INTRODUCTION
Aims of the study
This study was carried out to see if reading speed and reading comprehension of the EFL students will improve with consistent use of repeated reading method.
Research questions
The research was carried in order to answer the following questions:
1 How does repeated reading affect EFL learners’ reading speed?
2 How does repeated reading affect EFL learners’ reading comprehension?
Scope of the study
This study aimed to investigate the impact of repeated reading on the reading abilities of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners A survey was conducted to gather essential data from a sample of seventy students at Vinh University of Industry.
Design of the thesis
This research comprises five chapters as follow:
Chapter 1: Introduction – This chapter provides the rationale of the problem tackling with the topic, the aims of the study, the research questions and the scope of the study
Chapter 2:Literature review - This chapter presents the previous studies related to the thesis and some concepts as theoretical basis for the study
Chapter 3:The experiment - This chapter introduces research methodology of the study It provides information about the materials, participants, instrument for data collection, research procedures and data analysis.This chapter presents the results and discussions developed after the impacts analyzed
Chapter 4:Conclusion - This chapter summarizes the main issues touched upon in the research, the limitations of the research and some suggestions for further studies Following the chapters are the references and appendices.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The reading process
Reading is a highly individual activity that encompasses various formats, including newspapers, magazines, and written texts Understanding the reading process is crucial to grasping its nature As noted by Harmer (1989), "Reading is an exercise dominated by the eyes and the brain," where the eyes receive messages, and the brain interprets their significance Consequently, reading speed largely depends on the mechanical processes of looking and perceiving, with the reader ultimately determining their own pace.
Reading is a multifaceted skill that varies in definition based on its criteria, features, and functions, making it particularly vital for learners of English as a second language Carrell (1988) emphasizes that without strong reading skills, second language learners struggle to achieve necessary performance levels for success Similarly, Anderson (1999) notes that increased exposure to language through reading enhances overall language proficiency Given its crucial role in second language acquisition, it is important to grasp the true nature of reading, even though the act itself remains complex and not easily defined.
Reading is an active and fluent process where the reader engages with the material to construct meaning, as defined by Anderson (1999) This understanding of reading is widely accepted among researchers in the field.
Reading is a complex process where individuals engage with a text to derive meaning from its written symbols, as emphasized by Aebersold and Field (1997) The interaction between the reader and the text is crucial, influenced by the reader's purpose—whether for full comprehension, skimming for general ideas, or scanning for specific information Additionally, readers employ various strategies to construct meaning and rely on their prior knowledge, or schema, which significantly enhances their comprehension Research underscores the importance of schema in facilitating effective reading and understanding of texts.
Reading is defined as an active information-seeking process where readers connect new information to their existing knowledge (Rubin & Thompson, 1994) The success of this process relies heavily on the reader's understanding of language and the world around them Goodman (1971) describes reading as a psycholinguistic process in which the reader reconstructs a message encoded by the writer through a cyclical method of sampling, predicting, testing, and confirming.
Walker (1992:37) defines reading as an active problem-solving process that requires predicting the author's message based on expectations of story events He emphasizes that reading involves recalling personal life experiences to enhance understanding and asserts that it is a means of comprehension and human learning development Thus, reading transcends mere literal interpretation, highlighting its deeper cognitive engagement.
According to Smith (1985), reading is fundamentally about grasping the author's thoughts, emphasizing that the meaning of a text is heavily influenced by its context The deeper the reader understands the author's intention, the more effectively they can interpret the text.
Nutall (1982) highlights the interactive nature of reading, stating that it involves extracting the writer's intended message from the text He emphasizes the crucial relationship between texts and readers during the reading process, likening a text to a jug filled with meaning, which the reader's mind absorbs like a sponge.
In summary, reading is a multifaceted concept that cannot be fully encapsulated by a single definition, as each author offers their unique perspective To gain a deeper understanding of what reading truly entails, it is essential to examine the intricate mental processes that occur within the reader's mind.
Over the past four decades, reading research has focused on the relationship between the reading process and effective teaching methods Scholars have developed various models of reading based on their interpretations of this process, leading to numerous attempts to define the interaction between the reader and the text These perspectives on the reading process can be categorized into three main types: bottom-up, top-down, and interactive reading models.
