognition Textbook designers offer strategies for students to manage their thinking
Representing text Textbook designers design a task to make students transform a text into forms of other genres to express their understanding
Table 3.5 The coding framework for six scaffolding activities
After thorough examination, the data was categorized into suitable scaffolding types To illustrate the utilization of scaffolding activities by textbook designers more clearly, statistics such as frequency and mean were calculated.
To analyze interview data, and observation notes, I followed the guide through
In their 2006 work, Braun and Clarke present a six-phase approach to thematic analysis, highlighting the importance of coding in qualitative research For the analysis of interview data, I primarily utilized two coding methods: descriptive coding and In Vivo coding Descriptive coding played a crucial role in organizing and summarizing the data effectively.
31 useful when I summarized “a word or short phrase the basic topic of a passage” (Saldaủa, 2009, p 262) in the interview transcript Table 3.6 gives examples of this type of coding
Example quote Code Type of Code
Many individuals who fear writing often lack confidence in their writing skills As a result, receiving feedback on their mistakes can lead to feelings of discouragement rather than improvement.
… Actually I know that they have no difficulty with ideas It is because there are already a lot of ideas in the textbook, plus the topic is familiar
The difficulty they encounter is in terms of their expression, such as the vocabulary and sentence construction.”
Table 3.6 Descriptive coding in interview analysis
In Vivo coding, in addition, is the type of code that uses “words or short phrases from the participant’s own language in the data record” (Saldaủa, 2009, p
264) Below is one example of In Vivo coding
Example quote Code Type of Code
Unbalanced workload in team working is hard to avoid in a class of mixed-ability students
Unbalanced workload in team working In Vivo code
… Therefore, with such a limited amount of time in class, it would turn out to be time-consuming if I allow them to think completely on their own
Table 3.7 In Vivo coding in interview analysis
The structured matrix for analyzing observational data is founded on Van de Pol’s (2012) classification of scaffolding tools, as demonstrated in Table 3.8, which outlines the coding framework for six distinct scaffolding tools.
Feeding back Teachers provide information about students’ performance
Giving hints Teachers provide suggestions or clues to help students do the task (They do not give entire solution or detailed instructions)
Instructing Teachers tell students what and how to do something
Explaining Teachers give more details and clarification
Modelling Teachers demonstrate the desired behaviour for students to imitate
Questioning Teachers ask questions that demand “an active linguistic and cognitive answer” from students
Table 3.8 The coding framework for six scaffolding tools
(Adapted from Van de Pol et al., 2010)
The data was systematically organized using relevant scaffolding tools, and statistical measures such as frequency, mean, and standard deviation were computed to effectively demonstrate teachers' utilization of these tools during writing lessons.
Research ethics
The ethical considerations surrounding teacher participation in the study were prioritized, ensuring that involvement was entirely voluntary to alleviate any pressure Clear information regarding the research process and participant responsibilities was provided prior to obtaining consent, with each participant retaining a copy of the consent form for their records Additionally, participant anonymity was strictly maintained, and all collected data was treated as highly confidential, accessible only to my supervisor and me for research purposes A sample consent form can be found in Appendix A.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Research question 1: What scaffolding activities are present in the writing sections in the “English 10” textbook (10-year program)?
sections in the “English 10” textbook (10-year program)?
In preparation for analyzing the scaffolding activities, I first sought to identify the writing approach utilized in each lesson of the English 10 textbook The summary in Table 4.1 outlines the various writing topics, tasks, and approaches featured in the textbook.
Units Competences Writing tasks in the textbook Types of scaffolding (e.g modelling, bridging, etc.) (Walqui, 2006)
1 Family life Writing about doing a household chores
1 Discussion e.g Discuss the meaning of the saying “many hands make light work”
Do you agree with it? How does this saying apply to doing housework in the family?”
2 Completion e.g “Read the text about Lam’s family below and complete the chore chart ”
36 e.g “Read the text again and answer the questions…”
4 Guided writing e.g “Make your family chore chart
In my family, housework is a shared responsibility, ensuring that everyone contributes to maintaining our home My parents typically handle the cooking and grocery shopping, while my siblings and I take care of cleaning and organizing our living spaces We have established a weekly schedule that outlines each person's tasks, promoting teamwork and accountability This collaborative approach not only eases the burden of chores but also fosters a sense of unity and cooperation among us, making our home a more pleasant place to live.
