INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Language learning in schools is closely tied to the four essential skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing In secondary English lessons, writing is the primary method for assessing student performance, particularly during examinations However, recent test results from the Educational Testing Service (ETS) indicate that writing poses significant challenges for Vietnamese test takers.
Teaching English writing in Vietnamese secondary schools poses significant challenges for many English teachers This task demands not only a high level of language proficiency from the educators but also the effective implementation of suitable writing instruction methods.
According to Hoang Thuy (2009), many English teachers in Vietnam view writing as a complex skill to teach, which can negatively impact students' learning outcomes Key challenges in teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing include fostering students' understanding of the importance of writing in English, effectively teaching writing techniques, providing constructive feedback on their writing, and accurately assessing their writing skills.
At Quang Trung Secondary School, writing classes often focus on grammatical structures rather than the communicative purpose and audience of texts Teachers provide model texts and highlight specific sentences, neglecting discussions on how to write effectively As a result, students lack writing strategies and knowledge of the writing process, leading to difficulties in producing original written work unless the topic closely resembles previous lessons This approach ultimately diminishes learners' awareness of the communicative intent behind their writing.
Many writers focus solely on avoiding grammatical errors, neglecting the importance of engaging their audience This often leads to students in writing classes producing work that closely mimics the model texts provided by their instructors, rather than developing their own unique voice and ideas.
In many Vietnamese writing classes, the teacher is the central figure, leading a predominantly one-way interaction where knowledge flows from the teacher to the students This approach positions learners as passive recipients and imitators, with minimal opportunities for pair or group work Consequently, students develop passive learning attitudes, as teachers often neglect to assign discovery tasks that encourage active participation and the integration of receptive and productive skills Instead, learners are expected to replicate the information provided, producing texts that mirror similar topics.
In Vietnam, many EFL teachers prioritize correcting grammatical errors over assessing communicative discourse in students' writing, often penalizing learners with good ideas for minor mistakes This leads students to concentrate on grammar to achieve higher scores, while those with flawless grammar may receive better grades despite lacking communicative effectiveness However, an exclusive focus on grammar correction can be detrimental, as a quality piece of writing encompasses more than just grammatical accuracy (Truscott, 1996).
The Vietnamese secondary syllabus primarily employs a product-oriented approach to writing, where students are encouraged to imitate model texts presented and analyzed early on This method stifles creativity, as students are limited to answering comprehension questions, filling in blanks with provided information, or constructing complete sentences from given cues, rather than expressing themselves through their own experiences.
The rigid controlled writing format restricts teachers from exploring innovative writing instruction methods Feedback from educators tends to prioritize grammatical and lexical corrections over meaningful content exploration Consequently, under this type of curriculum, students are primarily assessed based on their test scores.
According to Assoc Prof Dr Hoang Van Van (2007), effective teaching of writing in secondary schools should integrate various approaches, including controlled composition, free writing, paragraph pattern, communicative, and process approaches, with a focus on the communicative and process methods Despite this, many language teachers continue to rely on product-oriented approaches, primarily due to the controlled composition and paragraph pattern tasks presented in textbooks Consequently, these product-oriented methods dominate writing instruction, prioritizing the final written product over the writing process itself.
Students' EFL writing quality is assessed primarily on the final product and grammatical accuracy, leading to a lack of focus on the writing process and limited understanding of writing strategies Additionally, there is a noticeable absence of interaction between teachers and students, as well as among the students themselves, further hindering their writing development.
In secondary schools, English teachers often focus on correcting grammar and spelling errors, believing that immediate correction is essential for student progress However, this traditional approach may not significantly benefit students, as many feel discouraged and humiliated by extensive corrections on their writing Observations indicate that some students may only briefly glance at corrections, while others may ignore them entirely, suggesting that this method may not be the most effective way to support student development.
English writing teachers in secondary schools should focus on enhancing the quality of students' writing by fostering a collaborative learning environment and encouraging peer sharing of their written work.
To enhance writing skills at Quang Trung Secondary School, the researcher has chosen the Process Oriented Approach as an effective solution for writing challenges It is widely recognized that high-quality writing is significantly influenced by both strong inputs and effective processes With this understanding, the researcher aims to apply the Process Oriented Approach to enrich the writing learning experience While this method requires a longer implementation period, it promises to be a valuable means of improving students' English writing skills.
The researcher aims to conduct an experimental study titled "Improving Students’ Writing Skills Through a Process-Oriented Approach" to enhance and implement effective teaching methods for writing skills This initiative seeks to boost student motivation and improve their writing outcomes.
Aims of the study
The aims of my study are:
1 To see how the process oriented approach can improve the students’ writing competence of grade 8 students at Quang Trung Secondary School in Thanh Hoa
2 To get how effective are the process oriented approach can improve writing skills of grade 8 students at Quang Trung Secondary School in Thanh Hoa.
Research questions
This study aims to explore the effectiveness of the process-oriented approach in enhancing writing competence among grade 8 students at Quang Trung Secondary School in Thanh Hoa We seek to answer key questions regarding how this method can improve students' writing skills.
1 How can process oriented approach improve grade 8 students in writing performance at Quang Trung Secondary School in Thanh Hoa?
2 How effective is process oriented approach in helping grade 8 students at Quang Trung Secondary School in Thanh Hoa improve:
Their use of writing strategies?
Scope of the study
This study involves 60 grade 8 students from Quang Trung Secondary School in Thanh Hoa, all possessing similar English proficiency levels The participants are divided into two classes, 8 A and 8 B, with one class randomly selected as the control group and the other as the experimental group The researcher implements a process-oriented approach to teaching and learning English writing, aiming to assess its impact on enhancing students' writing skills and habits.
Methodology
The researcher employs an experimental method for this study, utilizing questionnaires and tests to assess students' writing skills This includes administering pre- and post-questionnaires along with pre-tests and post-tests to effectively measure the impact of the intervention.
Pre- and post-questionnaire on the students’ writing habits
The pre and post questionnaires aim to explore students' writing habits across two groups, focusing on key aspects such as the frequency of planning or outlining before writing, the regularity of revising and editing drafts, and the tendency to share their work with classmates.
