Background
Grammar has always been the dominant focus of attention in course books and syllabuses concerning language learning because
Effective communication relies on a structured framework, including grammar and shared assumptions about language, as well as the participants' willingness to collaborate in creating meaning.
In the same vein, grammatical structures have drawn the attention of Vietnamese adult learners of English in general and Vietnamese high school students in particular
In Vietnamese high schools, grammar lessons are often delivered through traditional methods that focus on memorizing grammatical points, structures, and rules within limited class time This approach emphasizes individual word meanings rather than their relationships within grammatical structures, leading to difficulties for students in comprehending and using these structures effectively Consequently, many high school students struggle to convey their intended messages accurately and efficiently, making grammar a persistent challenge in their language learning journey.
Students at Gia Dinh High School face challenges in grasping grammar concepts, particularly with prepositional phrases that include "to" or "for."
For example, the students are explicitly taught that ditransitive verbs are verbs that require two noun phrases (abbreviated to NPs) as its complementation
In sentence structure, the direct object (dO) and the indirect object (iO) play crucial roles, with the iO typically representing a person and positioned before the dO For instance, in the construction of sentences, the iO comes first, followed by the dO, illustrating their relationship and function within the sentence.
(1)a He gave his wife a camera for Christmas
S + V + iO + dO. b I wish you a Merry Christmas [Swan]
Following the dO, the iO must be in the form of a prepositional phrase
(abbreviated to PP) beginning with to or for, illustrated by the following structure and its examples:
(2)a Mother bought the ice-cream for you, not for me b I handed my licence to the policeman [Swan]
Students are encouraged to memorize various ditransitive verbs that require the preposition "for," including buy, book, keep, fetch, reserve, and save Additionally, they should learn verbs that take the preposition "to," such as give, hand, offer, send, show, teach, and pass This practice helps differentiate between for-iO and to-iO structures, as illustrated in examples (3-4)a-b.
(3)a I’ll find Ann a job b I’ll find a job for Ann (not to)
(4)a I gave Tom the book b I gave the book to Tom (not for) [Thomson & Martinet]
The explanation of ditransitive verb structures leads to significant challenges for students Despite their efforts to memorize the material, they struggle to apply these structures correctly in written exams and everyday conversations, particularly when faced with unfamiliar verbs or similar-looking structures that have different meanings Additionally, students are often confused about which preposition to use—"to" or "for"—and remain unclear about why certain sentences allow for alternative prepositional structures.
Students often struggle to differentiate between verbs that can take either the preposition "to" or "for," leading to confusion over the implied meanings of the "to-iO" structure and the "for-iO" structure This ambiguity increases the risk of using these two structures interchangeably, which can result in misunderstandings in their communication.
(5)a Karen wrote a letter to her boyfriend b Karen wrote a letter for her boyfriend [Collins]
Students often find it challenging to understand the classification of certain verbs, such as "wish," "give," and "explain," as ditransitive verbs According to Swan (1995), these verbs do not fit into both structures typically associated with ditransitive verbs, leading to common misuse in sentences.
(6)a He wished me a happy birthday b *He wished a happy birthday to me [Downing & Locke]
(7)a He gave the door a push b *He gave a push to the door [Downing & Locke]
(8)a I’d like him to explain his decision to us b *I’d like him to explain us his decision [Swan]
The students seem stranded on the proverbial plateau when they encounter multiple choice question tests (abbreviated to MCQ tests) related to prepositional phrases containing to or for as in (9)a-d:
The waiter brought cocktails for the guests.
Quite often, they cannot distinguish the implied meanings conveyed in these four choices and thus, do not know which choices amongst a-d are correct for the question
A recent survey conducted by TPF 1 FPT at Gia Dinh High School revealed that students have never received explanations regarding specific grammatical issues As a result, they perceive these issues as exceptional cases in English that should simply be memorized and accepted.
PT The result of which will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4 of the thesis
High school students often learn descriptive grammar that focuses on the arbitrary description of English clauses without explaining their usage This approach prioritizes form over the crucial connection between form and meaning, which hinders students' understanding of grammar and their ability to communicate effectively in English.
Language functions as a system of meanings, with grammatical forms playing a crucial role in conveying these meanings (Halliday, 1994) To enhance students' understanding of both spoken and written communication, teachers must clarify the meanings and uses of various grammatical structures From a functionalist perspective, the for-iO and to-iO structures serve distinct purposes: the former indicates a Beneficiary in a material process, while the latter denotes a Recipient involved in transferring goods or information (Downing & Locke, 1995) For instance, "Karen wrote a letter for her boyfriend" suggests that Karen wrote the letter on behalf of her boyfriend, whereas "Karen wrote a letter to her boyfriend" indicates that the letter is intended for him to read (Collins, 1990) Therefore, adopting a functional approach in teaching English declarative clauses that include to- or for-prepositional phrases is essential for high school students.
Statement of purpose
This MA thesis explores English declarative clauses that include to- or for- prepositional phrases from both descriptive and functional viewpoints Additionally, it advocates for the integration of these grammatical approaches in teaching these declarative structures to Vietnamese high school students, aiming to enhance their understanding and acquisition of the clauses.
Significance of the study
High school English grammar instruction has largely overlooked the meanings of grammatical structures and their appropriate usage It remains a common belief that grammar and semantics function as distinct systems, each with its own set of units and relationships.
The significance of grammar in effective communication remains underappreciated, leading to persistent challenges for high school students One such challenge involves understanding English declaratives that include to- or for-prepositional phrases, which are often perceived as a "myth" in their learning process.