Writing an email? about what to eat and not to eat
1 Completion e.g “Build a list of foods from your own experience that may give you: allergies, bad breath, …”
37 e.g “Now read the facts below Do you have some of these foods on your list? Which ones?”
3 Guided writing e.g “Some people have written in for advice on their diets as they are going to do important things Work in pairs or groups and write at least one similar inquiry.”
4 Guided writing e.g “You are the food specialist and you are working on the newsletter’s next edition Read the reply to Scott’s enquiry Then write your own by responding to one of the other texts from or from your friends’.”
1 Matching headings e.g “Do you know this man? Read the following paragraphs Match each of them with the corresponding heading.”
2 Answering comprehension questions e.g “Work with a partner to ask and answer the following questions in your own words.”
3 Guided writing e.g “Write a biography, using one of the Fact Files on this page.”
Writing an application letter for volunteer work
39 e.g “Read the letter Why did Quan write it?”
2 Answering comprehension questions e.g “Read the letter and answer the questions.”
3 Matching purposes e.g “Read the letter again Match each paragraph in the letter with its purpose.”
4 Answering comprehension questions e.g “Read the job advertisement
Answer the questions about it.”
5 Guided writing e.g “You would like to volunteer at the Heart to Heart Charity Office
40 words applying for the job Follow the writing plan in 3”
5 Inventions Writing about benefits of an invention
1 Discussion e.g “Which of these audio devices do you have or want to have? Discuss with a partner.”
2 Completion e.g “The following text is about earbuds and their three benefits
Below it are the details supporting each benefit Put the details in the appropriate gaps.”
3 Completion e.g “Complete the following outline for the paragraph on earbuds in 2.”
41 e.g “Choose one invention and write a similar paragraph about its benefits.”
Writing about the disadvantages of working mothers
1 Completion e.g “The following text about the advantages of being a working mother is missing the detailed explanations Put the explanations (a-c) in the yellow box in the appropriate blanks (1-3).”
2 Completion e.g “Read the text in again
1 Task 1: Modelling, schema building, contextualizing
42 e.g “Discuss with a partner how the following words are used in the text in 2.”
4 Guided writing e.g “Write a similar text about the disadvantages of being a working mother.”
Writing about typical characteristics of Vietnamese people
1 Arranging the given paragraphs e.g “The following jumbled-up paragraphs are from a text about typical American characteristics Put them in order to make a meaningful text.”
2 Completion e.g “Read the text again and complete the outline for it.”
3 Guided writing e.g “Work in groups Think of three typical characteristics of the
Vietnamese people and examples to support each of them Then write a short text of 150-180 words about these characteristics, using the outline in 2.”
Writing about the advantages of electronic devices as learning tools
1 Discussion e.g “Look at the pictures of people using electronic devices Think about one advantage and one disadvantage of using these devices in the classroom Write them down and exchange your ideas with your partner.”
Using electronic devices in learning presents both advantages and disadvantages For instance, they can enhance access to information and facilitate interactive learning experiences, making education more engaging However, they may also lead to distractions and hinder face-to-face communication skills It's important to consider these aspects and discuss varying opinions on the impact of technology in education.
3 Identifying linking words/ phrases e.g “Read the following text about the disadvantages of using electronic devices in class Underline the words / phrases the writer uses to link the ideas in 2 together.”
4 Guided writing e.g "Read the sentences in again
Use them to write a short text about the advantages of using electronic devices in learning.”
Writing about environmental problems and give some practical advice on how to preserve the environment
1 Discussion e.g “What do you see in the picture?
What does the text in the picture mean? Do you turn off the tap while you are brushing your teeth?”
2 Matching headings e.g “The following paragraphs are extracts from a student’s talk giving some practical advice on reducing water and electricity consumption at home Quickly read the text and match the headings (a-d) with the paragraphs (1-4).”
3 Matching e.g “Match the following sentences with the paragraphs (1-4) in 2.”
Select one of the following limited natural resources and compose three paragraphs: the first paragraph should introduce the specific type of pollution affecting that resource, the second should provide practical advice on mitigating this pollution, and the third should suggest actions individuals can take to contribute to the conservation of the resource.
Writing a travel brochure promoting an eco tour
1 Matching headings e.g “Look at the travel brochure below and find the diff erent parts
Match the numbered parts in the brochure with their content.”