Questionnaire on students’ evaluation of the writing process oriented approach
The questionnaire is designed for the experimental to investigate how students like the writing process oriented approach, how useful of strategies and how students manage strategies after program
Pre- and post-test on English writing
To measure the quality of the participants’ written texts before and after the
In this study, the researcher developed a pre-test and a post-test focused on English writing skills The selected test types mirror popular writing tasks found in the Tieng Anh 8 textbook, aligning with the instruction provided to students and reflecting common practices in secondary school classrooms.
Significance of the study
This study aims to provide a detailed understanding of the effectiveness of a process-oriented approach in enhancing writing competence The findings are expected to benefit both teachers and students by addressing writing challenges effectively.
Recognizing the process-oriented approach is essential for English teachers to enhance the teaching and learning of writing, making it more engaging This approach can also inspire teachers to prepare diverse writing activities as valuable references.
Implementing a process-oriented approach helps students improve their English writing skills, making the task less daunting This method encourages students to express their ideas effectively, enhancing their ability to communicate thoughts clearly to readers.
Incorporating the study into the school library as a reference resource would provide significant benefits, enhancing teachers' instructional methods, particularly in writing Additionally, it offers all readers valuable insights to develop and reflect on effective writing instruction.
Organization of the research
The research consists of five chapters:
Chapter 1: Introduction- includes the rationale, the aims, the methodology, the scope and the significance of the research
Chapter 2: Theoretical background- presents the concepts and definitions to be used in the research such as the meaning of teaching writing, the meaning of POA, the implement of POA, the advantages of POA and the disadvantages of POA
Chapter 3: Methodology- presents the background information of the subjects of the study, the instruments used to collect the data, the procedure of data collection and data analysis
Chapter 4: Results and Findings - describes the data analysis in detail and a thorough discussion of the findings of the study Some explanations and interpretations of the findings are also presented in this chapter
Chapter 5: Conclusion - gives the summary of the findings and some implications which are proposed for the teachers and the students in teaching and learning writing
The appendices lie at the end of the study, following the References
THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDS
Teaching writing
It is necessary to expose the linguists’ opinions about writing This is used to consider what the accurate definition of writing is Here are their opinions about writing:
According to Ghazi (2002), writing is a multifaceted process that enables writers to articulate their thoughts and ideas, transforming them into tangible expressions This practice not only fosters critical thinking and learning but also promotes effective communication, making thoughts accessible for reflection By putting ideas into writing, individuals can analyze, modify, and reorganize their concepts, leading to deeper understanding and creativity.
The statement highlights that the writing process for language teachers is more complex than other language skills such as listening, reading, and speaking It requires specific skills, including vocabulary usage, idea generation, and proper grammar and tense application After developing these skills, the writing product must be thoroughly examined, revised, and edited to achieve perfection Unlike other skills, writing performance demands precise context and complete sentence structure to prevent misunderstandings.
According to Heaton (1988), writing skills are intricate and often challenging to teach, as they involve not only grammatical and rhetorical proficiency but also conceptual and judgmental understanding To simplify the process of writing effective prose, these skills can be categorized into five key components: (1) language use, which focuses on constructing correct and appropriate sentences; (2) mechanical skills, emphasizing correct punctuation and spelling; (3) treatment of content, involving creative thinking and thought development; and (4) stylistic skills, which pertain to the manipulation of sentence structure.
Effective writing encompasses several key components, as outlined by Kathleen et al (1996) These include grammatical ability, which ensures sentences are constructed correctly; lexical abilities, focusing on the appropriate selection of words; and mechanical ability, which involves correct punctuation, spelling, and capitalization Additionally, stylistic skills pertain to the proper use of sentences and paragraphs, while organizational skills involve structuring written work in accordance with English conventions Finally, judgment skills are crucial for determining the appropriateness of content based on the task, purpose, and intended audience.
According to Arndt (1988), the writing process involves six key activities that should be performed periodically: (1) generating ideas through brainstorming, questioning, note-taking, visuals, and role play; (2) focusing on main ideas while considering purpose, audience, and form; (3) structuring information by organizing content, experimenting with arrangements, and aligning structure with the focal idea; (4) drafting, which includes teacher-led drafting and developing beginnings, middles, and endings; (5) evaluating drafts through assessment, feedback, and conferencing; and (6) reviewing the work by checking context, connections, divisions, assessing impact, and making necessary edits and corrections.
According to Tribble (1996, p 43), a writer needs a diverse range of knowledge to effectively undertake a specific task This includes content knowledge, which encompasses the concepts related to the subject area; context knowledge, which pertains to the environment in which the text will be read; language system knowledge, focusing on the linguistic elements essential for completing the task; and an understanding of the writing process itself.
10 knowledge – knowledge of the most appropriate way of preparing for a specific writing task
According to Tribble (1996, p 130), writing assessment involves evaluating a text through multiple dimensions, reflecting the interplay of various skills and knowledge that contribute to its overall quality Key aspects of written work—such as content, organization, vocabulary, language, and mechanics—are assessed, each accompanied by clear descriptors on the band scale This approach allows for a range of potential scores for each band, which can then be translated into an overall grade.
Writing skills are complex and challenging to teach, requiring teachers to possess strong language competence and implement effective writing instruction To enhance their writing abilities, students must first master essential components, including grammatical ability for constructing correct sentences, lexical skills for appropriate word choice, mechanical skills for proper punctuation and spelling, stylistic skills for effective sentence and paragraph usage, and organizational skills for structuring their work according to English conventions Mastery of these components is crucial before engaging in the writing process, as writing demands a diverse set of skills and knowledge These components align with those identified by Tribble, making them particularly relevant for L2 students, and aim to address common writing challenges faced by learners.
2.1.2 Different approaches to teaching writing
Recent developments in second language writing have introduced various approaches to enhance writing skills, with controlled composition and paragraph pattern methods emerging as the most prominent These approaches are extensively utilized in new English textbooks designed for Vietnamese secondary school students.