Early researchers adopted a passive, bottom-up perspective on second language reading, viewing it as a decoding process where readers reconstruct the author's intended meaning by recognizing printed letters and words This model suggests that readers start with the smallest textual units—letters and words—and progressively build meaning through larger units like phrases and clauses In essence, the bottom-up reading approach involves processing the text linearly, where incoming data must be comprehended before higher-level cognitive processes can transform and recode that information.
Bottom-up model emphasizes the written or printed texts It emphasizes the ability to decode or put into sound what is seen in the text According to Gough
Bottom-up processing, as described by Gough (1972), emphasizes how readers gather information from printed text This reading model outlines a sequential process: initially, grapheme information is received by the visual system and converted from letter characters to phonemic representations Next, these phonemic representations are transformed into words Finally, at the third level, the words are interpreted and integrated into the reader's existing knowledge system, contributing to their overall understanding of the reading process.
Alderson (2000) describes bottom-up approaches as serial models in which readers start with printed words, recognizing graphic stimuli and decoding them into sounds, words, and meanings This process involves independent sub-processes, highlighting that bottom-up processing aligns with field-independent cognitive styles Ultimately, it positions readers as passive decoders within the essential graphic-phonemic-syntactic-semantic system.
2000) Therefore, the sophisticated linguistic knowledge of the reader is necessary
The bottom-up model of reading is characterized by a linear progression that begins with printed stimuli and moves sequentially to higher levels of comprehension This approach relies heavily on the reader's linguistic knowledge However, it falls short in effectively capturing the complexities of the actual reading process.
Although bottom-up approach was considered as “the best way to teach reading” (Brown, 2001), as pointed out by Samuel and Kamil (1988:31), bottom-up model is
The absence of feedback mechanisms prevents later processing stages in the system from impacting earlier stages, hindering overall efficiency and adaptability.
The role of reading in learning
Reading is essential for understanding texts and mastering a foreign language effectively As Grabe (2009) emphasizes, an individual's future success is closely linked to their reading skills, highlighting the societal responsibility to ensure everyone has the chance to develop proficient reading abilities, particularly in a second language (L2).
Reading plays a crucial role in language learning, offering numerous benefits to learners According to William (1984: 13), one key advantage is that it provides additional practice in the target language, allowing learners to deepen their understanding Furthermore, reading enhances learners' abilities to apply language skills in speaking and writing Without reading, comprehension of the language is severely limited Additionally, learners develop the skill of extracting valuable information from texts, which significantly boosts their overall intelligence and comprehension.
Reading offers numerous significant benefits that enhance language acquisition for learners It is a fundamental skill that, when developed, positively influences listening, speaking, and writing abilities There are compelling reasons for language learners to engage in regular reading practice to accelerate their learning process.
Repetitive exposure to words and patterns in reading enhances vocabulary acquisition and comprehension of grammar structures Engaging with text is crucial for expanding both vocabulary and understanding of various structural forms When learners grasp the meanings of sentences, they gain a deeper insight into the usage of these structures.
Reading is a solitary activity that allows learners to practice their skills independently Language learners can engage in reading at their convenience, enhancing their abilities without relying on others This flexibility makes reading an essential tool for personal growth in language proficiency.
Reading purposes
To satisfy ordinary desires, readers engage in various kinds of reading which rely on their intensions or purposes and the context or situation they encounter Smith (1985:
101) states that instances of these situations are reading books, newspaper, news reports, weather forecasts, entertainment guides and advertisements, etc According to Mcshane
According to 2005 research, readers engage with texts for two primary purposes: to learn about a subject or to find specific information The first purpose includes activities such as reading magazine articles, studying for exams, enjoying literature, or following instructions Conversely, the second purpose focuses on locating specific details, like searching for a date in a list or checking television schedules.
Kucer (2005: 128) emphasizes that a reader's intention significantly influences their reading approach, leading to a "tentative plan of action" tailored to achieve specific goals While proficient readers can extract valuable information from various reading contexts, they often filter out unnecessary data, focusing only on what aligns with their needs (Smith, 1985: 102).