2 Discussion e.g “Work in groups Use the information about the eco tours to Sa
Pa or Central Highlands in the
1 Task 1: Contextualizing, modelling, schema building
Speaking section to design a travel brochure You can add more information and pictures to make your brochure attractive.”
3 Guided writing and presentation e.g “Show your group’s brochure to other groups Prepare a brief report to advertise your eco tour.”
Table 4.1 Writing tasks and scaffolding activities presented in the English 10 textbook
The analysis of the English 10 textbook reveals that five writing sections (Unit 3, Unit 4, Unit 6, Unit 9, and Unit 10) utilize a product-oriented approach, while two sections (Unit 1 and Unit 7) adopt a genre-based approach Additionally, Units 2 and 8 implement an integrated approach Notably, only Unit 5 employs a process-based writing teaching method, which is likely due to the extensive class time this approach demands (Tribble, 1996; Badger & White, 2000) Considering the typical 45-minute duration of writing lessons in Vietnam, the limited inclusion of process-oriented writing lessons may reflect the constraints faced by textbook authors.
To enhance the writing skills of students in grades 11 and 12, it is essential to incorporate more process-based writing lessons This approach not only prepares them for advanced writing tasks but also equips them with skills beneficial for their higher education pursuits (Badger & White, 2000).
Table 4.2 below summarises the types of scaffolding activities designed in the
English 10 textbook Section 3.6 has explained the steps I took to arrive at this list of scaffolding activities As can be seen from Table 4.2, the textbook writers use only five types of scaffolding namely bridging, schema building, contextualizing, modelling and developing metacognition It should also be noted that modelling, schema building, and developing metacognition appear as the predominant types of scaffolding activities used by the textbook writers Bridging is mostly used to guide teachers in integrated approach lessons and process-oriented lessons, whereas contextualizing is employed to teach product-based lessons, integrated lessons and process-oriented ones Below I will give further analysis of each type of scaffolding in the textbook
(B: Bridging, S: Schema building, C: Contextualising, R: Representing text,
Table 4.2 Types of scaffolding activities designed in the English 10 textbook
Bridging involves activating students' prior knowledge before introducing new concepts (Walqui, 2006) This process often includes lead-in questions that encourage group discussions, allowing students to share personal experiences and opinions related to the upcoming lesson topics For instance, the English 10 textbook incorporates bridging activities in Exercise 1 and Exercise 2 of Unit 2.
“Exercise 1 Build a list of foods from your own experience that may give you
- sleepiness then share and compare your list with your friends
Exercise 2 Now, read the facts below Do you have some of these foods on your list? Which ones?
The foods most commonly causing allergies are milk, wheat, eggs, soya, fish, peanuts, shellfish (including mussels, crab and shrimp)
The foods which may spoil your breath for days after a meal are onion, garlic, cabbage, curry, alcohol
Unit 2 focuses on composing an email that offers health advice, utilizing lead-in questions as a scaffolding activity to help students generate initial ideas related to food and health.
Table 4.2 reveals that bridging activities constitute only 11.11% of the total scaffolding strategies in the English 10 textbook Notably, Units 3, 4, 6, 7, and 10, which represent nearly half of the writing sections, lack bridging activities that connect students personally to the subject matter.
Research question 2: What scaffolding tools do teachers use in English writing lessons for
lessons for tenth graders at Vietnamese upper-secondary schools?
Before presenting findings about the choices of scaffolding tools and perceptions of the three selected teachers towards scaffolding activities in the English 10 textbook,
This article summarizes the observed lessons and the implementation of scaffolding activities by each participant in the textbook The selection of the three participants for this study is detailed in Section 3.2.2 of Chapter III, while the data collection methods are outlined in Section 3.3 of the same chapter.
Employment/ Rejection of scaffolding activities in the textbook
Scaffolding tools used by teachers
Writing an email to give health advice
No scaffolding activities are rejected
Instructing Explaining Feeding back Questioning
2 Task 2 Instructing Modelling Feeding back
3 Task 3 Instructing Questioning Explaining Giving hints
4 Task 4 Instructing Questioning Feeding back Modelling
Tracy Unit 6 Writing a paragraph about disadvantages of working mothers
Task 1: Modelling, schema building, contextualizing Task 2: Schema building Task 3: Schema building Task 4: Developing metacognition
The teacher combined task 1 and task 2 in the textbook when teaching
The requirements for Task 4 have been revised; initially, students were instructed to write about the disadvantages of working mothers However, since the relevant ideas were already covered in previous tasks, the instructor has now asked students to compose a new paragraph instead.