The controlled composition approach views language learning as a process of habit formation, emphasizing speaking as the primary focus while considering writing a secondary tool that reinforces oral skills.
In a controlled composition classroom, the emphasis is on formal accuracy, with the teacher providing precise language samples for students to memorize and repeat Teachers also offer structural frames that allow for controlled substitutions, such as changing present tense verbs to past tense, which may require students to adjust other time references accordingly This approach enables students to write freely without the fear of making numerous errors, making it easier for teachers to manage and assess their writing.
In a controlled composition approach, writing is viewed primarily as a practice tool for reinforcing structures and vocabulary acquired in the classroom, with the teacher as the main audience This method emphasizes grammatical accuracy and form over language fluency, treating writing primarily as a way to evaluate students' proficiency in using the learned structures Consequently, considerations of audience and purpose are largely overlooked in this instructional strategy.
Increasing awareness of second language writers’ need to produce extended written texts led to the realization that there was more to writing than constructing
The 'paragraph pattern approach' proposed by Raimes (2002) highlights the significance of organization beyond individual sentences This method builds on Kaplan's theories, emphasizing structured coherence in writing.
(1966) notion of ‘contrastive rhetoric’ – the notion that writers’ different cultural and linguistic backgrounds will be reflected in their ‘rhetoric’, with rhetoric typically seen as primarily a matter of textual structure
The tradition emphasized the logical construction and arrangement of discourse forms, with a particular focus on the paragraph as a fundamental unit of writing Key elements included the topic sentence, supporting ideas, and a concluding sentence, which guided the development of paragraphs This foundational understanding evolved into essay development, expanding from basic paragraph principles to encompass more complex texts structured with an introduction, body, and conclusion.
Classroom procedures rooted in traditional writing practices often emphasize the importance of 'form' in student writing Typically, students analyze a model text and are tasked with creating their own piece that mirrors its organizational structure Common activities include grouping relevant facts, rearranging them logically to create an outline, and then composing a complete text based on that outline Additionally, students may be required to complete a paragraph or story by adding sections such as an ending, beginning, or middle.
The Meaning of POA
The teaching of writing has shifted from focusing solely on the final written product to emphasizing the writing process In this process-oriented approach, students learn to generate ideas, consider their audience and purpose, and create multiple drafts to effectively communicate their thoughts Teachers facilitate this by allowing students to brainstorm and provide feedback on their drafts, transforming writing into a journey of discovery where students explore new ideas and language forms.
The process-oriented approach to teaching writing, as described by Montage (1995), emphasizes the stages a writer undergoes in constructing meaning, prioritizing the writing process over the final product This approach involves distinct phases, including pre-writing, writing, and rewriting, culminating in editing as a final step rather than an initial one After creating a rough draft, writers refine their work through peer and teacher feedback, leading to polished drafts If desired, authors can proceed to final editing and publication of their writing.
Review of Related Studies
This review of related studies aims to highlight research similar to my own, showcasing significant developments and improvements made by other scholars It serves to enhance and refine my study by incorporating insights from previous work The following section will present these relevant studies, which provide valuable support and positive contributions to my research.
The process-oriented approach to writing, as described by Nicole Montague (1995), emphasizes the stages a writer goes through in constructing meaning, culminating in editing as a final step rather than an initial one, which contrasts with the product-oriented approach This method typically includes distinct stages such as pre-writing, while-writing, and post-writing After creating a rough draft, writers refine their work through peer and teacher feedback, leading to further drafts If desired, the final editing and publication stages can follow, allowing authors to share their writing with a broader audience (Murray, 1972).
The research highlights the advantages of a process-oriented approach in enabling peers to refine drafts, ensuring they meet English standards This indicates that the quality of written compositions improves significantly when the drafting process is conducted regularly and with precision By emphasizing a process-oriented methodology, the study underscores its numerous benefits in enhancing writing skills.
Based on Bos (1988) that conducting writing study through process oriented approach includes: (1) planning; (2) drafting; (3) revising and editing; and (4) sharing and publication
During the planning stage of writing, authors engage in cognitive processes to select topics, define their writing goals, identify their audience, choose a voice, and create preliminary frameworks While some writers may keep their plans informal with minimal documentation, others may adopt a more structured approach using outlines, lists, or topic sentences To enhance this stage of the writing process, it is crucial to give students adequate time for planning, model the cognitive strategies involved, and design writing activities with authentic purposes.
The second stage, drafting, involves the process of "putting ideas into visible language" (Flower & Hayes, 1981, p 373) Drafting, however, does not preclude
Expert writers frequently engage in extensive revisions while drafting, balancing various demands such as planning, meaning construction, vocabulary selection, and adherence to grammar and spelling conventions When writing conventions and motor tasks become automatic, writers can concentrate more on the creative aspects of writing To support this process, teachers should encourage students to prioritize their ideas during the initial drafting phase and minimize their focus on writing conventions Additionally, providing ample time and support for revision and editing after drafting is essential for fostering effective writing skills.
The third stage of the writing process involves revising and editing the text to prepare it for an audience Initially, the focus should be on revising ideas to enhance coherence and clarity, followed by editing for writing conventions (Calkins, 1986; Graves, 1983) Sharing the written piece with others during revision is crucial, as it helps the author gauge readers' understanding Teaching grammar and spelling concepts can be beneficial, especially when integrated with the author's specific text and writing purposes (Kean, 1983) It's important to note that editing for writing conventions is just one aspect of the writing process, yet special education writing curricula often prioritize these conventions as the main focus of instruction.
The final step in the writing process is sharing and publishing, which adds significant value to the entire endeavor This stage allows students to receive feedback and view themselves as authors engaging with an audience (Graves & Hansen, 1983).
Bos’ study stresses a student centered instructional approach, emphasizes an interactive model of composing, relies on descriptive analyses of the composing
16 process in conjunction with the generated products, and places value on establishing
"authentic" purposes for learning and writing The benefit of his study is to empower students competence dealt with process oriented approach
A study by Nicola Holmes highlights that writing can be a daunting task for adult students learning English as a Foreign or Second Language, primarily due to the traditional focus on the final product This emphasis on producing a coherent text often leads to stress, as the crucial pre-writing and drafting stages are frequently overlooked It is unrealistic to expect both native and EFL writers to create well-structured texts without guidance through the writing process Unfortunately, many EFL students receive little support or advice regarding these essential stages when assigned writing tasks (Tribble, 1996).