Alderson (2000) emphasizes that the purpose behind reading significantly influences the reading process, affecting how a reader engages with the text, the skills they employ, and ultimately their comprehension and retention of information He argues that a reader's approach can vary not only based on their intent but also over time and across different texts Consequently, it is likely that different readers will experience distinct reading processes depending on their individual purposes and the specific material being read.
The purpose of reading shapes how a text is interpreted, as the importance of its ideas is affected by the reader's perspective A reader's goals significantly influence which concepts they deem essential and memorable versus those considered less important Ultimately, a reader's purpose plays a crucial role in determining the meanings they construct from the text.
Reading serves various purposes, but comprehension remains the primary goal Whether studying or following directions, readers aim to understand and remember the material Even in leisure reading, grasping the content is essential for a rewarding experience It's crucial for readers to discern information that aligns with their needs rather than passively absorbing all the data presented by the author As Deleuze (1965) points out, a lack of purpose can lead to misunderstanding or overlooking important information, resulting in wasted potential.
Classification of reading
When teaching and learning reading skills, it's crucial to recognize the various types of reading and the necessity for readers to align their approach with their specific purposes Both educators and students must adapt their reading strategies to enhance their effectiveness Understanding the reading process involves distinguishing between different reading activities based on the methods used and the goals intended.
2.4.1 According to manners of reading
Reading, according to manner, is divided into reading aloud and silent reading
According to Doff (1988: 67), reading aloud entails examining a text, comprehending its content, and vocalizing it While it serves as an effective method for sharing information, reading aloud remains an underutilized practice outside of educational settings For educators, it primarily functions as a tool for improving pronunciation skills.
Reading aloud offers significant benefits for learners by enhancing their understanding of the relationship between sounds and letter spelling, while also enabling teachers to assess students' pronunciation It is important to acknowledge that reading aloud is fundamentally an oral activity, making it particularly relevant for both teachers and learners of foreign languages, as it emphasizes pronunciation skills.
Reading aloud can be a valuable skill, but its effectiveness is limited, especially when learners encounter unfamiliar texts that challenge their linguistic abilities Doff (1988) notes that reading aloud is not commonly practiced outside the classroom, making its real-world relevance minimal for most individuals Additionally, students often focus more on pronunciation than comprehension, leading to a superficial engagement with the text In classroom settings, this method can result in only one student being active while others either disengage or receive poor models of reading Furthermore, slow reading speeds can prolong lessons unnecessarily, as the act of whispering words can hinder overall understanding.
Research indicates that reading aloud offers both advantages and disadvantages According to Anderson (1985), reading aloud is a crucial activity for developing knowledge essential for successful reading It enhances comprehension for students of all reading levels, helping them understand that text carries meaning Additionally, learners gain familiarity with the phrasing, expression, and rhythm of sentences in stories or texts presented to them.
Reading aloud can be beneficial for beginners learning a foreign language, as it helps establish a connection between sound and spelling However, the primary goal of reading extends beyond improving vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency; it also involves comprehension When students read aloud, they may struggle to focus on the meaning of the text, leading to difficulties in retaining the main ideas This dual task of reading and understanding can hinder overall comprehension While reading aloud is an effective method for practicing pronunciation, it may not fully align with the broader objectives of language learning.
Silent reading, a common practice when engaging with books, newspapers, and advertisements, plays a significant role in both everyday life and educational settings Defined as "the simplest method of reading, frequently forgotten by language teachers," it is the technique most often employed in our native language, making it the quickest and most efficient reading method (Lewis and Hill, 1985).
Silent reading is the predominant form of reading globally, as it allows individuals to focus on understanding the meaning of texts without the distraction of vocalization This method is particularly beneficial for teaching reading comprehension, enabling students to concentrate on the content at their own pace According to Doff (1988), silent reading involves interpreting written messages and is essential for developing reading skills It allows learners to prioritize main ideas over precise word pronunciation, facilitating a more efficient reading experience Additionally, silent reading empowers students to revisit challenging sentences, enhancing their comprehension Overall, it is an effective strategy for improving reading skills and achieving a deeper understanding of written materials.