This article challenges the common misconceptions surrounding English declaratives with to- or for-prepositional phrases, advocating for a fresh approach to grammar instruction for high school students in Vietnam By integrating both descriptive and functional perspectives, it aims to enhance understanding and teaching methods in the classroom.
Understanding the meaning and usage of grammatical structures empowers high school students to enhance their critical thinking skills while alleviating the pressure of memorization and rote learning Consequently, this knowledge not only prepares them for success in mid-term and end-of-term exams that emphasize grammar but also enables them to communicate effectively and naturally in English.
Limitations
Due to the constraints of time and resources, the research has been done only on English declaratives, i.e neither interrogatives nor imperatives are within its scope
The study investigates the use of declaratives with to- or for-prepositional phrases in monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs, while excluding phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs Conducted over nine months from January to October 2008, the research analyzes these clauses from both descriptive and functional viewpoints The goal is to identify challenges faced by high school students in understanding these structures and to propose theoretical insights and practical solutions to address the identified issues.
This thesis focuses on the teaching of English declarative clauses that include to- or for-prepositional phrases with monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs specifically for Vietnamese high school students Due to the descriptive and exploratory nature of the study, the generalizations and recommendations will be limited to this area, excluding other aspects from discussion.
Delimitations
This M.A thesis investigates issues associated with English declarative sentences that include a to- or for-prepositional phrase, specifically focusing on monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs These common clauses serve as the foundation for understanding the complexities of English syntax.
Out of 3,169 students at Gia Dinh High School, 11th-grade English majors are focusing on mastering various grammatical structures The findings from this study are expected to provide valuable recommendations that can enhance both the teaching and learning of grammar, specifically tailored for Vietnamese high school students.
Methodology
This study employs qualitative methods to explore English declaratives featuring to- or for-prepositional phrases associated with monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs It includes a comprehensive review of relevant documents, a detailed analysis from both descriptive and functional viewpoints, and an evaluation of the effectiveness of integrating descriptive and functional grammar in teaching grammatical structures, particularly focusing on English declaratives within the institution.
This M.A thesis utilizes various quantitative methods to achieve several objectives: it catalogs potential frames for English declaratives that include to- or for-prepositional phrases with monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs, enumerates and sources examples for each frame, identifies challenges faced by student subjects when dealing with these English declaratives, and proposes teaching and learning implications based on the findings.
This study employs a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods to assess the challenges faced by 131 English-major students in grades 10 and 11 at Gia Dinh High School when dealing with English declaratives that include to- or for-prepositional phrases The quantitative analysis involves categorizing and numbering problems related to these clauses, which are evaluated through a diagnostic test and an achievement test consisting of four quizzes, formatted as both essay and multiple-choice exams over a four-month period The students' scores from these assessments are compared between pre-test and post-test phases to measure improvement Qualitatively, the analysis includes a synthesis of students' difficulties as reflected in their diagnostic test results and questionnaire responses, presented through both close-ended and open-ended questions in the quizzes The discussion highlights the significant differences in scores between the pre-test and post-test phases, illustrating the students' progress in mastering English declaratives with to- or for-prepositional phrases from both descriptive and functional perspectives.
Employing a combination of qualitative and quantitative data collection methods enables triangulation in data analysis, leading to a thorough examination of the relevant clauses This approach fosters a clear understanding of the challenges encountered by student subjects when addressing these clauses and provides insightful teaching implications derived from the findings.
The M.A thesis presents a descriptive, analytic, and statistical study that examines English declaratives featuring to- or for-prepositional phrases with monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs It identifies the challenges faced by students in understanding these clauses and explores potential solutions to enhance their comprehension The study advocates for teaching these grammatical structures based on both descriptive and functional grammar approaches to all students at Gia Dinh High School, including those majoring in English.
Organization of the thesis
This M.A thesis consists of the following chapters:
- Introduction provides the background for the study done for the M.A thesis
Chapter 1 provides a comprehensive overview of English declaratives featuring to- or for- prepositional phrases with monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs It discusses various teaching methodologies commonly used to instruct high school students on these clauses Additionally, the chapter analyzes the challenges encountered by 10th and 11th grade English majors at Gia Dinh High School when engaging with these grammatical structures.
- Chapter 2 gives potential semantic roles conveyed by English declaratives containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase from functional point of view
- Chapter 3 describes the methodology used in the study
- Chapter 4 presents the results of the study and discusses the findings from its sources of data
- Chapter 5 provides suggestions and teaching implications of the clauses in question to Vietnamese high school students based on descriptive grammar as well as functional grammar
- Conclusion summarizes the study done for this M.A thesis.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Linguistic notions
Descriptive grammar encompasses the linguistic competence of a language, including its discrete sounds, sound patterns, basic units of meaning, and sentence formation rules It involves an internalized and unconscious set of rules that guide our communication To grasp the essence of a language, one must comprehend these rules Ultimately, descriptive grammar aims to articulate the knowledge that native speakers possess about their language, focusing on its forms and structures.
PT Linguistically called “phonemes” [Buchanan, 1963: 90; Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 214; [Roach, 1991: 38]
Grammar serves a functional role by explaining how language is utilized A functional grammar analyzes wording based on its meaning and its role within the broader linguistic system.
Functional grammarians, such as Halliday (1994) and Butt et al (2000), emphasize a functional approach to grammar that focuses on the practical use of language rather than theoretical constructs This perspective highlights how language varies based on user context and specific functions, while also exploring the intricate relationship between language and its cultural environment.
The functional approach to grammar examines structures as configurations of functions, offering insights into how form relates to meaning and how meaning connects to context.