The researcher emphasized the importance of involving students in the writing process, which includes pre-writing, guidance, outlining, drafting, and editing By following these steps, EFL students can develop their writing skills, leading to more accurate and fluent compositions.
In a study conducted by Ngo Minh Chau (2009) at Ly Tu Trong Specialized Upper Secondary School in Cần Thơ, titled “The Impact of Adapting the Process-Oriented Approach on EFL Learners’ Writing Performance,” it was found that the process writing approach significantly enhances the writing quality of upper secondary school students compared to the product-oriented approach The research highlights the positive effects of integrating a process-oriented method in teaching English writing, demonstrating its effectiveness in improving EFL learners' writing performance.
17 perception towards the use of the process oriented writing activities in their EFL writing class
Based on the study above, the researcher tries to continue the study dealing with improving the students’ writing competence through process oriented Approach (POA)
The Implementation of POA
2.4.1 The overview of the writing process
The dissatisfaction with traditional composition methods led to the emergence of the process approach in the 1980s, emphasizing personal writing, student creativity, and fluency in English-speaking classrooms This shift, known as the 'process movement,' encouraged a more expressive style of writing, as noted by Zamel (2001).
Since its emergence in the 1970s, the writing process instructional model has evolved significantly Initially viewed as a non-directional approach with minimal teacher intervention, research by Hillocks (1984) highlighted that the teacher's role should focus on facilitating the writing process rather than delivering direct instruction This shift underscores the importance of teacher support in enhancing students' writing skills.
Research by Hillocks indicates that a lack of specific assignments, criteria for judging writing, structured activities, and exercises in syntax manipulation leads to minimal improvements in writing quality This "natural process mode" of teaching does not effectively engage students in essential processes for examining data and developing their writing skills (Pritchard & Honeycutt, 2005, p 162).
In the early development of the process approach model, it was primarily associated with storytelling and characterized by a linear and prescriptive framework This model often conflated proofreading with editing and typically lacked direct instruction, promoting a more flexible, process-oriented philosophy over a focus on the final product Consequently, this simplistic pedagogy emerged, where students were guided through four stages outlined by their teacher.
Students should recall and rehearse steps to create a story, then collaborate in groups to share their narratives and receive feedback In special education literature, this instructional approach is referred to as teaching "plans of action" (Gersten & Baker, 2001), which encompasses specific procedural tasks within the current process model for writing.
Modern research on the writing process model emphasizes the importance of procedural knowledge alongside various teachable strategies These strategies include activating prior knowledge, teaching self-regulation, and helping students navigate genre constraints Additionally, effective writing instruction involves guiding students in revising and editing, providing structured feedback, and fostering an understanding of the differences between reader and writer perspectives Developing audience awareness and addressing emotional barriers are also crucial Studies indicate that a more teacher-directed approach within the process model positively impacts the quality of students' writing, enhances their self-perception as writers, and deepens their understanding of the writing process.
In school-based writing classes, both teachers and L2 students focus on developing multiple drafts to enhance meaningful communication and tackle problem-solving through discourse conventions Teachers are crafting curricula that balance institutional, program, and student needs instead of adhering strictly to rigid theories This process-oriented approach emphasizes creating a positive, collaborative workshop environment and allowing ample time for students to navigate their writing processes with minimal interference The goal is to equip students with effective strategies for starting, drafting, revising, and editing their work Writing, viewed from this perspective, is a complex, recursive, and creative endeavor that shares similarities for both first and second language writers, highlighting the necessity of developing an efficient composing process.
The discovery and expression of meaning rely heavily on the reader's interpretation of the intended message In this process, the written text itself becomes a secondary consideration, with its form shaped by the content and purpose it serves (Silva & Matsuda, 2002).
Writing instruction focuses on demonstrating and practicing effective composing strategies, while learning to write involves acquiring and applying these strategies to effectively manage and monitor text development.
2.4.2 Stages in the writing process
There are different points of view on the number of stages comprising the writing process
Hayes and Flower's influential model of the writing process (2002) emphasizes the task environment, which encompasses the writing assignment and the text already produced It highlights the significance of the writer's long-term memory, including their knowledge of the topic, audience, and pre-existing writing plans Additionally, the model outlines essential cognitive processes such as planning, translating thoughts into written text, and revising, which are crucial for effective writing.
Hedge refers to all the components of the process taken together as
‘composing’ (taken alongside ‘communicating’ and ‘crafting’) She suggests the following as a representation of the stages of writing:
Getting ideas together planning and outlining making notes making a first draft revising, re-drafting editing final version(Hedge1993)
Byrne (1993) has a similar set of steps:
List ideas make an outline (‘scaffolding’) write a draft correct and improve the draft write the final version
Meanwhile, according to Oshima and Hogue (2004) the writing process embraces essentially three stages:
Pre-writing planning (outlining) writing and revising drafts
Each stage involves certain kinds of task that the writers have to fulfill in order to construct a good piece of work
Ron White and Valerie Arndt emphasize that "writing is rewriting," highlighting the importance of re-vision—seeing with new eyes—in the text creation process Their model of process writing consists of interconnected, recursive stages that enhance the writing experience.
Structuring (ordering information, experimenting with arrangements, etc.)
Reviewing (checking context, connections, assessing impact, editing)
Focusing (that is making sure you are getting the message across you want to get across)
Generating ideas and evaluation (assessing the draft and/ or subsequent drafts)
Seow (2002) provides a comprehensive overview of process writing as a classroom activity, which includes the four essential writing stages: planning, drafting, revising, and editing Additionally, it incorporates three teacher-imposed stages: responding, evaluating, and post-writing This framework allows teachers to design targeted classroom activities that enhance the development of specific writing skills at each stage, ensuring a well-rounded learning experience for students.
