INTRODUCTION
R ATIONALE
Literary books are vital for cultural exchange and entertainment, and advancements like the printing press and the Internet have made them more accessible than ever However, the diversity of languages in which these books are written presents a challenge, as readers must either be proficient in the original language or depend on translations This language barrier continues to impede communication across different cultures and eras, highlighting the increasing importance of translation practices.
Translation activities require navigating the inherent differences between languages, prompting the development of translation theories to address these challenges A key focus within translation theory is the concept of equivalence, which has been extensively defined by numerous scholars Halliday (2001) emphasizes that the analysis of equivalence should take into account stratification, rank, and metafunctions.
From the perspective of Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG), language is a complex system of meaning comprised of various strata, including phonetic, phonological, lexicogrammatical, and semantic levels Each stratum is hierarchically organized with elements at different ranks The concept of metafunctions—ideational, interpersonal, and textual—illustrates how humans utilize language to convey meaning and interact (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004).
The ideational metafunction encompasses two primary meanings: experiential and logical In conversations, speakers convey content, which represents experiential meaning, also referred to as representational meaning This meaning is articulated through the system of Transitivity, which includes six process types: material, mental, relational, verbal, behavioral, and existential Each process is realized through its constituents—process, participants, and circumstances—further expressed by lexicogrammatical elements.
Catford's model of translation shifts (1965) expands on SFG by examining translation equivalence through grammatical hierarchy He introduces translation shifts as a method for analysis, categorizing them into two main types: category shifts and level shifts.
Shifts in translation refer to the changes in structure or form adopted in the target language (TL) to achieve equivalence with the source language (SL) Specifically, process shifts involve the use of different processes in the TL compared to those in the SL, ensuring that the translation maintains its intended meaning and coherence.
Awareness of changes in lexicogrammar during translation practices is crucial for understanding process shifts in translation This insight drives our study titled “An ”.
Investigation into Shifts in the Vietnamese Translation of English Processes in
“Wuthering Heights” by Emily Bronté”.
A IMS OF THE S TUDY
This study explores the shifts in lexicogrammar and existential processes in the Vietnamese translation of Emily Bronté's Wuthering Heights by Duong Tuong, utilizing Catford’s translation shifts and Halliday’s systemic functional grammar as foundational frameworks.
O BJECTIVES OF THE S TUDY
To achieve the aims of the study, the researcher will focus on some specific objectives:
-To find out the structure and configuration of ‘existential’ clause in the literacy work Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronté;
-To find out the types of translation shifts in translation;
-To examine how translation shifts facilitate shifts in process.
R ESEARCH Q UESTIONS
To achieve the aims and objectives mentioned above, the thesis concentrates on answering the following questions:
1.How are ‘existential’ clauses structured and existential processes represented in Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronté?
2.What types of shift are involved in translating these English ‘existential’ clauses into Vietnamese?
3.In what way do translation shifts facilitate shifts in processes as embedded in English ‘existential’ clauses?
S COPE OF THE S TUDY
This study examines translation shifts specifically at the rank of groups and phrases, focusing on the experiential aspect of ideational meaning within metafunctions The analysis is based on a limited sample from Emily Brontë's "Wuthering Heights" and its Vietnamese translation, "Đồi gió hú," by Dương.
S IGNIFICANCE OF THE S TUDY
This thesis aims to explore the transformation of existential clauses during translation and to highlight the differences in how existence is expressed in English and Vietnamese communication.
O RGANIZATION OF THE S TUDY
In the thesis, there are five chapters
The first chapter serves as the introduction, outlining the rationale, aims, and objectives of the study It presents the research questions and highlights the significance of the research, while also defining the scope and organization of the study.
The second chapter provides a comprehensive overview of translation theory and equivalence, focusing on Catford's theory of translation shifts and Halliday's concept of clauses as representations It also explores the relationship between clauses and their broader contexts, alongside a review of previous studies pertinent to the topic.