Clauses are fundamental grammatical structures that typically consist of a noun phrase (NP) serving as the subject and a verb phrase that functions as the predicate For instance, in the clause "Clara delayed her graduation," "Clara" acts as the subject while "delayed her graduation" is the verb phrase English clauses can be categorized into several types, including finite and non-finite clauses, as well as independent and dependent (or subordinate and embedded) clauses.
1.1.2.1.1 Finite clauses vs non-finite clauses
Finite clauses are distinct from non-finite clauses based on the verb form used When a speaker intends to convey tense, person, or number, they select a finite verb form, such as "is," "eats," "locked," or "went," resulting in what is termed a finite clause.
By contrast, “a non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite (tenseless) verb group Main clauses are always finite, so non-finite clauses can only be subordinate” [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 250]:
(13) For Sandra TO DELAY her graduation is unnecessary
(14) I let him DO it by himself
(15) The light HAVING GONE out, we lighted candles
1.1.2.1.2 Independent clauses vs dependent clauses
Linguists give definitions of independent clauses from their own perspectives:
“A clause that can stand alone as a sentence is called a main clause or sometimes an independent clause.” [Jacobs, 1995: 65]
An independent clause “does not depend on another clause, although it may be linked to another independent clause, or to a dependent clause.” [Richards et al, 1987: 77]
“An independent clause functions independently of other messages…it is always Finite; that is, it contains a Subject and a verbal group with a Finite element.” [Butt et al, 2000: 166]
Traditional term of independent clause is “simple sentence.” [Downing & Locke, 1995: 4]
Below are some examples of independent clauses, being marked (16-17):
(16) Sharon’s car HAD BROKEN down
(17) Sharon’s car HAD BROKEN down, and this ASTONISHED the mechanic
In the same vein, various definitions of dependent clauses are given:
“Dependent clauses do not stand on their own as sentences.” [Jacobs, 1995: 65]
A dependent clause is a grammatical unit that cannot stand alone and must be paired with an independent clause to create a complete sentence It relies on the main clause for its meaning and is subordinate to it.
“Dependent clauses function to provide circumstantial information about other clauses and projections from verbal and mental process.” [Butt et al, 2000:
Examples of independent clauses are given in (18-19):
(18) The police REPORTED that Sharon’s car HAD BROKEN down
(19) They MISSED the flight because Sharon’s car HAD BROKEN down
1.1.2.1.3 Embedded clauses vs subordinate clauses
Of significance is the distinction between embedded and subordinate clauses:
Omitting embedded clauses from a sentence typically results in ungrammaticality, as these clauses serve as essential arguments for higher predicates, often functioning as the subjects or objects of their parent clauses When a finite sentence loses its subject or object, it becomes ungrammatical, highlighting the necessity of embedded clauses for maintaining grammatical integrity In contrast, subordinate clauses do not function as arguments of a predicate and are not utilized as subjects or objects.
Embedded clauses serve as participants within the clause structure or as components of a nominal group in a prepositional phrase In contrast, many subordinate clauses act as adjuncts that can be omitted without rendering the sentence ungrammatical.
Respectively shown as typical examples of embedded and subordinate clauses are (20-21):
(20) That Sharon’s car HAD BROKEN down ASTONISHED the mechanic
(21) She LOCKED the door so as TO PREVENT any more intrusions
Clauses are formed by three distinct structures that originate from different functional components: the ideational component, which represents processes in human experience; the interpersonal component, which facilitates the exchange of information, goods, or services between the speaker and listener; and the textual component, which conveys a specific message or quantum of information.
Clauses convey our experiences of the world, encompassing both external events and internal sensations They highlight the dynamic nature of our existence through processes such as doing, sensing, and being These processes form the core components of English clauses, which include material, mental, relational, behavioral, verbal, and existential processes However, this discussion will focus specifically on material and verbal processes.
In linguistic structures, Processes are linked to Participants, which can be represented by nominal groups or prepositional phrases Additionally, Circumstances are conveyed through adverbial groups, prepositional phrases, or nominal groups This framework highlights the interconnected roles of these elements in sentence construction.
(22) The lion CAUGHT the tourist.
Participant: ACTOR Process: MATERIAL Participant: GOAL
(23) She always PRAISED him to her friends
Participant: SAYER Process: VERBAL Participant: TARGET Participant: RECEIVER
(24) And Jill CAME TUMBLING after
Participant: ACTOR Process: MATERIAL Circumstance: TEMPORAL
(25) He TOOK the children to the circus
Participant: ACTOR Process: MATERIAL Participant: PHENOMENON Circumstance: PLACE
(26) The old woman COMPLAINED all night
Participant: SAYER Process: VERBAL Circumstance: EXTENT IN TIME
Clauses serve three primary speech functions: declarative, interrogative, and imperative The grammatical system that conveys these functions is based on mood types In English, these moods are indicated by the presence or absence of specific grammatical structures.
The article discusses the relationship between the subject and the Finite Element TPF 3 FPT, highlighting the specific order of their occurrence According to Downing and Locke (1995: 164), the focus of the thesis is limited to declarative clauses, specifically TPF 4 FPT.
The declarative is an independent clause in indicative mood TPF 5 FPT to express a statement and accompanied by falling intonation [Halliday, 1994; Downing & Locke, 1995]:
(27) Bears EAT honey Bears DON’T EAT honey [Halliday]
(28) Janice WILL GIVE Chris the address tomorrow [Downing & Locke]
A declarative typically begins with the Subject [Downing & Locke, 1995: 6] and the distribution of elements in the clause tends to follow the principle of end- weight TPF 6 FPT [Biber et al, 1999: 898]
In natural language use, the order of clause elements is speaker-selected: whichever element can be at initial position [Downing & Locke, 1995: 6]
In a typical declarative sentence, the Theme is unmarked when it aligns with the Subject, while it becomes marked when speakers select other elements of the clause as the starting point of the message, as noted by Halliday (1994).