Pre-writing is any activity in the classroom that encourages students to write
To inspire students to begin writing, it is essential to shift their focus from the daunting blank page to the generation of tentative ideas and information gathering The activities outlined below offer valuable learning experiences tailored for students at this initial stage of the writing process.
Group discussions thrive on spontaneity, allowing members to freely share ideas without fear of right or wrong answers Initially, students may explore familiar concepts before venturing into more abstract or unconventional territories, fostering creativity and innovation.
Students generate words based on a teacher-provided stimulus, which are then circled and connected with lines to illustrate recognizable clusters This clustering technique is a straightforward yet effective strategy that visually enhances the flow of ideas, making it especially beneficial for students who have a clear message but struggle to articulate it (Proett & Gill, 1986, p 6).
The Advantages of POA
The process-oriented approach views writing as a creative endeavor that necessitates time and constructive feedback for success In this method, teachers shift from merely assigning topics and correcting final drafts to actively engaging in the writing process, providing support and guidance throughout.
Implementing a process-oriented approach in writing education empowers students to enhance their writing skills independently, with the teacher's role limited to motivation and facilitation This method alleviates pressure, making writing enjoyable and engaging for students As a result, writing becomes a stimulating challenge, encouraging students to produce as much written work as possible.
The advantages of the process oriented approach can be described as follows:
Students have effectively prepared by enhancing their prior knowledge of content, vocabulary, language, and mechanics They understand the purpose of writing texts and are accustomed to creating outlines before drafting Additionally, they can develop their drafts based on their thoughts and demonstrate critical and creative thinking skills Given these advantages, it is essential for researchers to continue studying the process-oriented approach, as it offers numerous benefits for developing writing skills.
The Disadvantages of POA
The process-oriented approach presents several disadvantages, including the requirement for a lengthy implementation time and the necessity for students to possess strong prior knowledge before engaging in the learning process Each step must be thoroughly completed to qualify for progression to the next, complicating the preparation of learning materials for teachers Additionally, educators must have a solid mastery of writing steps, and managing the classroom can be particularly challenging during the drafting and editing phases.
Writing performance assessment
Writing skills are intricate and can be challenging to teach, as they involve mastery of grammar, rhetorical devices, and critical thinking This analysis categorizes the diverse skills essential for crafting effective writing into five key components.
Language use: the ability to write correct and appropriate sentences;
Mechanical skills: the ability to use correctly those conventions peculiar to the written language – e.g punctuation, spelling;
Treatment of content: the ability to think creatively and develop thoughts, excluding all irrelevant information;
Stylistic skills: the ability to manipulate sentences and paragraphs, and use language effectively;
Judgment skills refer to the capability to write effectively for a specific purpose and audience, while also demonstrating the ability to select, organize, and structure relevant information efficiently (Heaton, 1989, p 135).
Evaluating writing ability involves assessing performance based on inferences from an individual's written text rather than measuring the ability directly Good writing, as defined by Peha (2003), encompasses several key qualities that contribute to effective communication and expression.
Ideas that are interesting and important: ideas are the heart of the writer’s piece – what he is writing about and the information he chooses to write about it
Organization that is logical and effective: organization refers to the order of the writer’s ideas and the way he moves from one idea to the next
The writer's voice is a crucial element that shapes the reader's experience, reflecting their unique personality through words It can range from formal to casual, and may come across as friendly and inviting or more reserved Ultimately, the voice establishes the tone of the writing, influencing how the audience perceives the message.
Word choice that is specific and memorable: good writing uses just the right words to say just the right things
Sentence fluency that is smooth and expressive: fluent sentences are easy to understand and fun to read with expression
Conventions that are correct and communicative: conventions are the way we all agree to use punctuation, spelling, grammar and other things that make writing consistent and easy to read
Besides, Ayer (2005) assumes that good writing expresses a clear point, is tightly structured, grammatically and syntactically correct, substantive, and interesting
With these considerations in mind, the researcher now turns to a discussion of procedures for scoring the written product
2.7.2 Rating scales used for assessment of secondary school students’ written products
According to McNamara (2002), the scale used to assess performance tasks like writing tests reflects the theoretical foundation of the test, representing the developer's understanding of the skills being evaluated Therefore, creating a scale and defining descriptors for each level is crucial for ensuring the assessment's validity.
When establishing a scoring system, a key decision is the type of rating scale to employ, such as whether to assign a single score to each script or evaluate multiple features This topic has been extensively researched over the past thirty years, leading to the identification of three primary types of rating scales in composition literature: primary trait scales, holistic scales, and analytic scales For this study, the focus will be on analytic scales, which provide a detailed assessment of various aspects of each script.
Analytic scoring evaluates writing scripts based on multiple criteria, such as content, organization, cohesion, register, vocabulary, grammar, and mechanics, rather than assigning a single score This approach offers a comprehensive view of a test taker's performance in various writing aspects, making it a preferred choice among many writing specialists over holistic scoring methods A prominent example of an analytic scale in ESL is the one developed by Jacobs et al (2002), which rates scripts across five distinct categories.
In writing assessment, five key aspects are evaluated: content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics Content is the most heavily weighted factor, accounting for 30 points, followed by language use at 25 points Organization and vocabulary are equally important, each contributing 20 points to the overall score, while mechanics hold minimal significance, with only 5 points allocated.
EXCELLENT TO VERY GOOD: knowledgeable substantive thorough development of thesis relevant to assigned topic
GOOD TO AVERAGE: some knowledge of subject adequate range limited development of thesis mostly relevant to the topic, but lacks detail
FAIR TO POOR: limited knowledge of subject little substance inadequate development of topic
VERY POOR: does not show knowledge of subject non- substantive not pertinent OR not enough to evaluate
EXCELLENT TO VERY GOOD: fluent expression ideas clearly stated/ supported succinct well-organized logical sequencing cohesive
GOOD TO AVERAGE: somewhat choppy loosely organized but main ideas stand out limited support logical but incomplete sequencing
FAIR TO POOR: non-fluent ideas confused or disconnected lacks logical sequencing and development VERY POOR: does not communicate no organization OR not enough to evaluate
EXCELLENT TO VERY GOOD: sophisticated range effective word/ idiom choice and usage word form mastery
appropriate register GOOD TO AVERAGE: adequate range occasional errors of word/ idiom form, choice, usage but meaning not obscured
The evaluation of language proficiency reveals a fair to poor performance characterized by a limited range of vocabulary and frequent errors in word choice and idiomatic expressions, leading to confusion in meaning In cases of very poor performance, there is a lack of essential translation skills and minimal understanding of English vocabulary and idioms, making effective evaluation difficult.