The third chapter is devoted to a description of the methods used in this thesis, process of data collection, and examples of data analysis
The fourth chapter of the thesis focuses on the research findings related to 'existential' clauses, examining their translation into Vietnamese It discusses the translation shifts that occur and the processes that facilitate these shifts during the translation act.
The final chapter summarizes the research findings, highlighting key ideas and implications It also addresses the limitations of the study and offers suggestions for future research directions.
LITERATURE REVIEW
A N O VERVIEW OF P REVIOUS S TUDIES
Translation has been essential for communication and has provided access to significant scientific and religious texts for centuries (Munday, 2008) Various linguists have contributed to the evolving concept of translation.
Numerous researchers have proposed various approaches to equivalences in translation, including Meetham and Hudson's concepts of fully and partially equivalent translations, as well as Nida's classifications of formal and dynamic equivalence Additionally, Newmark presents approaches focused on semiotic and communicative purposes (Lê, 2015).
The concept of equivalence is also discussed by Halliday (2001), using the theory of Systemic Functional Grammar (SFL) He suggests three approaches to equivalence: stratification, rank and metafunctions
Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) is a linguistic approach focused on understanding language through meaning and developing a grammar that facilitates meaningful discourse about texts (Matthiessen, Teruya, & Lam, 2010) Numerous researchers have contributed to the introduction and summarization of SFG, including Eggins (1994), who outlines the principles and techniques of this functional approach, and Bloor and Bloor (1995), who provide a beginner-friendly summary of the theory Additionally, Martin, Matthiessen, and Painter (1997) offer extensive grammatical analyses that further enrich the understanding of SFG.
Numerous studies have explored the Vietnamese language through the framework of Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) Hoang (2005) developed a transitivity system for Vietnamese, identifying six distinct processes: material, mental, relational, behavioral, verbal, and existential He highlighted three unique characteristics of the language: the differentiation in meaning when using the verbs bị or được in passive constructions, the necessity of the word lạ in the dependent range of material clauses, and the ability to omit verb groups that serve as processes in relational and existential clauses.
In his 2017 study, Chueasuai explored the relationship between interpersonal metafunction and power dynamics among the main characters in Fifty Shades of Grey, comparing the original English version with its Thai translation Through an analysis of character conversations, the study highlights significant differences in the representation of power, attributed to the absence of certain linguistic features in Thai that are present in English.
In a study conducted by Hu (2017), the comparison of experiential meaning between the poem "Ode to the West Wind" and its Chinese translations revealed that the translation process often alters the original meaning The findings indicate that it is feasible to transform one type of process into another while preserving the overall meaning of the text.
In their 2017 study, Rosaa, Sinar, Ibrahim-Bell, and Setia examined the differences in translation approaches between student and professional translators when translating historical texts Utilizing Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) to analyze metafunctions, the researchers discovered that professional translators exhibited more metafunctional shifts than their student counterparts The findings indicated that professionals prioritized preserving the meaning of the texts, whereas students focused more on maintaining the original form.
SFL served as the foundational framework for Catford's translation theory in his 1965 book, "A Linguistic Theory of Translation." Catford defines equivalence across various language strata, encompassing both content and expression levels, including phonology and phonetics Additionally, he presents translation shifts as a valuable analytical tool for examining the intricacies of translation.
The term shift was introduced by Catford in his work published in 1965
Shifts are defined as deviations from formal correspondence when translating from the source language (SL) to the target language (TL) These shifts are categorized into two main types: rank shifts and category shifts.
In similar vein, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) discuss also the concept of shift, using the term transposition, but it hadn’t been popular until their book was translated into English language
Translation shift theoryis a useful tool for analysis of lexicogrammar shifts in translation, and there have been many researchers utilizing it (Khafaji, 2006; Rezvani & Nouraey, 2014; Venckienė, 2015)
Despite extensive research on metafunction shifts, there has been a lack of investigation into the shift between English and Vietnamese languages, particularly from a lexicogrammar perspective This study aims to address this gap by exploring experiential meaning through Catford’s model of translation shift (1965/2000) to analyze the process shifts that occur during translation.