(29) Janice [Unmarked Theme] WILL GIVE Chris the address tomorrow
(30) The address [Marked Theme] Janice WILL GIVE Chris tomorrow
(31) Tomorrow [Marked Theme] Chris WILL BE GIVEN the address (by Janice)
Pedagogical notions
Language learning, often referred to as explicit learning, involves the formal study of language rules This conscious process requires learners to focus on language forms, understand the underlying rules, and articulate their knowledge effectively.
Error correction is crucial in language learning, as it emphasizes the accuracy of forms and structures This focus can hinder learners' fluency, causing them to struggle when speaking, as they often self-correct during their conversations based on the rules they have learned.
According to Krashen (1987), conscious learning has a limited impact on language performance, serving primarily as a monitor that reviews and corrects the output generated by the acquired language system This monitoring process occurs only when learners have adequate time to select and implement learned rules, are attentive to the correctness of their output, and possess knowledge of the relevant rules.
Language acquisition is an intuitive learning process that involves the unconscious development of language proficiency This naturalistic approach emphasizes understanding and using language for meaningful communication, allowing individuals to construct the system of a language effectively.
Acquirers prioritize the truth value of messages and fluency in communication, with surface structures having minimal impact on their output In language acquisition, grammatical structures are learned in a predictable order, with certain rules being acquired earlier than others The output produced by acquirers indirectly influences their language learning, as actual speaking affects both the quantity and quality of input directed towards them.
PT For more information about the predictable or “natural” order, see Principles and Practice in Second
1.2.3 The question of internalization TPF 15 FPT
Krashen (1987) distinguishes between subconscious acquisition and conscious learning, asserting that learned language cannot integrate into the acquired language store, and that learning does not directly facilitate acquisition Conversely, methodologists like Harmer (1991) and McLaughlin (1990) argue that it is empirically challenging to differentiate between conscious and unconscious processes or to determine whether an individual has learned or acquired specific language elements.
Gregg (1984) critiques Krashen's assertion regarding the lack of evidence, suggesting that if unconscious knowledge can be made conscious, it stands to reason that conscious knowledge can also become unconscious.
About this matter, Brown [2000: 279, 280] points out:
Language learning is a multifaceted process where different levels of learning and acquisition can be advantageous, tailored to the individual learner's styles and strategies Effective instruction, including conscious rule learning and form-focused teaching, can significantly enhance the development of successful communicative competence.
Research by Fromkin et al (1999) suggests that language acquisition occurs effectively when learners receive comprehensible input in low-anxiety environments, free from defensiveness.
PT Internalization is a process in which learning becomes acquisition [Krashen, 1987: 81, 84]
The study reported in the MA thesis reveals a contrasting perspective, suggesting that while learning may not enable students to acquire a language like native speakers, it does create a supportive environment for language learning When students receive meaningful language input, they tend to use it unconsciously, indicating that learning can indeed facilitate language acquisition to some extent.
Based on my research and personal experiences in learning and teaching English, I align with the perspectives of Gregg (1984) and Brown (2000) that conscious knowledge can transition into unconscious competence This viewpoint is particularly positive and encouraging for the learning environment in Vietnam.
"Comprehensible input," also known as "roughly-tuned input," is defined as the language exposure that learners receive, which includes structures slightly beyond their current understanding This approach allows learners to grasp the majority of the content while still facing challenges that promote their linguistic progress.
Teaching methodology
1.3.1 The teaching of English grammar in the history of language teaching methodologies
The Grammar-Translation Method focuses on teaching grammar deductively in the students' native language, emphasizing detailed explanations of grammatical rules and forms This approach encourages students to memorize these intricacies and apply the syntactic rules to various examples.
The Direct Method and Audio-Lingual Method emphasize grammar instruction differently than the Grammar-Translation Method, placing less importance on explicit grammatical rules Instead, grammar is taught inductively through examples presented in the target language, with minimal analysis of rules Structures are introduced sequentially using contrastive analysis and taught individually, while repetitive drills are employed to reinforce structural patterns.
In Silent Way Method, explicit grammar rules are not supplied Sentence structures are perceived by students through situations set up by the teachers [Larsen-
Freeman, 1986: 62-66] Students’ output is helped with minimal corrective feedback from the teacher [Brown, 2001: 106]
In Suggestopedia, grammar is addressed in a minimal yet explicit manner, with grammatical structures showcased on posters displayed around the classroom These posters are regularly updated every few weeks to enhance students' unconscious perception and absorption of the material.
Community Language Learning (CLL) does not prioritize grammar; instead, grammatical structures emerge from the teacher's transcription of student conversations These structures are then analyzed in the students' native language with the teacher's assistance.
PT Deductive approach is the one in which learners are given rules and then apply these rules to exercises or when they use the language [Richards et al, 1985: 73]
The PT Inductive approach emphasizes learning through examples, allowing students to derive generalizations independently without being presented with explicit grammatical rules.
Total Physical Response (TPR) prioritizes action over grammar, teaching grammatical concepts inductively This method primarily focuses on the structures of imperatives and interrogatives, utilizing action-based drills to engage students effectively.
In Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), grammar is taught to enable learners to express their intended meanings effectively Instruction can be approached either deductively or inductively, with an emphasis on the meanings and functions of grammatical forms within specific contexts and the roles of conversation partners As a result, the explicit presentation and discussion of grammatical rules receive less focus in this teaching method.