Silent reading is an effective classroom management technique for teachers, as it allows students to focus on the text, comprehend its meaning, and extract necessary information This method, often viewed as recreational or independent reading, fosters a relaxed environment where individual students can engage deeply with the material By reading silently, students enhance their understanding and concentration, shifting their focus from pronunciation to comprehension When teachers promote silent reading, they provide students with the opportunity to develop essential strategies for faster reading and improved comprehension.
Silent reading is an effective method for enhancing students' reading skills However, integrating reading aloud occasionally can further benefit students by improving their pronunciation and intonation, as both approaches offer unique advantages in the learning process.
2.4.2 According to purposes of reading
According to the purpose of reading, researchers categorize reading into skimming, scanning, intensive, extensive and repeated reading
Skimming is a rapid reading technique used to grasp the overall meaning and structure of a text, allowing readers to understand the writer's intent Unlike scanning, which focuses on locating specific information, skimming helps to observe the sequence and organization of ideas presented by the author.
Skimming, as defined by William (1984: 96), involves quickly glancing through a text to grasp its overall content by sampling various sections The primary goal of skimming is to succinctly summarize the text's main ideas Additionally, practicing skimming aids learners in developing effective study techniques, organizing their thoughts, and identifying relevant information from books.
Skimming is an effective reading technique used to quickly extract the main ideas or "gist" of a text According to Grellet (1981), skimming involves rapidly reviewing material to understand its organization, tone, and the writer's intent, rather than seeking specific answers Mastering skimming requires the ability to identify the main ideas in various paragraphs and synthesize them through generalization.
Skim reading is a technique used to gain a general understanding of a text's content, as noted by Hedge (2000: 195) This method involves rapidly previewing materials, such as long magazine articles, by focusing on headings and the first lines of paragraphs while skipping over large sections of information Common examples of skimming include quickly scanning newspapers for the day's major news, browsing magazines to identify articles of interest, and reviewing business and travel brochures for essential information.
Skimming is an effective reading technique that allows readers to quickly determine where to concentrate their attention, especially when time is limited This skill is particularly beneficial during the initial stages of reading instruction, as it provides students with a broad overview of the material they are engaging with.
Reading comprehension
Reading comprehension (RC) is essential in teaching and learning a foreign language, serving as a vital communication tool that facilitates interaction between the writer and the reader.
Reading comprehension is significantly influenced by word knowledge, as studies show that readers with a strong background understanding of a topic tend to grasp the material more effectively than those with limited prior knowledge.
The interactive model of reading suggests that comprehension is constructed through the interaction of various knowledge sources with the written text Anderson and Pearson (1984) emphasize that when students critically evaluate the ideas presented in a text, they connect new information with their existing knowledge.
Numerous studies have examined reading comprehension, with Smith (1978) defining it as a state where readers seek answers to questions by forming hypotheses that provide a coherent understanding of the text (Rumelhart, 1977) Calfee and Curley (1984) found that readers often adapt the organizational structure of texts to suit their comprehension needs Throughout the reading process, individuals continuously generate predictions and questions based on their existing knowledge, and achieving comprehension occurs when these questions are answered during or after the reading (Smith, 1978).
According to Lee and Vanpatten (1995: 191), comprehension involves linking new information to pre-existing knowledge stored in memory Readers actively connect newly presented information with their existing understanding, allowing it to integrate into their knowledge base.
Reading comprehension involves both mechanical eye movements and cognitive processes, making it essential for educators and students to grasp its definition thoroughly Continuous evaluation of their understanding of reading comprehension is crucial for students Numerous studies have been conducted to clarify the concept of reading comprehension.
Reading comprehension takes a very important part teaching and learning reading a language as well as a foreign language According to Durkin (1993) RC is
Intentional thinking involves constructing meaning through the interaction between the reader and the text, emphasizing the importance of efficiently extracting information This aligns with Grellet's (1981) definition of reading comprehension, which highlights the reader's ability to effectively retrieve necessary information from a written text Grellet's perspective underscores the role of an individual's background knowledge in understanding the meaning of the text Similarly, Swan (1975) supports this notion, reinforcing the connection between comprehension and the reader's prior knowledge.