EXCELLENT TO VERY GOOD: effective complex constructions few errors of agreement, tense, number, word order/ function, articles, pronouns, prepositions
GOOD TO AVERAGE: effective but simple constructions minor problems in complex constructions several errors of agreement, tense, number, word order/ function, articles, pronouns, prepositions but meaning seldom obscured
The construction quality is rated as fair to poor, characterized by significant issues such as frequent errors in negation, agreement, tense, number, word order, and function Additionally, there are problems with articles, pronouns, prepositions, as well as the presence of fragments and run-on sentences These errors often lead to confusion or obscured meaning in the text.
VERY POOR: virtually no mastery of sentence construction rules dominated by errors does not communicate OR not enough to evaluate
EXCELLENT TO VERY GOOD: demonstrates mastery of conventions few errors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing
GOOD TO AVERAGE: occasional errors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing but meaning not obscured
FAIR TO POOR: frequent errors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing poor handwriting meaning confused or obscured
VERY POOR: no mastery of conventions dominated by errors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing handwriting illegible OR not enough to evaluate
Figure 2 Jacobs et al.’s (1981) scoring profile
Analytic scoring offers several advantages, particularly in rater training, as it allows inexperienced raters to better understand and apply distinct criteria compared to holistic scales (Francis, Adams, 1990) This method is especially beneficial for second language learners, who often exhibit varied performance across different writing aspects Additionally, analytic scoring tends to be more reliable than holistic scoring; similar to discrete-point tests, providing multiple scores for each script enhances overall reliability (Lyons, Huot, 2002).
Analytic scoring, while detailed, has the significant drawback of being more time-consuming than holistic scoring, as it requires multiple decisions for each script Additionally, when scores from various analytic scales are merged into a single composition score, much of the valuable information from the analytic assessment may be lost Furthermore, experienced raters using a specific analytic scoring system might inadvertently adopt a more holistic approach in their evaluations, especially when combining scores into one overall rating.
32 what they expect the total score to come out to be, and revise their analytic scores accordingly Charlene Polio (2002)
In the context of Vietnamese classrooms, adapting analytic scoring is deemed a more effective choice for assessing students' writing skills Accurate and objective evaluation serves as a crucial motivator, encouraging students to enhance their writing abilities Assoc Prof Dr Hoang Van Van (2007) proposes a rating scale for evaluating writing that aligns well with the needs of Vietnamese secondary school students This scale includes key parameters such as content, organization, language use (discourse and syntax), vocabulary, and mechanics.
The researcher introduces a working marking scale designed to guide evaluators in this study This scale encompasses five key aspects, each with four distinct levels, drawing on the frameworks established by Jacobs et al (1981) and Hoang (2007).
This chapter presents the issues related to:
The theoretical foundations of teaching writing encompass various perspectives and insights from researchers and authors regarding the essence of writing Additionally, these foundations introduce diverse approaches to writing instruction, notably the controlled composition and paragraph pattern methods, which are prominently featured in contemporary English textbooks for Vietnamese secondary school students.
METHODOLOGY
Design
This experimental study investigates the effectiveness of the process-writing approach in enhancing writing skills Utilizing a two-group pre-test and post-test design, the researcher aims to compare the outcomes of the product approach and the process-oriented approach in teaching and learning writing.
This experimental study evaluates the impact of a process-oriented approach on secondary school students' writing performance The primary goal is to create a cooperative learning environment where students can enhance their English writing skills by sharing their work and learning collaboratively with peers, rather than relying solely on teacher feedback.
Throughout the 16-week semester, both writing groups will receive instruction from the same researcher The key distinction lies in the methodologies employed: the control group will utilize a product-oriented approach, while the experimental group will focus on a process-oriented approach In both scenarios, students' written work will be evaluated by the researcher and two additional writing teachers.
Participants
The study involves 60 grade 8 students from Quang Trung Secondary School in Thanh Hoa, all of whom share a similar level of English proficiency The participants are divided into two classes, with one randomly selected as the control group and the other as the experimental group, each consisting of 30 students Both groups will be taught by the same instructor, with writing classes scheduled every two weeks for 45 minutes, totaling eight sessions for the study.
The program for applying a process-oriented approach to teaching and learning English writing at Quang Trung Secondary School will involve a lead researcher responsible for implementation, data collection, and analysis Additionally, two writing teachers from the English Department will participate by assisting in the grading and evaluation of both pre-tests and post-tests.
Instruments
This study aims to assess the impact of a process-oriented approach (POA) on students' writing skills and habits The researcher will evaluate students' writing abilities by administering pre-and post-tests, alongside questionnaires regarding their writing habits and evaluations of the POA By comparing the results before and after the intervention, the study seeks to determine how the POA can enhance students' writing skills and their perceptions of the approach in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context.
3.3.1 Pre-and post-questionnaire on the students’ writing habits
The pre- and post-questionnaires aim to examine students' writing habits, focusing on aspects such as the frequency of planning or outlining before writing, revising drafts, editing, and sharing their work with peers Each group of students dedicates approximately 15 minutes to complete the questionnaire, providing valuable insights into their writing practices.
3.3.2 Questionnaire on students’ evaluation of the writing process approach
The questionnaire is designed to investigate how students like the writing process oriented approach, how useful of strategies and how students manage strategies after program
The students in the experimental group are asked to complete questionnaire (See Appendix 7) Students spend about twenty minutes to complete the questionnaire
3.3.3 Pre- and post-test on English writing
To assess the quality of participants' written texts before and after the research, the researcher developed a pre-test and a post-test focused on English writing These tests are designed to mirror common writing tasks found in the Tieng Anh 8 student book, ensuring familiarity for the students The selected test formats are also frequently utilized in the secondary school classroom, aligning with the instructional methods students are accustomed to.