Historically, language teaching methodologies have highlighted that while grammar rules are explained to learners, many struggle to apply their knowledge effectively in communication.
Learners can achieve fluency in grammatical patterns through analogy-based practice, yet they may struggle to apply these structures appropriately in real-world communication Conversely, while students are given chances to use English in authentic contexts, they often lack the ability to articulate the grammatical rules of the language.
1.3.2 Common ways of teaching English grammatical structures
Grammar plays a crucial role not only in the correct combination of language units but also in shaping their meaning (Ur, 1996) Focusing solely on grammatical accuracy can hinder learners from engaging in authentic discourse Therefore, grammar should be taught as a tool for enhancing language mastery rather than as a final goal It is essential for learners to understand how to convey meaning in real contexts As highlighted by Ur (1996), incorporating both form-focused and meaning-focused practice activities helps students transition from accuracy to fluency, empowering them to produce language independently and correctly.
Awareness: learners are given some kind of discourse, encounter the learned structures and do a task that focuses their attention on its form and/or meaning
Controlled drills involve learners practicing specific models through methods such as choral repetition, individual repetition, and cue-response drills During these activities, correction is emphasized, utilizing techniques like self-correction, echoing, questioning, and peer or teacher feedback to enhance learning outcomes.
Meaningful drills: the responses are very controlled, but learners can make a limited choice of vocabulary
Guided, meaningful practice: learners form sentences of their own according to a set pattern, but exactly what vocabulary they use is up to them
Free sentence composition allows learners to create responses based on visual or situational cues, encouraging them to utilize specific structures This approach can involve discussions or written tasks where learners must incorporate examples of the targeted structure into their discourse.
Free discourse allows learners to engage in sentence composition without specific structural guidance, encouraging natural use of language In this context, the task is designed to facilitate the organic emergence of structured sentences, promoting creativity and fluency in communication.
Doff (1988) emphasizes the significance of demonstrating the meaning, usage, and formation of a structure to enable students to create their own sentences To achieve this, he proposes various activities designed to effectively present the structure to learners.
Showing the meaning of a structure visually, using things the students can see such as objects, the classroom, ourselves, pictures
Showing the meaning of a structure through a situation: thinking of a situation from outside the class either real or imaginary, in which the structure could naturally be used
Giving a clear model and asking students to listen to and repeat
Writing the structure clearly on the board
Giving simple explanation of the structure
Doff (1988) categorizes practice activities into two types: mechanical and meaningful practices Unlike Ur (1996), Doff defines mechanical practice as a controlled exercise where students produce the correct forms without comprehending the meaning of the structures or what they are articulating.
Repetition drills: students do nothing themselves but repeat after the teacher
Substitution drills: students have to fit in the structure
Single word prompts: students have to add words besides these prompts to form the structure
Picture prompts: based on the picture, students have to think of the whole sentence using the structure
Free substitution: students have to invent a sentence
Prior researches on the teaching of English grammar in Vietnam
Research on grammar teaching among Vietnamese students has highlighted significant challenges faced by educators in implementing the Communicative approach Studies by Nguyễn Thị Huệ (2000) and Nguyễn Liên Hương (2005) identified that the presentation of grammatical structures and rules was a primary obstacle To address this, Nguyễn Thị Huệ proposed an interactive approach tailored to the annual curriculum, offering specific classroom activities aimed at teaching grammar to primary pupils in Tra Vinh Province Similarly, Nguyễn Liên Hương emphasized the need for effective strategies to enhance grammar instruction.
In 2005, researchers proposed effective methods for presenting and practicing new grammatical rules in a communicative manner, specifically tailored for students at Nong Lam University They advocated for the Communicative Approach to grammar instruction, recommending the use of engaging tools such as games, songs, realia, and visual aids to illustrate grammatical concepts Their goal was to create an exciting and enjoyable learning environment in the classroom.
Phạm Thị Kim Yến (2002) examined the challenges Vietnamese learners encounter with English articles at Nguyễn Gia Thiều secondary school, emphasizing the need for contextual explanations of the semantic and syntactic roles of articles Despite this, her study's pedagogical recommendations did not include such explanations for students Instead, the suggested activities primarily focused on substitution drills, where students replaced words in specific structures based on images or hypothetical scenarios.
Huỳnh Thị Phương Thảo (2006) examined the effectiveness of using realia in teaching basic grammatical concepts, such as prepositions and imperative forms, to young learners through the Let’s Go series She found that realia serves as a valuable visual aid to demonstrate simple structures and foster an engaging learning environment However, she noted that realia has limitations, as it does not effectively help students discern differences between structures or grasp the meanings of abstract concepts.
Nguyễn Quang Tiến (2005) conducted research on the impact of semantic properties and syntactic structures in Vietnamese on learners' use of English prepositions His findings revealed that differences in the semantics and structures of English verb phrases with prepositions compared to Vietnamese resulted in students misusing prepositions in English communication Tiến's study focused on the lexical meanings of prepositions in isolation from other elements and their syntactic functions in Vietnamese, drawing comparisons with English For instance, he identified the English equivalent of Vietnamese prepositions such as "để" and "đặng" as "for" and provided English translations for various Vietnamese sentences to illustrate these differences.
Various studies have sought solutions to the challenges Vietnamese students face in mastering English grammar, influenced by factors such as age, personality, native language, unengaging lesson presentations, and ineffective teaching methods Despite these efforts, there has been a lack of focus on the significant difficulties students encounter in learning and applying grammar for communication, as they often resort to memorizing numerous grammatical structures without a clear understanding of their practical use in context.