T HEORETICAL B ACKGROUND
Translation has been practiced for millennia, yet the academic study of the field gained significant attention only in the 20th century (Munday, 2008) The definition of translation remains a topic of debate among scholars, with various linguists and translation theorists offering differing perspectives.
Interlingual translation, as defined by Jakobson (1959/2000), involves interpreting verbal signs through different languages, emphasizing the substitution of entire messages rather than individual code units Catford (1965) further clarifies translation as the replacement of textual material from one language (SL) with equivalent material in another language (TL) Larson (1984) describes translation as the transfer of meaning from the source language to the receptor language, highlighting that while the form may change, the core meaning must remain intact Additionally, Newmark (1988) underscores the importance of capturing the author's intent, defining translation as the rendering of a text's meaning into another language in alignment with the author's original purpose.
Translation is the process of transforming the forms of text between source and target languages while preserving the original content and the author's intended impact on readers.
Translation aims to convey meaning, but achieving this goal is challenging due to the unique characteristics of each language According to Nida (1964/2000), no two languages are identical in how they assign meaning to symbols or structure sentences This is exemplified by Jakobson's (1959/2000) analysis of the word "cheese" in English and Russian, which reveals that "there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units" (p.114) Consequently, Meetham and Hudson (1972) emphasize the complexities involved in translation practices.
Texts in various languages can exhibit varying degrees of equivalence, which may be complete or partial This equivalence can manifest across different levels, including context, semantics, grammar, and lexis Additionally, it can occur at multiple ranks, such as word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase, or sentence-for-sentence (Bell, 1991, p 6).
In "A Linguistic Theory of Translation," Catford (1965) distinguishes between textual equivalence and formal correspondence in translation Textual equivalence refers to a target language (TL) text or a portion of it that is deemed equivalent to a source language (SL) text or a part of it, determined through the insights of a skilled bilingual informant or translator Formal correspondence, on the other hand, is discussed as a separate concept, highlighting the nuanced differences in translation practices.
A formal correspondent in translation refers to a target language (TL) category that closely mirrors the position and function of a specific source language (SL) category within its own economic context This concept, articulated by Catford in 1965, emphasizes the importance of maintaining equivalent roles in translation.
Munday (2008) highlights that textual equivalence is specific to a particular source text (ST) and target text (TT) pair, while formal equivalence serves as a broader, system-based concept across languages (p.60) Nida and Taber (1982) emphasize that the primary goal of translation is to convey the meaning of the source language (SL) text, which may necessitate significant deviations from its formal structure, making such changes not only acceptable but often advantageous (p.13) Consequently, Catford (1965) introduces the concept of translation shifts to facilitate these necessary lexicogrammar adjustments (see section 2.2.3).
Nida (1964/2000) identifies two approaches to equivalence in translation: formal equivalence, which emphasizes content preservation, and dynamic equivalence, which focuses on the reader's impact Likewise, Newmark (1988) introduces communicative translation, aiming to create an effect on the audience.
“equivalent effect (to produce the same effect or one as close as possible) on the reader ship” (p.48) and semantic translation which prioritize semantic meaning
Halliday (2001) proposes that metafunctions serve as a framework for analyzing equivalence in translation Among the three metafunctions, ideational meaning is prioritized, as translation equivalence is fundamentally defined in ideational terms According to Halliday, if a text fails to align ideationally with its source, it cannot be considered a valid translation.
From the perspective of the equivalence regarding to metafunction, we now move to the introduction of systemic functional grammar
Systemic functional grammar (SFG) is a linguistic approach that focuses on understanding how language functions within communication contexts It considers language as a resource shaped by its usage, emphasizing that the structure of language is directly linked to the meanings it conveys (Thompson, 2009).