The pre-test and post-test are provided to both groups For this reason, the researcher assumes that the participants would have no trouble
3.3.4 Scoring the pre-test and the post-test
The researcher will utilize a consistent marking scale and marking sheet for both the pre-test and post-test assessments, as outlined in Appendices 5 and 6 This analytic marking scale, which includes specific evaluation criteria, has been adapted from the work of Jacobs et al.
In choosing an analytic marking scale over a holistic scale, the primary advantage lies in its ability to deliver more detailed diagnostic insights into students' writing skills This approach enhances the evaluation process by pinpointing specific areas of strength and weakness in student writing.
The evaluation instrument was meticulously developed and validated three times by four English teachers from the English Department at Quang Trung Secondary School It utilizes a marking scale that encompasses five key aspects: content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics Each aspect is assessed based on specific criteria using a four-degree scale, resulting in a total score ranging from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 10 for each test.
Following the distribution of the pre-questionnaire during the preparatory week, participants in two piloted groups will take a pre-test on English writing in the second week This pre-test aims to evaluate the EFL writing performance of participants across both groups.
Participants are given 45 minutes to complete the writing pre-test, which is scheduled for the same day to maintain consistent testing conditions This arrangement is designed to enhance the reliability of the grading process.
To ensure inter-rater reliability, each student's test and post-test are independently assessed by two teachers Scores are documented on separate record sheets, and teachers are prohibited from writing on the scripts to maintain the integrity of the marking process The final score is determined by averaging the two assessments, utilizing an analytic marking scale adapted from Jacobs et al (1981) and Hoang (2007).
Data analysis
The percentages of degrees for all questionnaire items were calculated and categorized into three groups: "always," "sometimes," and "never." To gain a comprehensive understanding of students' opinions on writing habits and their evaluation of the writing process-oriented approach, both pre-questionnaire and post-questionnaire results were analyzed together.
The study compares the scores awarded by two markers for pre-test and post-test assessments across different groups, utilizing Microsoft Excel to analyze the differences in mean scores This evaluation aims to determine whether students have shown improvement in their writing skills after completing the program, specifically focusing on aspects such as content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and writing mechanics.
Materials
This study will utilize the official textbook "Tieng Anh 8," published by the Ministry of Education and Training in 2016, as the primary course material for two groups of students The instruction will focus on the second eight units of the textbook, incorporating eight relevant topics that align with the main themes for writing practice.
A series of eight lessons based on a process-oriented approach will be implemented for the experimental group to enhance writing skills This method aims to foster a more effective cooperative learning environment for students.
Research Procedure
The procedure of this empirical study is briefly presented as follows:
- Pre-test on writing performance
- Pre-questionnaire on the students’ writing habits
- Implementation: the writing process oriented Approach
- Post-test on writing performance
- Post-questionnaire on the students’ writing habits
- Questionnaire on students’ evaluation on the writing process oriented approach
- Stage 1: A pre-test and pre-questionnaire will be given to students of grade 8 at the beginning of the second semester for both groups
In Stage 2, the researcher develops a scenario for classroom activities to implement a process-oriented approach in the experimental group This includes preparing lesson plans (refer to Appendix 8) and executing them Over a 16-week semester, lessons will be conducted bi-weekly, totaling 360 minutes of instructional time.
- Stage 3: Both of the experimental and control groups will be given a post- test at the end of the semester (week 34)
- Stage 4: The scores of the pre- and post-tests and the questionnaires
39 collected from the experimental and control group will be collected and analyzed then, come to the conclusion and suggestion.
Implementation of POA in teaching writing for the experimental group
To conduct the writing lessons under POA, the researcher would like to proposed design as follows:
In every lesson, English teachers engage in three key stages as researchers, with the first stage being Pre-writing This phase focuses on empowering students by enhancing their knowledge of the subject matter and modeling the text, which helps develop essential writing aspects such as content, organization, vocabulary, language, and mechanics.
While writing involves outlining and drafting as essential components of a structured approach, post-writing focuses on the editing process to refine students' written work.
Based on the proposed design above, the researcher would like to give an example of activities conducted in the experimental group as follows:
The researcher displayed the picture of pollution on LCD projector and led in the lesson “Now, we are going to discuss about something new”
“Well, look at the picture! What is it?” “It’s about water pollution, I think,” a
The researcher engaged students in a discussion about "Water Pollution" using an LCD projector to elicit their experiences Through guided questions, students explored their understanding of pollution, identifying various types and discussing the most serious forms affecting their area They also examined the causes and effects of pollution and brainstormed potential solutions.
The researcher asked them to describe the picture
The students described the picture using their own words as follows:
Pollution has become an increasingly serious issue in today's world Industrial waste is contaminating our water sources, leading to polluted lakes with blackened water, resulting in the death of numerous fish and aquatic animals Additionally, air quality has deteriorated, contributing to a dirty environment.
Then, the researcher distributed the text about “Water Pollution” in the students’ book
Water pollution refers to the contamination of various water bodies, including lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater It stands as one of the most critical forms of pollution, posing significant threats to ecosystems and human health.
Water pollution arises from various sources, including industrial waste discharged by factories into lakes and rivers, sewage from households, and agricultural runoff from farms utilizing pesticides and herbicides These contribute to "point source" pollution, while "non-point source" pollution is caused by pollutants carried by stormwater and atmospheric deposition.
Water pollution poses severe risks, particularly in developing countries where untreated water leads to frequent cholera outbreaks and other diseases, often resulting in fatalities Contaminated water not only threatens human health but also endangers aquatic life, leading to the death of species such as fish, crabs, and birds These dead animals can harm other wildlife that consume them Furthermore, the presence of herbicides in water bodies can devastate aquatic plants, exacerbating environmental damage.
So what should we do to reduce water pollution?