1) states that “a student is good at comprehension we mean that he can read accurately and efficiency, so as to get the maximum information of a text with the minimum of understanding.” This means that the student can express his awareness by re-expressing the content of the text in many ways such as summarizing the text, answering question, etc After reading, readers can master the grammatical structures, word pronunciation, understand the context of the texts and use it in real life as effective as possible
Richards and Rodgers (1986) define reading comprehension as the connection between the author and the reader, emphasizing that readers actively interpret the author's intentions while forming their own understanding based on their background knowledge Effective comprehension requires a strong interaction between the author’s language and the reader’s thoughts; without this, fully grasping the author’s message becomes challenging Despite varying definitions among linguists, there is a consensus that reading without comprehension is ultimately meaningless.
Reading comprehension (RC) is crucial in both foreign language acquisition and reading instruction Individual motivations for reading vary, leading to diverse reading methods and styles Consequently, understanding the purposes behind reading is essential to explore the factors influencing reading comprehension effectively.
2.5.2 Factors involved in reading comprehension
Several factors influence reading comprehension that both teachers and students must consider Aebersold and Field (1997: 23) identify key elements, including cognitive development and cognitive style orientation, which play a significant role when starting the study of a second or foreign language.
Secondly, language proficiency in the first language
Thirdly, metacognitive knowledge of L1 structure, grammar, and syntax Fourthly, degree of difference between the L1 and L2/ FL that includes writing systems, rhetorical structures, appropriate strategies
Cultural orientation plays a crucial role in reading, encompassing attitudes towards text and the purpose of reading It involves understanding the various reading skills and strategies that are effective in a second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) Additionally, beliefs about the reading process, such as the use of inference and memorization, along with comprehension nature, are vital Knowledge of different text types in the first language (L1) and background knowledge, or content schemata, further influence reading comprehension and strategy application.
Language proficiency in a second language (L2) and background knowledge significantly influence reading comprehension (RC) Readers who effectively leverage their background knowledge can better understand texts, while those with strong language skills find it easier to grasp the objectives of their L2 studies To enhance students' reading capabilities, teachers should assess their language proficiency and comprehension levels to select appropriate texts for practice Additionally, educators must recognize other factors affecting reading skills and strive to motivate students by offering a variety of reading strategies This approach will help bridge the gap between the target language and the students' native language, ultimately improving their reading experience.
Reading comprehension is a complex cognitive process that necessitates a combination of skills and strategies It relies on several key factors, including background knowledge, vocabulary, fluency, attention, motivation, and the quality of reading materials, all of which must function cohesively for effective understanding.
Background knowledge is crucial for reading comprehension (RC), as it allows students to connect what they already know to the text they are reading Research by Bauer and Fivush (1992; in Pressley, 2000: 549) highlights that even young children form schematic representations of recurring life events, such as family dinners or birthday celebrations This foundational knowledge helps them make inferences when engaging with bedtime stories, relying on the information stored in their schemata Consequently, a child's exposure to diverse experiences and narratives enhances their schematic knowledge, leading to improved text processing and reading success.
Reading speed
2.6.1 The nature of reading speed
Reading speed, typically measured in words per minute, is influenced by the purpose of reading and is best defined as the combination of reading rate and comprehension, as noted by Dechant and Smith (1961) Effective reading aims to understand the material, which depends on factors such as reading speed, vocabulary breadth, and familiarity with the topic Eskey (2005) describes reading rate as the ability to process meaningful groups of words, or "chunks." Similarly, Nelson (1948) emphasizes that reading speed reflects the capacity to accurately grasp meanings, making it a crucial indicator of a reader's competence.
2.6.2 The importance of reading speed in EFL
Reading activates the eyes, ears, mouth, and brain, while speed reading enhances this engagement by utilizing these senses and cognitive abilities more efficiently.
Reading speed plays an important part in reading learning Its significance depends on its task in determining the extent of readers’ fluency According to Fraser (ibid.,
EFL learners frequently struggle with reading slowly, which can lead to feelings of embarrassment This challenge highlights the importance of developing reading fluency, defined as the capacity to read a text quickly and smoothly, with minimal focus on decoding mechanics.