0 Lead-in Questioning Feedback Explaining Instructing
Explaining Modelling Questioning Feeding back
61 about the advantages of working mothers
Giving hints Questioning Explaining Modelling Feeding back
3 Task 4 Instructing Feeding back Giving hints
Rosie Unit 8 Writing an essay about the advantages of electronic devices as learning tools
Task 1: Bridging, contextualizing Task 2: Schema building Task 3: Modelling, schema building
Rosie added another activity before conducting task 3 in the English 10 textbook
2 Task 2 Instructing Questioning Feeding back Explaining
Explaining Modelling Questioning Feeding back Giving hints
4 Task 3 Instructing Explaining Questioning Modelling Giving hints Feeding back
Table 4.3 Scaffolding activities and tools used by the teachers in observed lessons
4.2.1 Connection between scaffolding activities and scaffolding tools
Textbook writers' intentions can only be achieved through the flexible use of various scaffolding tools Scaffolding activities are closely linked to these tools, as they guide teachers in selecting appropriate teaching methods that effectively support student learning.
Tracy effectively combined writing tasks in her lesson, as both exercises utilized the same scaffolding activity focused on schema building and highlighted the disadvantages of being working mothers This approach, as noted in her post-teaching interview, eliminated the need for separating the tasks, allowing her to optimize in-class time by minimizing repetitive scaffolding Additionally, despite modifications, the final task in Tracy's lesson continued to promote students' metacognitive development In contrast, Rosie introduced an extra activity before Task 3 in Unit 8 of the English 10 textbook, incorporating a self-devised list of scaffolding tools to enhance schema building in Task 2, thus preparing students for subsequent scaffolding activities in Task 3.
No scaffolding activities in the English 10 textbook were rejected by the three participants, indicating that scaffolding tools were effectively utilized to fulfill the authors' intentions Teachers reported a significant reduction in lesson planning burdens due to these activities For instance, Rosie noted that the inclusion of a sample essay on the advantages of electronic devices as learning tools in the textbook saved her considerable time in material preparation.
In a recent post-teaching interview, Rosie expressed her relief at no longer needing to create additional writing models for her students, as the textbook already provides a suitable example She believes that the existing model is effective for students to analyze and emulate in their writing practice.
4.2.2 Scaffolding tools observed in three lessons
In addition to utilizing or discarding the scaffolding activities found in the textbook, teachers incorporated various scaffolding tools during their writing lessons This section will outline the specific scaffolding tools that were observed in the lessons conducted by the teachers.
A single observation session per teacher was conducted to gather data for the second research question The findings indicated that all six scaffolding tools—questioning, feedback, instruction, hints, modeling, and explanation—were utilized in English writing lessons for 10th graders Table 4.4 below summarizes the scaffolding methods employed by the participants during these writing lessons.
(Q: Questioning, FB: Feeding back, I: Instructing, GH: Giving hints, M: Modelling, E: Explaining)
Table 4.4 Scaffolding tools used in writing lessons
On average, teachers utilized scaffolding techniques 44 times per lesson, with questioning (31.07%) and feedback (30.3%) being the most prevalent tools Instructing accounted for 13.64%, while giving hints, modeling, and explaining comprised 9.8%, 7.6%, and 7.6% respectively Notably, questioning and feedback exhibited a reasonable standard deviation of SD= 4.51, indicating consistent application of these methods in teaching.
The analysis reveals a consistent frequency among teachers in the use of various scaffolding tools, with mean scores of 3.51 indicating strong agreement The low standard deviations for tools like instructing, giving hints, modeling, and explaining (SDs of 1, 1.53, 1.15, and 1.53, respectively) demonstrate minimal variability in their application In the subsequent sections, I will detail six scaffolding tools, ranked by their popularity from most to least frequently used.
In writing lessons, questioning emerged as the primary scaffolding tool utilized by teachers, accounting for 31.07% of its use Specifically, Rosie, Penny, and Tracy employed this technique 18, 14, and 9 times, respectively Among six scaffolding methods, questioning was the most frequently used by Rosie and Penny, while it ranked second for Tracy Each teacher applied various types of questions tailored to meet distinct educational objectives.