(Adapted from Unit 7: Pollution – Tieng Anh 8, p 12)
The students collaborated in pairs to identify new vocabulary from the text, facilitating class discussions for clarification Additionally, the researcher instructed them to translate the text into Vietnamese.
In this stage, the researcher gave the students’ opportunity to build their vocabulary by understanding and translating the text into Vietnamese
The main activities of this stage were: 1) eliciting the students’ experiences about kinds of pollution; 2) deducing the meaning from context; 3) translating the text into Vietnamese
The purpose of this stage is to recognize: (1) the generic structures of the text;
The layout and purpose of the text are essential for students to understand the specific type of writing presented This activity culminates in a classroom discussion, allowing students to engage and deepen their comprehension.
Firstly, the researcher reminded them to use words like “firstly”, “secondly”,
“finally” to express their points
Students developed skills to identify main ideas and supporting details within paragraphs, recognizing that these key concepts can appear in various positions—at the beginning, end, or as part of the conclusion They collaborated with other groups to discuss and validate their findings.
In this session, the researcher engaged students in activities focused on the topic of "Water Pollution." The tasks included collaborating with partners to create guided outlines based on the text and presenting one example of these outlines using an LCD projector.
3) making free-outlines based on the students’ ideas Every activity ended by discussing with the class to elaborate and confirm the knowledge of making outlines of the report text
Firstly, the researcher asked the students to reread the text about “Water
The group focused on the topic of pollution and began by creating guided outlines After discussing their findings within their own group, they shared their insights with other groups to compare and evaluate their discussions.
The researcher engaged students in a discussion by displaying a guided outline on an LCD projector Prompted by the researcher, the class shared their thoughts, with one student expressing, "I think it's good It is a complete outline."
Here is an example of their outlines:
- Water pollution is the contamination of bodies of water such as lakes, rivers, oceans, and ground water
- Water pollution is the most serious types of pollution
1 What are the causes of water pollution?
- Families dump sewage into the river
- Factories are dumping industrial waste into the lakes and rivers
- Farmers in our area usually use pesticide to kill insects and herbicides to kill weed
2 What are the effects of water pollution?
- There are frequent outbreaks of cholera and other diseases
- We do not have enough fresh water to water the plants and crops
- People cannot raise fish in the rivers and the lakes
- Humans can even die if they dink contaminated water
3 What are the solutions of water pollution?
- People in our area are aware of this problem and thinking of ways to solve
Thirdly, the researcher asked students to make free-outlines based on their
43 own ideas Then, they swapped their outlines to share with classmates
In this session, the researcher asked the students to develop their outlines into drafts individually
The students paid attention and took part in developing their outlines into the drafts
Here is the development of the outlines made by students:
Water pollution is a critical issue in our area, characterized by the contamination of lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater Among various types of pollution, water pollution poses the most significant threat to our environment and public health.
Several factors have contributed to the pollution of our river, transforming it from a once beautiful waterway into a nearly dark body of water Firstly, families have been dumping sewage directly into the river Additionally, the establishment of two new factories in the area has led to the discharge of harmful chemicals into both the lake and river Lastly, the use of pesticides by local farmers to eliminate insects has further exacerbated the pollution problem.
Researcher’s observation in the classroom
During the knowledge-building phase, students demonstrated a serious approach to their tasks The researcher utilized an LCD projector to display images of a forest and engaged the students with questions This approach proved successful, as the students attentively focused on the visuals and responded effectively to the researcher's inquiries.
During the vocabulary discussion, students recognized many familiar terms, likely due to their previous readings on pollution, which facilitated their understanding of related vocabulary This familiarity allowed them to engage effectively in the learning process After the vocabulary discussion, the researcher prompted the students to translate the text into Vietnamese, after which they collaborated with their partners to discuss their translations.
The participants exhibited increased motivation and enjoyment while engaging with the text, demonstrating a more serious approach to learning English They identified understanding the text as a key factor in their learning process Additionally, they encountered no difficulties in finding connectors between paragraphs or in mastering mechanics such as spelling, punctuation, and capitalization.
In the subsequent session, students engaged in text modeling, demonstrating a clear understanding of the generic structure and language features of descriptive and report texts They effectively differentiated between the two types of writing and grasped their purposes and content However, challenges arose when applying verb agreement in sentences, indicating a need for further practice in aligning verbs with their respective subjects.
During the outlining phase, students effectively identified main ideas and supporting details in pairs After discovering these key points, they shared their findings with other pairs, fostering collaboration and communication among them The researcher then guided the students in creating both structured and free outlines, which resulted in a more focused and serious atmosphere This approach facilitated smooth discussions without any issues.
The students found drafting to be an enjoyable and essential part of the writing process They recognized that practicing drafting significantly enhances their writing skills, which boosted their motivation As a result, they approached the drafting process with greater seriousness and commitment.
During the editing phase, students showed greater enthusiasm for revising their friends' drafts, recognizing the significance of editing in the writing process Their willingness to engage in this collaborative learning experience made it easier for the researcher to manage the class effectively.
This chapter provides a clear overview of the materials utilized in the study, focusing on the participants, which include grade 8 students and English teachers from Quang Trung Secondary School in Thanh Hoa.
Data collection instruments, including pre-questionnaires and post-questionnaires, as well as pre-tests and post-tests, are utilized in this study The Microsoft Excel program is employed to analyze and evaluate the significant differences in mean scores between the pre-test and post-test results.
The empirical study is structured into four detailed stages: Stage 1 involves administering a pre-test and pre-questionnaire to eighth-grade students at the start of the second semester for both groups In Stage 2, the researcher develops a scenario for classroom activities to implement the process-oriented approach (POA) in the experimental group Stage 3 consists of administering a post-test to both the experimental and control groups at the semester's end Finally, Stage 4 focuses on collecting and analyzing the scores from the pre-and post-tests, along with the questionnaires from both groups To effectively teach writing under POA, the researcher outlines a design that includes pre-writing, while-writing, and post-writing steps, along with examples of activities used in the experimental group Throughout the implementation of writing lessons under POA, the researcher maintains an observational report of classroom activities.