In the 1930s and 1940s, Firth laid the groundwork for a social approach to linguistic description, which was further developed by his student Halliday into what was initially called Scale and Category Grammar Halliday's framework evolved into Systemic Linguistics and was later referred to as Functional Grammar to emphasize its grammatical elements This framework has seen significant contributions from scholars like Jim Martin and Christian Matthiessen in recent years (Trask, 2005; Thompson, 2009).
According to Hoang (2005), language models are structured into three main strata: phonetics, syntax, and semantics Each stratum is organized into various ranks, patterns, and systems Ranks represent different units within each stratum, such as clauses, groups, words, and morphemes in lexicogrammar Patterns demonstrate how these units combine to form larger structures, while systems outline the available choices for each unit's position.
In SFG, there are five strata: context, semantics, lexicogrammar, phonology and phonetics as the following figure
Figure 2.1: Stratification in English language
(Derived from Halliday and Matthiesen 2004)
Phonetic and phonology strata pertain to the sounds of speech and serve as layers of expression These layers consist of two main strata: lexicogrammar and semantics Language functions to interpret our experiences and facilitate social interactions, which is the essence of the semantics stratum Concurrently, these experiences and interactions are articulated through wording, represented by the lexicogrammar stratum Additionally, the context stratum encompasses the dynamics of the conversation, including participant relationships and their means of interaction The interplay among these strata, known as realization, signifies that each stratum is expressed through the one below it (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004).
Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) focuses on lexicogrammar, which serves as a bridge between semantics and phonology While it addresses lexicogrammar, SFG emphasizes semantics, positioning grammar as a tool for expressing meaning (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004).
S UMMARY OF THE C HAPTER
This chapter explores the theory of translation and the theoretical concepts of Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG), providing a framework for analyzing experiential meaning in verbal texts It introduces representations both below and beyond the clause, alongside Catford's translation shift theory Additionally, the chapter offers a concise overview of prior studies relevant to the discussed theories.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
R ESEARCH A PPROACHES
This thesis employs both qualitative and quantitative methods, with a primary focus on qualitative analysis The qualitative approach is used to examine the translation shifts within clauses, the processes involved in target language clauses, and the relationship between translation and process shifts Meanwhile, the quantitative method serves to tally the frequency of each type of shift and process.
The analysis utilized both comparative and descriptive methods to examine the results The comparative method identified similarities and differences, while the descriptive method offered a detailed account of the sample analysis and the interrelationship between shifts in lexico-grammar and process changes.
D ATA C OLLECTION
The literary work which serves as the sample for this study is Wuthering
Heights by Emily Bronté available online at https://www.pdfdrive.com/wuthering-heights-planet-pdf-d7009947.html Figure 3.1 is the capture of a page of this website
PDFDRIVE is a comprehensive ebook store offering over 86 million free ebooks across various genres, including education, biography, environment, and art.
The Vietnamese edition of "Wuthering Heights," titled "Doi Gio Hu," was translated by Duong Tuong and published by Literature Publishing House in 2016 Duong Tuong is a renowned writer, poet, and translator, having translated over 50 significant works, including "Gone with the Wind" by Margaret Mitchell and Shakespeare's "The Tempest." Established nearly a century ago, Literature Publishing House is one of the most prestigious publishing houses in Vietnam.
In our study of Emily Bronté's Wuthering Heights, we focused on 140 'existential' clauses, selected based on the existential process framework by Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) Initially, we aimed to analyze both relational and 'existential' clauses due to their significant impact on translation processes However, we recognized that the scope of this analysis was too extensive for a master's thesis, leading us to concentrate solely on the 'existential' clauses Although we intended to gather around 150 clauses, we found that only 140 'existential' clauses are present in this literary work.