In the initial lessons, Tracy and Rosie effectively employed questioning as a scaffolding tool to direct students' focus towards the lesson's core content and shape their preliminary understanding For instance, while introducing the topic of electronic devices in education, Rosie utilized scaffolding activities from Exercise 1 in Unit 8 of the textbook, incorporating lead-in questions that explored the benefits and drawbacks of technology in learning.
Wh- questions were utilized to stimulate students' recollections of previously learned material and to enhance their comprehensive understanding of the subject The example below illustrates how Rosie effectively posed questions to help students recall the knowledge they had acquired.
Teacher Rosie: What do you remember about the disadvantages of electronic devices?
Student: One is distracting, one is taking embarrassing pictures Hmm… Teacher Rosie: What else? Something related to the word “access”?
Student: Students have access to inappropriate information
Teacher Rosie: Yes Thank you (Observation 3, March 22nd, 2021)
Rosie employed a scaffolding activity from the textbook in Exercise 2 to help students build a schema regarding the positive and negative impacts of modern devices in education To facilitate recall of this information before moving on to another activity, she utilized questioning techniques.
Observations revealed that the three teachers employed questioning techniques to effectively implement scaffolding activities in the English 10 textbook, focusing on key strategies such as bridging, contextualizing, and schema building.
Research question 3: What underlie English teachers’ employment or rejection of
rejection of scaffolding tools for students in the classroom?
Interviews with the three teachers after observed lessons revealed underlying reasons for their use or rejection of scaffolding tools in teaching writing skills In this section,
I will first present the reasons shared by the three selected teachers before reporting on differences in each individual’s implementation of scaffolding tools
4.3.1 Shared reasons among three teachers
Teachers often consider learners' academic backgrounds when deciding whether to employ scaffolding tools in writing lessons According to Penny, she adjusts the level of scaffolding to align with her students' academic abilities.
Teachers assessed their students' academic levels according to the CEFR, indicating that they range from A2 to B2 In Penny’s class, most students are at the B1 level, with some at A2 and others at B2 Similarly, Tracy’s and Rosie’s classes also have a majority of students at B1, with the remainder at B2 These variations in proficiency levels were considered when implementing scaffolding techniques An example of this approach is provided by Penny.
Scaffolding is essential for students with low English proficiency, as they struggle to utilize their background knowledge and vocabulary with only three English lessons each week In contrast, students with strong English skills require less scaffolding, allowing them to engage in effective self-study.
(Penny’s preliminary interview, March 7th, 2021)
Penny tailors the amount of scaffolding in her writing lessons to accommodate her students' diverse English proficiency levels She recognizes that while some students may fully understand instructions given in English, others may struggle To support these less proficient learners, she frequently offers explanations in Vietnamese Additionally, Penny employs the test-teach-test approach, which allows her to identify and address her students' specific scaffolding needs effectively.
The Test-Teach-Test approach effectively addresses mixed-ability classrooms by encouraging students to write, followed by providing hints, explanations, or feedback tailored to individual needs.
(Penny’s preliminary interview, March 7th, 2021)
The extract shows that teaching a mixed-ability class, teachers were aware of the need to differentiate their scaffolding tools to cater for students’ needs
It was found that there was a mutual consensus among the three teachers that most of their students were writing-phobic From the perspectives of the participants, students
Many students believe that writing is a challenging task and doubt their ability to write effectively The lack of a writing test in university entrance exams has been identified as a key factor contributing to their low motivation to learn writing skills Without a clear incentive to write, students often struggle to engage in the writing process, leading to a cycle of frustration and stagnation, as noted by Rosie.
Many students struggle with demotivation in writing lessons, often stemming from a lack of confidence in their writing abilities When they receive constructive feedback on their mistakes, it can inadvertently increase their discouragement and fear of writing To overcome this challenge, it's essential to address their anxieties and provide supportive guidance that fosters improvement and encourages a positive writing experience.
(Rosie’s preliminary interview, March 21st, 2021)
This indicates a need for teachers to employ scaffolding tools to alleviate writing apprehension and encourage students to engage more in writing lessons
Teachers often choose to use scaffolding because it significantly enhances cognitive thinking among students To prevent stagnant thinking, educators implement scaffolding activities, such as questioning and offering hints, which encourage active student engagement in brainstorming For instance, Tracy prefers to provide hints and suggestions to stimulate her students' thinking rather than giving them complete answers immediately.