According to Cohen (1979; in Devine 1988: 264), English as a Foreign Language (EFL) readers take six times longer than native speakers to read texts Eskey and Grabe (1988: 233) suggest that this reading slowness is mainly due to a word-by-word decoding process, which overloads their short-term memory and negatively impacts their reading comprehension.
Reading speed is a crucial factor influencing reading performance, as highlighted by Eskey (1979; in Carrell, 1988), who emphasizes that advanced learners must read at a moderate pace while maintaining good comprehension Despite its importance, reading speed has often been overlooked by both researchers and educators (Carver, 2000), and it is seldom measured to evaluate reading development or identify potential issues.
He arrests that the rate at which individuals read with accurate comprehension is a main factor which extremely influences readers’ achievement
Rasinsky (2000) highlights that while reading speed may not be crucial, learners must be able to comprehend the material they read He asserts that understanding is the ultimate goal of reading, yet he stresses the importance of being mindful of reading rate.
Because of the importance of reading speed, both the teachers and students should pay attention to improve their reading rate in order to get efficient understanding
There are several factors that tend to affect readers’ speed
Vocalization refers to the act of pronouncing words silently while reading, which often slows down the reading process as the eyes move faster than the tongue This leads readers to focus on individual words rather than grasping chunks of text However, this habit can be overcome with conscious effort One effective method to discourage vocalization is to have students place a pencil in their mouths while reading, as this inhibits the movement of the lips (Cramer, 1998: 9).
Critics argue that using tools like fingers, pencils, or rulers to point at words while reading can hinder reading speed, leading to a word-by-word approach Badrawi (1992) highlights that this method may impede overall reading efficiency.
19), although fingers can be used to read faster over a page, it is a common habit in
FL mainly when L2 writing system is different from L1 Encouraging students to fold their hand helps them to get rid of this habit
Regressive eye movement is a criticized habit that negatively impacts reading speed, as it causes readers to glance back at previous words instead of maintaining a steady forward motion While some regression can indicate active reading—allowing readers to verify their predictions or understanding—excessive regressions significantly hinder reading efficiency (Badrawi, 1992: 19).
When measuring reading speed, it should be concentrated on three measures, all three required to evaluate how readers’ speed reading is progressing
Average speed measure the number of words the reader can read in a minute
To determine a reader's average speed, select a page from a book and time how long it takes to read that page Next, divide the total number of words on the page by the number of minutes spent reading The result will give you the reader's average speed in words per minute.
An effective reading speed assessment must consider text comprehension, which is influenced by processing speed To evaluate a reader's understanding, it is essential to measure their average reading speed and then have them answer questions about the material they just read.
Reader’s memorizing speed is the amount of words he can read and comprehend per minute This number is obtained by multiplying reader’s average speed and processing speed (in percentage).
Repeated reading
The major aim of repeated reading is to help non fluent readers improve fluency and ultimately, reading comprehension
Laberge and Samuels (1974) describe reading rate (RR) as a key concept in automatic theory, which suggests that enhanced fluency in basic word recognition leads to improved reading comprehension This relationship highlights the importance of developing lower-order skills to facilitate better understanding of texts.
Repeated reading is crucial for developing reading fluency, as it provides the necessary practice to achieve automaticity This method, also known as multiple oral reading, is effective in helping students enhance their reading skills.
RR is an instructional method used to develop automaticity in reading The
The RR method is based on the Automatic Processing Theory by Laberge and Samuels (1974), which suggests that repeated exposure to the same orthographic patterns allows readers to shift their cognitive focus from decoding to comprehension By rereading texts, readers become more automatic in word recognition, freeing up cognitive resources to enhance understanding This technique is particularly effective for improving reading speed, as it enables students to practice a text multiple times until they can decode it quickly, thereby increasing their capacity for comprehension.