"Wuthering Heights," written by Emily Brontë in the mid-19th century and published in 1847, is celebrated for its intricate plot and enduring popularity This classic of English literature explores a complex tale of romance and revenge involving Heathcliff, alongside the Earnshaw and Linton families, vividly illustrating the psychological and physical traits of its characters.
We chose to focus our research on literary discourse instead of other genres because literary translation offers significant opportunities for lexico-grammatical shifts, allowing for equivalent effects in translation Additionally, the engaging content and abundant examples found in literary works enhance our enjoyment throughout the research process.
D ATA A NALYSIS
Languages are intricate systems composed of various levels This thesis examines data samples at the simple clause level, as Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) suggest that metafunctions are embedded within clauses The analysis of these samples was conducted through a series of methodical steps.
In our analysis of Wuthering Heights, we identified 140 existential clauses, which were subsequently categorized based on the framework established by Halliday and Matthiessen Additionally, we examined the elements of the transitivity system, including processes, participants, and circumstances, in accordance with the principles of Functional Grammar An example of this analytical approach is provided in the study.
[64 WH, p.229] After that, we identified the translation clauses of the ‘existential’ ones in
Doi Gio Hu In the same way, we analyzed the translation clauses in both lexical- grammar and experiential meaning
Còn có những buồng khác nữa chứ
In our study, we identified the types of shifts that occur during the translation process, utilizing Catford’s theory as a framework We categorized our sample into distinct groups based on the specific shifts involved Ultimately, we compared the translation processes of English and Vietnamese clauses, revealing the connections between translation shifts and process shifts.
S UMMARY OF THE C HAPTER
This chapter outlines various research methods employed in the study, including qualitative, quantitative, descriptive, and comparative approaches Additionally, it details the processes of data collection, data analysis, and overall research procedures.
Adverbial group (AG) Verbal group (VG) Nominal group (NG)
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
P REAMBLE OF E NGLISH E XISTENTIAL C LAUSES
4.1.1 The Structure of ‘Existential’ Clause
According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2004), an 'existential' clause comprises three key components: the adverbial group "there," which serves no functional role in the transitivity system; the process, represented by a verbal group; and the existent, which can be expressed as a nominal group or an embedded clause, encompassing various phenomena Additionally, optional elements functioning as circumstances may include nominal or adverbial groups, or prepositional phrases.
Table 4.1.The structure of an ordinary ‘existential’ clause
Adverbial group (AG) Verbal group (VG)
Nominal group (NG) or Embedded Clause
The below part shows the analysis of several ‘existential’ clauses in the sample:
There will be no saving him
[25 WH, p 114] According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2004), if the circumstantial element is theme of the clause, then the AG there may be omitted as the illustration below:
Table 4.2 The structure of ‘existential’ clause with circumstance as theme
AG/PP/NG VG NG
Circumstance (Cir) Pr: existential Existent
In the sample, there are a few of them structured like that:
Above the chimney were sundry villainous old guns, and a couple of horse-pistols
As has been mentioned, there are circumstantial elements and these are placed at the beginning or at the end of the clause
4.1.1.1 Circumstance at the Beginning of the Clause
Table 4.3 The structure of ‘existential’ clause with circumstance at initial position
AG/PP/NG AG VG NG
The example (3) illustrates for the structure above
The day she was buried there came a fall of snow
4.1.1.2 Circumstance at the End of the Clause
Table 4.4 The structure of an ‘existential’ clause with circumstance at end position
AG VG NG AG/PP/NG
This structure is very popular in the data as in (4), and (5):
There is no happiness in the world
[41 WH, p 166] There is a special case where the circumstance elements appear twice both at the beginning and at the end of the clause Instance (6) helps illuminate this