By providing my students with hints and suggestions rather than complete answers from the start, I encourage them to engage in independent brainstorming This approach fosters their ability to tackle future writing tasks confidently without relying on my guidance, ultimately promoting their self-sufficiency in learning.
(Tracy’s preliminary interview, March 19th, 2021)
However, scaffolding sometimes has its own disadvantages, as justified by Penny:
“One of the drawbacks of scaffolding is that it deprives the ability to think and work independently of the students.” (Penny’s preliminary interview, March 7th,
Penny was particularly concerned that employing too much scaffolding or providing too many resources beforehand might make the students idle and dependent on teachers
Penny noted that the excessive scaffolding provided to students might lead them to rely too heavily on teachers, fostering a sense of complacency and diminishing their critical thinking skills.
To address potential challenges, she would adapt the scaffolding provided in each lesson, either by increasing support when needed or by reducing it when students demonstrated the ability to handle tasks independently.
4.3.2 Individuals’ reasons for their use of scaffolding
In an interview with Penny, it was revealed that scaffolding tools were used to manage classroom noise and enhance learning outcomes Penny emphasized the importance of maintaining students' full attention during lessons, discouraging side conversations To achieve this, she frequently posed questions to engage students and minimize opportunities for chatting among peers.
Tenth graders, now more mature, engage in various topics during class discussions To enhance their understanding of model texts and minimize distractions, I assign them specific tasks Initially, I provide instructions on how to approach these tasks, but students ultimately complete the assignments independently.
(Penny’s post teaching interview, March 8th, 2021)
Penny emphasizes the importance of teachers identifying their students' strengths, weaknesses, needs, and goals to effectively adapt their teaching methods In her observed class, she found it necessary to use the students' first language (L1) to ensure comprehension, as they struggled with ambiguity in language learning.
Balanced workload in team working
Penny emphasizes the necessity of equitable workload distribution among students to enhance their learning outcomes In her mixed-level class, she is particularly worried that high achievers may assume excessive responsibilities, while their peers fail to complete their assigned roles.
Discussion
This study highlights the preferred scaffolding activities of English 10 textbook developers, which include bridging, schema building, contextualizing, modeling, and developing metacognition These findings align with previous research by Yildiz & Celik (2020), indicating that teachers also favor these scaffolding methods The effective support provided by the textbook is expected to alleviate the lesson planning burden for teachers, particularly in the context of developing product-based writing lessons in the English curriculum.
In the study, it was found that the provision of ten textbook samples, including paragraphs, letters, and essays, offered students valuable opportunities to analyze modelled language features This approach enables teachers to effectively utilize these samples in their lessons, eliminating the need for them to create custom models that align with students' academic levels and lesson objectives As highlighted in Section 4.2.1, participants noted that the ample and effective support from these materials reduced the necessity for additional preparation of extra resources and activities.
Besides, the scaffolding activities in the English 10 textbook are of great benefits as they serve to develop communicative competence As argued by Hymes
Communicative competence, introduced in 1972, is essential in language learning as it emphasizes students' ability to use language accurately and appropriately This concept encompasses four key dimensions: grammatical competence, which focuses on the correct use of language rules; sociolinguistic competence, which involves understanding social contexts; strategic competence, which refers to the ability to use communication strategies effectively; and discourse competence, which pertains to the organization and coherence of spoken or written language.
Sociolinguistic competence is the ability to recognize and produce contextually appropriate speech (Lyster, 1994) Contextualizing and bridging enhance this competence, as highlighted by Mart (2017), who found that activating prior knowledge and using authentic materials make language more accessible Additionally, grammatical competence, which involves the effective use of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary, is supported through modeling and schema building Modeling provides students with example texts, while schema building deepens their understanding of vocabulary and language structures Importantly, both schema building and modeling are integral to every unit in the English 10 textbook, emphasizing the importance of grammatical features in English writing for students.
Strategic competence, which involves students' ability to address communication breakdowns and knowledge gaps, is enhanced through two key scaffolding activities: schema building and metacognition development Schema building organizes students' knowledge, while metacognition enables learners to monitor and adjust their understanding and learning processes Together, these approaches effectively address identified knowledge gaps Furthermore, they also enhance discourse competence, allowing students to express themselves more effectively in a language By engaging in modeling and answering guiding questions through schema building, students can more easily create their own written compositions based on provided ideas and outlines.