Effective language acquisition hinges on learners' understanding of the conveyed message; without this comprehension, the teaching and learning of grammar will inevitably fail, regardless of how engagingly the grammatical structures are presented Therefore, neglecting the meanings of these structures prevents students from using grammar effectively as a tool for communication.
Summary
This chapter provides an overview of English declaratives featuring to- or for-prepositional phrases with monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs, analyzed through descriptive and functional grammar perspectives It also includes a concise review of effective teaching methodologies for English grammar, common instructional approaches for teaching grammatical structures, and previous research on English grammar education in Vietnam.
POTENTIAL ROLES OF THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
Potential roles of the to-prepositional phrase in English declaratives
In trivalent TPF 24 FPT material process clauses, the verb signifies the transfer of goods between individuals, with the to-prepositional phrase acting as the Indirect Object (iO) and functionally representing the Recipient.
Syntactic functions refer to the grammatical roles that prepositional phrases play in relation to other elements within a clause, including adverbs, prepositional objects, and predicator complements (Downing & Locke, 1995: 587ff).
PT “Semantic roles” are the meanings of the prepositional phrase in the clause, such as Beneficiary, Recipient, etc [Downing & Locke, 1995: 591ff]
The classification of processes in language is determined by the number of participants involved, leading to terms such as "monovalent process" for one participant, "bivalent process" for two participants, and "trivalent process" for three participants (Downing & Locke, 1995) In this thesis, these terms will be utilized for clarity and conciseness Additionally, the term "PP-Recipient" refers to the entity that receives or is transferred goods (Halliday, 1994; Downing & Locke, 1995).
In the context of clauses, the PP-Recipient is accompanied by the Actor and the Goal The Actor, referred to as Subject (S), is the entity performing the action, which can be either animate or inanimate Meanwhile, the Goal, known as the Direct Object (dO), represents the goods or services targeted by the action.
The PP-Recipient with its co-participants in trivalent material process clauses is shown in Frame 1 and exemplified by 79(a-j):
Predicate(VP) Sentence pattern S(NP)
Ditransitive Verb Group dO(NP) iO(PP)
Semantic roles Actor TRIVALENT MATERIAL PROCESS: TRANSFERRING Goal Recipient
I handed the pile of letters to Jennifer, and we are going to advance the money to you My friends often send Christmas cards to their neighbors, while he showed his driving license to the policeman The clerk would email the documents to us, and he expected me to bring everything to him in bed Locusta gave a dose of poison to Claudius, and she asked him if he gave some water to the philodendron The classical porch lends an air of distinction to the house, and I’ll give some sweets to the children.
The PP-Recipient typically appears in material process clauses, where the Goal signifies the "goods." While this participant is usually [+animate] and often [+human], it can occasionally be [+inanimate] Additionally, the PP-Recipient can be associated with either beneficial or unbeneficial processes, highlighting its versatile role in various contexts.
2.1.1.1 The Recipient is also treated in functional grammar as a kind of direct participant that can also enter into the clause directly as an NP i.e without the preposition to
[Halliday, 1994: 155,167] In this case, the NP -Recipient is placed before dO [Downing & Locke, 1995: 85ff], as shown in Frame 2 :
Predicate(VP) Sentence pattern S(NP)
Ditransitive Verb Group iO(NP) dO(NP)
Semantic roles Actor TRIVALENT MATERIAL PROCESS: TRANSFERRING Recipient Goal
Realized by an NP , the NP -Recipient occurs in English declaratives marked 79(a’-j’) without the preposition to :
I handed Jennifer the pile of letters, while we are going to advance you the money My friends often send Christmas cards to their neighbors, and he showed the policeman his driving license The clerk would email us the documents, and he expected me to bring him everything in bed Locusta gave Claudius a dose of poison, and she asked him if he gave the philodendron some water The classical porch lends the house an air of distinction, and I’ll give the children some sweets.
Recipient indirect objects, whether presented as noun phrases (NP) or in the form of a to-prepositional phrase, can be transformed into subjects in passive clauses This transformation occurs when the active subject, or the actor of the process, is either unknown or deemed unimportant within the context of the discourse.
Jennifer was handed a pile of letters, while money is going to be advanced to you My friends' neighbors often receive Christmas cards The policeman was shown his driving license, and we would be emailed the documents He expected to be brought everything in bed Claudius was given a dose of poison by Locusta, and she inquired if the philodendron had been given water The house is lent an air of distinction by the classical porch, and the children will be given some sweets.
2.1.1.2 As far as descriptive grammar is concerned, the NP- Indirect Object in 79(a’-j’) correspond to the PP- Indirect Object in a position following Direct Object in 79(a-j) [Swan, 1995; Roberts-Burton, 1997; Thomson & Martinet, 1998; Stageberg &
Oaks, 2000] As for functional grammar, the speaker/writer makes a choice of using the to -prepositional phrase in Frame 1 when he/she has an intention of placing the PP -
In the context of communication, the Recipient plays a crucial role in indicating "late news," as highlighted by Halliday (1994) The PP-Recipient specifically denotes the new and significant information presented in the message However, this particular choice is not applicable to Frame 2.