NG AG VG NG PP
The day after there was a justice-meeting at the next town
Cir Pr:existential Existent Cir
It is worth to take a look at structure of nominal group as it expresses most the content in the clause
4.1.2 The Structure of Nominal Group
In a nominal group, the core is called Thing There are also optional elements modifying for it, they may precede or follow the thing
It is a sequence of words having distinct experiential function and preceding the Thing
Table 4.5 The experiential structure of a nominal group
Deictic Numerative Epithet Classifier Thing
Determine Numeral Adjective Adjective Noun
The deictic elements are used to signify levels of definiteness or knownness of the thing in nominal groups
(9)There’s the coachman and the two gardeners [45 WH, p 185]
The numerative elements show the quantity or the order of the thing in nominal group
(10) There is no missis [21 WH, p 99]
(11) There were some persons [[sitting at cards]] [40 WH, p 157]
The epithet elements modify for the thing by giving some quality for it
(12) There’re good books enough [9 WH, p 32]
(13) There was some mortal feud [[unavenged between us]] [3 WH, p 16]
The classifier elements indicate a particular subclass of thing in nominal group Unfortunately, these elements are not found in our sample data
It can be one or more than one embedded items which may be prepositional phrase, non-finite or finite clauses
A prepositional phrase follows the thing and modifies for it
(14) There’s a letter for you [73 WH, p 252]
(15) There was no pleasure in it [110 WH, p 397]
A non-finite clause functions as an embedded clause for the nominal group (16)There was scarcely time [[to experience a thrill of horror]]
[27 WH, p 117] (17)There is no need [[to be frantic!]] [38 WH, p 150]
It is a clause, but downranked, and it functions as modifier for the nominal group in front of it
(18) There is ONE [[who won’t shrink from my company]]
(19) There are those [[who speak to having met him near the church, and on the moor, and even within this house]]
D ISCUSSION OF F INDINGS
This article discusses the findings related to the translation of 'existential' clauses, utilizing Catford's (1965/2000) model of translation shifts It examines the shifts that have occurred and highlights how changes in lexico-grammar can lead to shifts in process, reflecting Catford's concept of 'departures from formal correspondence.'
Figure 4.1: Occurrences of translation shifts by type
The analysis reveals that three out of four types of shifts are present in translation, with structure shifts occurring most frequently at 93 instances In contrast, class shifts and unit shifts were noted 27 and 44 times, respectively Notably, there were no instances of intra-system shifts observed.
This research focuses on clauses as the primary unit of analysis, emphasizing that translation shifts are applied exclusively to clauses and their components, rather than to groups or phrases Consequently, any alterations pertaining to elements below the level of groups and phrases will be excluded from this thesis.
Structure shift Class shift Unit shift intra-system shift
According to Catford (1965), structure shift occurs when words, phrases, clauses, or sentences in the source language (SL) have translation equivalents of the same rank in the target language (TL) but differ in structure This type of shift is the most prevalent among category shifts across all ranks in translation.
In the sample data, there exists a variety of structure shifts as shown in Table 4.6
Table 4.6.Structure shifts in the translation of English clauses
There were some mortal feud
(AG+VG+NG+[[VG+AG]])
Giữa chúng tôi có một mối tư thù [[chưa thanh toán xong]]
There is no chance of a change at present
Thời tiết không có cơ màu gì thay đổi ngay được đâu
There was such anguish in the gush of grief
Cơn sầu não trào ra theo luồng gió tuyết lồng lộn ấy
Không còn mợ chủ nữa
Nếu có những người như thế
Rối tinh rối mù lên
Hầu như chẳng có nguyên nhân gì
(AG+VG+NG) Đêm không trăng
Còn có những buồn khác nữa chứ
Có kẻ đứng nghe trộm
There is no happiness in the world
Trên đời này không có hạnh phúc
There are several other handsome, rich young men in the world
Trên đời còn có nhiều chàng trai trẻ khác cũng đẹp, lại giàu có
The analysis below utilizes the sample presented in the table above; for any clarifications regarding the source of this analysis, please refer to the table.