According to Mc Kenna and Stahl (2003), the repeated reading (RR) intervention involves students reading a specific text multiple times, supported by resources to help them tackle more challenging materials Rooted in the automaticity theory, RR has inspired various studies exploring its different applications This method, often referred to as multiple oral reading, emphasizes the importance of repetition, whether of words, sentences, or connected discourse Therrien (2004) notes that RR can effectively enhance reading fluency and comprehension for both nondisabled students and those with learning disabilities, serving as a valuable intervention to improve overall reading skills.
In summary, repeated reading (RR) has been defined in multiple ways, with each researcher offering a unique perspective on the method To fully grasp the characteristics of RR, it is crucial to examine its practical application within the participants' cognitive processes.
The practice of repeated reading has historical roots, with ancient Asian children learning to read by reciting texts together multiple times until achieving fluency.
In 1894, Professor Calkins led research by Miss Adelaide M Abell at Wellesley College, which examined the reading rates and comprehension of forty female students After reading a short story, the students' reading speeds were timed, and they were later asked to rewrite the story from memory The findings revealed that both slow and fast readers achieved high comprehension levels, leading Abell to conclude that a faster reading rate does not hinder understanding She also suggested that comprehension speed could be enhanced by "repeating and multiplying associations" (Huey, 1968: 172).
Repeated reading (RR), popularized by Samuels in 1979, was initially aimed at special needs students in first language (L1) settings and has proven effective for developing L1 readers (Kuhn and Stahl, 2000) For over three decades, RR has been extensively utilized in L1 environments to enhance reading fluency, supported by research (Laberge and Samuels, 1974) This method provides struggling readers with achievable mini-goals, such as improving speed, increasing accuracy, and enhancing comprehension, which in turn boosts their confidence and motivates them to invest more effort in mastering reading fluency (Dowhower, 1994; Nuttall, 1996) Despite its success in L1 contexts, RR has not gained similar recognition in second language (L2) classrooms, where its advantages remain largely overlooked and research on its efficacy as a fluency-building tool for L2 learners is scarce.
One reason for the limited emphasis on reading fluency (RR) in L2 classrooms is that some educators believe fluency develops naturally alongside other reading skills Additionally, teachers often contend with large class sizes, restricted contact hours, and demanding curricula, which may prevent them from prioritizing fluency as a crucial aspect of reading instruction.
The RR method is grounded in robust linguistic theory, which often translates into effective practical applications In the context of second language learning, there are several straightforward techniques that teachers can easily implement, such as oral RR, paired RR, and Reader’s Theater, all of which require minimal preparation.
Samuels's (1979) original method involved having readers orally reread a series of short passages until they achieved a specific reading speed measured in words per minute (wpm), which varies based on the reader's proficiency level.
The RR method encompasses various techniques for effective reading practice, including student-adult reading, choral reading, tape-assisted reading, partner reading, and readers' theatre Each of these approaches offers unique benefits and can be adapted to suit different learning environments.
Student-adult reading involves a reader listening to a fluent model provided by a teacher or adult Initially, the reader reads a passage aloud while the teacher assists in identifying challenging words The reader then rereads the passage multiple times, typically three to four repetitions, to enhance fluency and minimize errors The number of rereadings depends on the reader's proficiency level and the text's difficulty, ultimately leading to improved reading skills.
Choral reading involves students reading aloud together with their teacher, requiring them to have access to the same text The teacher selects a book that aligns with the independent reading levels of most students and begins by modeling fluent reading After the initial read-aloud, the teacher invites students to join in, encouraging word recognition through repeated readings, which may extend over multiple sessions depending on the book's length This practice not only enhances reading fluency but also fosters a sense of community in the classroom, as students collectively engage with the text, reinforcing their unity as learners and providing support for those still developing their fluency (Rasinski, 2003).
Tap-assisted reading, also known as the reading while listening method, enables students to engage with continuous texts alongside a recorded audio version This approach, as outlined by Chomsky (1976) and further supported by Armbruster et al (2003), involves students reading aloud in sync or echoing a fluent audio model To implement this strategy effectively, teachers should select books that match students' independent reading levels and use recordings of fluent readers speaking at a pace of 80 to 100 words per minute During practice, students initially follow along with the tape, pointing to each word as it is read They then progress to reading aloud in tandem with the recording until they can read the book independently, without the tape's support.