Table 1 by Halliday [1994: 168] highlights the non-prominent and prominent positions in English declaratives, respectively denoted by an NP and its corresponding form, the to-prepositional phrase :
I HANDED Jennifer the pile of letters I HANDED the pile of letters to Jennifer
My friends often SEND their neighbors Christmas cards
Christmas cards to their neighbors
He SENT his aunt flowers He SENT flowers to his aunt
U Table 1 U : Association of to -prepositional phrase with textual prominence
2.1.1.3 Not all trivalent material process clauses of transferring goods from one person to another can be expressed in either of the two corresponding frames —
In some cases, the Recipient can only (or preferably) enter into the clause in
Frame 1 , i.e.in form of the to -prepositional phrase following the Goal:
• When the Goal is realized by a pronoun and/or when the NP inside the prepositional phrase that realizes the Recipient is internally complex, as in 80(a-h):
He handed the bottle to the little boy, while we sent it to George The lesser then purchased the asset and leased it to the lessee Additionally, Shevardnadze produced the letter and handed it to the President.
Reagan set the unopened letter on the table next to his chair The Express offered a $100 reward to any reader who could summarize Bal's statements He had taught English to the youth of Ceylon and India Meanwhile, the military government is maintaining its refusal to comply with demands.
TO TRANSFER power to a democratically elected civilian government h The drama school OFFERS places to students who can show talent [Longman]
“A pronoun is hardly ever newsworthy, since it refers to something that has gone before” [Halliday, 1994: 209], so if the Goal is realized by the pronoun it as in
80(a-d), it is virtually certain that the Goal will be under focus, compared with the
PP -Recipient — to the little boy, to George, to the lessee or to the President
In English discourse, the principle of end-weight suggests that longer and more complex elements should be positioned towards the end of a clause Consequently, it feels unnatural when a lengthy noun phrase, such as "the little boy" or "any reader who could relate to what Bal had said," precedes a simpler noun phrase like "it" or "$100." This structural preference is evident in examples where complex recipients are placed before minimal goals, leading to awkwardness in communication.
He took the bottle and gave it to the little boy We sent it to George The lesser purchases the asset and leases it to the lessee When Shevardnadze handed the letter to the President, Reagan placed it unopened on the table beside his chair The Express offered $100 to any reader who could relate what Bal had said He had taught all the youth of Ceylon and India English The military government is refusing.
TO TRANSFER a democratically elected civilian government power h’ * The drama school OFFERS students who can show talent places
• When the PP-Recipient , often [+inanimate], has some features of
Circumstance TPF 25 FPT in material process clauses, as in 81(a-h) and thus, cannot be in form of an NP preceding the Goal, as in 81(a’-h’):
Potential roles of the for-prepositional phrase in English declaratives
In trivalent material process clauses where the sense of the verb is
“benefitting”, the for- prepositional phrase , descriptively identified as an iO , functionally takes the role of the Beneficiary (thus also named the PP -Beneficiary ) The
Beneficiary is the one that benefits from the process or the one that services are done for [Halliday, 1994; Downing & Locke, 1995]
In material process clauses, the Beneficiary is accompanied by two key participants: the Actor and the Goal The Actor, also known as the Subject, is the entity that performs the action, while the Goal, referred to as the Direct Object in descriptive grammar, is the participant that is affected or created by the action.
The PP-Beneficiary with its co-participants in trivalent material process clauses is shown in Frame 9 and exemplified by 89(a-j):
Predicate (VP) Sentence pattern S(NP)
Ditransitive Verb Group dO(NP) iO(PP)
Semantic roles Actor TRIVALENT MATERIAL PROCESS: BENEFITTING Goal Beneficiary
Helen was asked to fetch the newspaper, while she mixed a cocktail for James I’ll make an omelet for you, and Jane poured cups of coffee for all the guests Fred bought a present for his wife and had saved an apple for the beggar He also built a reading room for the agricultural laborers and cooked a good dinner for everyone every night However, he often left the mess for her whenever he did the cooking, and they set a trap for him.
The PP- Beneficiary is typically [+animate] and [+human] as in 89(a-j) The
“benefit” the Beneficiary receives from the process is not necessarily beneficial as in 89(i-j) [Halliday, 1994: 145; Downing & Locke, 1995: 118]
2.2.1.1 The Beneficiary is also treated in functional grammar as a kind of direct participant that can also enter into the clause directly as an NP i.e without the preposition for [Halliday, 1994: 155,167] In this case, the NP- Beneficiary is placed before the dO [Downing & Locke, 1995: 85ff], as shown in Frame 10 :
Predicate(VP) Sentence pattern S(NP)
Di-transitive Verb Group iO(NP) dO(NP)
Semantic roles Actor TRIVALENT MATERIAL PROCESS: BENEFITTING Beneficiary Goal
Realized by an NP , the NP -Beneficiary occurs in English declaratives marked 89(a’-j’) without the preposition for
In various scenarios, individuals perform actions that involve providing for others, showcasing a sense of care and responsibility For instance, Helen was asked to fetch a newspaper, while Jane generously poured coffee for all the guests Fred demonstrated thoughtfulness by buying his wife a present, and he also saved an apple for a beggar Additionally, he built a reading room for agricultural laborers, highlighting community support Every night, she cooked a good dinner for everyone, though he often left her to clean up the mess after his cooking Lastly, they set a trap for him, indicating a more complex interaction.
2.2.1.2 As far as descriptive grammar is concerned, the NP- Indirect Object in 89(a’-j’ corresponds to the PP- Indirect Object in a position following the NP Direct Object in 89(a-h) [Swan, 1995; Roberts-Burton, 1997; Thomson & Martinet, 1998; Stageberg
In functional grammar, the speaker or writer strategically uses the prepositional phrase in Frame 9 to emphasize the PP-Beneficiary, effectively highlighting "late news" (Halliday, 1994).