Scaffolding activities effectively enhance students' communicative competence, making the English 10 textbook a valuable resource for both language learning and teaching Given these advantages, it is evident that this textbook is well-suited to support students and educators alike.
To achieve effective learning outcomes, teachers effectively utilized various scaffolding tools during their writing lessons The research highlighted that questioning and feedback were the most frequently employed strategies, while modeling and explaining were used less often This aligns with the findings of Tharp & Gallimore (1988), which identified questioning as a crucial educational tool that enhances students' cognitive development.
Questions serve the purpose of accommodating students’ comprehension and comprehensibility in language lessons (Donato, 1994; McCormick, 1997; Swain,
Questioning serves as an effective elicitation technique that enhances shared cognitive functioning among students within social task contexts (McCormick, 1997; Resnick, Levine, & Teasley, 1991) Participants in this study indicated that they employed questions not only to clarify task requirements but also to stimulate cognitive thinking by prompting students to articulate their reasoning behind the use of scaffolding This approach distinguishes scaffolding from general support, as it provides targeted assistance that encourages students to operate at the edge of their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Hammond & Gibbons, 2005, p.25) Additionally, feedback emerged as a significant type of scaffolding, corroborated by findings in Hadzic (2016).
Specifically, instant oral feedback such as praise was used most of the time by three teachers in three observed writing lessons However, Poindexter (2012) and Hadzic
In 2016, it was highlighted that generic praise like "yes," "ok," and "good" can be misleading, as these comments fail to specify the areas where students excel To enhance student learning, teachers should provide more detailed feedback that clearly identifies accomplishments and areas for improvement.
On the other hand, other scaffolding means namely modelling and explaining were not fully exploited The finding about modelling is in line with Razgulina-Lytsy
Modeling can effectively showcase appropriate expressions in language teaching, as noted by 2012 researchers In the current study, teachers demonstrated sample products for students to emulate However, Brophy (1999) contended that focusing solely on the final product rather than the learning strategies is detrimental The English 10 textbook predominantly features product-based lessons, highlighting a need for more process-oriented approaches Incorporating these strategies is essential for developing advanced writing skills, as suggested by Badger and White (2000) Ultimately, a balanced use of both methods, tailored to specific contexts, is recommended (Brookes & Grundy, 1990).
In the current study, teachers effectively utilized the students' first language (L1) to enhance comprehension of challenging concepts, new vocabulary, and instructions This approach also supported students in expressing themselves when they lacked the necessary English terminology, as highlighted in previous research (Tang, 2002; Machaal, 2012; Cook).
Research indicates that the use of the first language (L1) is effective in supporting language learning by serving various functions, such as clarifying task requirements (Tang, 2002; Machaal, 2012), elucidating word meanings (Tang, 2002), and unpacking complex concepts (Bakar & Ismail, 2009) Cook (2001) suggests that utilizing L1 as a resource in the classroom can enhance EFL teaching and learning Additionally, alternating between L1 and L2 during instruction is recommended, as some educators may feel unprepared to convey their meanings solely in L2 (Harbord, 1992, p.350).
Teachers primarily relied on verbal cues to stimulate student thinking, with visual hints such as pictures or drawings being underutilized To enhance engagement and understanding, it is recommended to incorporate more visual illustrations in the teaching process.
81 should be put into use to promote learners' information processing (Cuevas et al.,
2002, as cited in Kidwai et al., 2004)
The study identifies several reasons why teachers employ scaffolding in writing lessons, highlighting common factors such as learners’ academic backgrounds, cognitive development, and motivation, which align with previous research by Baralt (2013), Fenner (2018), Littlewood & Yu (2009), and Bruner (1981) Additionally, individual factors like learners’ familiarity with the lesson topic, the nature of instructional tasks, and learners’ specific demands have been noted by scholars including Coady (1993), De Bot, Paribakht, & Wesche (1997), and Baralt (2013) It is recommended that teachers consider these elements when implementing scaffolding strategies in their teaching practices.
“provide or activate the learners’ scripts regarding the topic when necessary so that it can facilitate both incidental vocabulary learning and comprehension process.” (Varol, 2017, p.97)
Noise control, effective time management, and a balanced workload are often overlooked factors in the decision to use scaffolding tools in team settings Research by Ando & Nakane (1975) and Koszary (1978) highlights that noise significantly impacts student performance, particularly during complex tasks Furthermore, studies by Wheldall & Merrett reinforce the importance of these elements in enhancing learning outcomes.