155ff], and thus, the PP- Beneficiary refers to the new and important information in the message conveyed in 89(a-j) Such a choice cannot be applied for Frame 10
Table 2 by Halliday [1994: 168] highlights the non-prominent and prominent positions in English declaratives, respectively denoted by an NP and its corresponding form, the for- prepositional phrase :
I asked Helen TO FETCH me the newspaper
I asked Helen TO FETCH the newspaper for me She MIXED James a cocktail She MIXED a cocktail for James
Fred BOUGHT his wife a present Fred BOUGHT a present for his wife.
U Table 2 U : Association of for- prepositional phrase with textual prominence
2.2.1.3 Not all trivalent material process clauses of “benefitting” can be expressed in either of the two corresponding frames — Frame 9 and Frame 10
In some cases, the Beneficiary can only (or preferably) enter into the clause in
Frame 9 , i.e.in form of the for- prepositional phrase following the Goal:
• When the Goal is realized by a pronoun or/and when the NP inside the PP that realizes the Beneficiary is internally complex, as in 90(a-h):
She found the picture books educational and bought them for her children If you can't afford the pen, I'll buy it for you He got her a black bandanna along with other items I can't find the ticket; perhaps he is keeping it for her He poured more champagne for the three of them and made coffee for all of us Emily is knitting a sweater for the man she loves, while Mother bought the ice cream for you, not for me.
Pronouns, such as "them" or "it," often lack newsworthiness as they refer to previously mentioned subjects, making the Goal they represent more prominent than other elements like the PP-Beneficiary phrases, which include "for her children," "for you," or "for her." This focus on the Goal enhances clarity and understanding in communication.
In English discourse, adhering to the principle of end-weight, it is considered unnatural to position a complex noun phrase (NP) - Beneficiary, such as "the three of them" or "the man she loves," before a simpler noun phrase (NP) - Goal, like "more champagne" or "the ice cream." This structural preference highlights the tendency for longer, more intricate phrases to appear later in a sentence for clarity and ease of understanding.
Finding educational picture books, she bought them for her children If you can't afford the pen, I'll buy it for you He got her some gifts along with a black bandanna for Emilio I can't find the ticket; perhaps he is keeping it for her He poured more champagne for the three of them He made coffee for all of us Emily is knitting a sweater for the man she loves Mother bought the ice cream for you, not for me.
• When the PP- Beneficiary shares some features of a Circumstance TPF 30 FPT in the process clause, as in 91(a-h), and thus it cannot enter into the clause in form of an
NP preceding the Goal, as in 91(a’-h’):
He used to handle the housework for Mary during her night shifts The store has recently implemented a drug testing policy for all new hires She found plenty of space for her belongings in the wardrobe They did quite a good job for us While I'm away, Mary often waters the plants for me The National Autistic Society will now operate a phone line for families in the region affected by autism I would like to open a bank account for my son I'm doing all of this for Mary.
In bivalent material and verbal process clauses, the for-prepositional phrase serves as an optional Circumstance of Extent in Time, Cause/Reason, Purpose, or Behalf, which is descriptively identified as an opA This element is associated with the process but cannot function as the Subject in a passive clause.
30 This semantic role will be discussed in detail in the next sections, from 2.2.1
2.2.2.1 The Circumstance of Extent in Time TPF 31 FPT
The Circumstance of Extent in Time represents the duration in which the process takes place as shown in Frame 11 and exemplified by 92(a-j):
Predicate(VP) Sentence pattern S(NP) Monotransitive Verb Group dO(NP) opA(PP)
Semantic roles Participant BIVALENT PROCESS Participant Circumstance of
For many years, people have relied on coal and oil to generate electricity While they may not have spoken their mother tongue for an extended period, they have engaged in various activities, such as riding bikes for fifteen years and gardening One individual has rented their house for five years, while another has baked a cake according to instructions for 40 minutes Additionally, a person studied the guitar for three years, and a child has worn glasses for many years Since her arrival, a woman has repeatedly told the same story for months, and she has boiled an egg for over 30 minutes.
2.2.2.2 The Circumstance of Cause/Reason TPF 32 FPT
The Circumstance of Cause/Reason highlights the underlying cause or reason for a process, particularly in bivalent process clauses where the second participant is impacted This participant can be either conscious or non-conscious, as demonstrated in examples 93(a-h) and 93(i-j) The cause or reason may encompass an entity, event, abstraction, or situation, with a detailed analysis provided in Frame 12 and examples 93(a-j).
Predicate(VP) Sentence pattern S(NP) Monotransitive Verb Group dO(NP) opA(PP)
Semantic roles Participant BIVALENT PROCESS Participant Circumstance of
T Also called “ Circumstance of Duration ” by Tô Minh Thanh [2005, 104]
Traditionally, "cause" is viewed as an objective statement, whereas "reason" suggests a more subjective interpretation However, distinguishing between cause and reason can be challenging, as it is often difficult to assess the degree of objectivity involved.
Summary
Chapter 2 presents, from the viewpoint of descriptive grammar, English declaratives containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase and then describes its semantic roles as participants, circumstances and qualifiers in sequence of to and for from functional perspectives The chapter also describes the meanings of the to- or for- prepositional phrase in different positions in English declaratives as well as gives explanation on subtle overlaps between semantic roles expressed by the very phrase
In linguistic structures, the to-prepositional phrase serves dual functions: it acts as the Recipient in Material processes and the Receiver in Verbal processes Additionally, it fulfills roles as Circumstances of Place, Quality, and Range.
In the context of material processes, the for-prepositional phrase functions as the Beneficiary, while also serving as Circumstances of Extent in Time, Cause/Reason, Purpose, and Behalf.
The analysis of the 12 semantic roles of the to- and for-prepositional phrases within the 16 frames of the thesis provides learners with a clearer understanding, facilitating the distinction between these two types of phrases.