(23) There is no missis (AG+VG+NG)
Không còn mợ chủ nữa (VG+NG)
(24) If there be any (AG+VG+NG)
Nếu có những người như thế (VG+NG)
(28) There are other rooms (AG+VG+NG)
Còn có những buồn khác nữa chữ (VG+NG)
In English clauses, three components are present: AG (Actor), VG (Verb), and NG (Noun Group), as demonstrated in examples (23), (24), and (28) In contrast, Vietnamese clauses typically consist of only two components: VG and NG This comparison highlights the omission of the AG "there" in the translation process Such omissions are common when translating existential clauses from English to Vietnamese, as seen in the provided sample data.
AG there were not found
It is also noticed that there are other equivalent types of structures, besides (VG+NG) For example:
(25) There’s a mess (AG+VG+NG)
Rối tinh rối mù lên (NG+VG)
The article highlights a structural shift characterized by the removal of the adverbial group Additionally, it notes that the other components are rearranged, with the Vietnamese structure following the pattern of noun group plus verb group (NG+VG).
(27) There was no moon (AG+VG+NG) Đêm không trăng (NG+VG+NG)
In Vietnamese, the sentence structure typically follows the pattern "NG+VG+NG," which differs from the previously mentioned structures Appendix 2 of the thesis highlights various other structures within Vietnamese clauses that are considered equivalent to the source language clauses.
(26) There is scarcely cause (AG+VG+AG+NG)
Hầu như chẳng có nguyên nhân gì (AG+VG+NG)
(30) There is no happiness in the world (AG+VG+NG+AG)
Trên đời này không có hạnh phúc (AG+VG+NG)
The position of the AGs (Argument Groups) has shifted, functioning as circumstantial elements within clauses For instance, in example (26), the group transitions from a middle position to the beginning, while in example (30), the group moves from the end to the forefront of the sentence.
Halliday (as cited in Catford, 1965) defines class as the grouping of members within a unit based on their function in the structure of the next higher unit Class shifts occur when the translation equivalent items belong to a different class than the source language items These shifts necessitate adjustments to certain components of the source language to align with the new structure Essentially, class shifts involve changes in word categories during the translation process.
To put it another way, nominal groups, verbal groups, adveribial groups and prepositional phrase are, in some cases, interchangeable (Catford, 1965, pp 78-
Some examples denoting class shifts are sketched out in Table 4.7
Table 4.7 Class shifts in the translation of English clauses
English clauses Vietnamese translation Class shift
(33) there is no chance of a change at present
[4 WH, p 17] thời tiết không có cơ màu gì thay đổi ngay được đâu
There was no reply to my question
Không ai trả lời câu hỏi của tôi
Có mấy người đang ngồi đánh bài
There was a bare possibility of overtaking them
[54 WH, p 209] may ra còn có thể kịp họ
There shall be an explanation as soon as [[I can give it]]
Tôi sẽ giải thích ngay chừng nào có thể
There seldom passed much talk between them
Chả mấy khi hai cha con nói chuyện gì nhiều với nhau
(39) there was the doleful cry
Tiếng kêu ảo não vẫn tiếp tục rên rĩ
There’s the very prime of the morning [[gone long before that time]]
Phần tốt đẹp nhất của buổi sáng đã qua lâu trước lúc đó
(41) there were so many hillocks and banks [[to climb and pass]]
Nhưng rồi lại tiếp tục phải trèo, phải qua không biết bao nhiêu gò và bờ nữa
(30) there is no chance of a change at present thời tiết không có cơ màu gì thay đổi ngay được đâu
(31) There was no reply to my question
Không ai trả lời câu hỏi của tôi
The examples demonstrate a clear shift in class items, where elements from nominal groups are transformed into verbal groups For instance, "no chance" changes to "không có cơ màu," and "a change" becomes "thay đổi." Similarly, "reply" is converted to "trả lời."
Another major type of class shifts we found in the sample happens at the rank of clauses and transfers from embedded clauses to main clauses For example:
(36) There was the doleful cry [[moaning on]]
Tiếng kêu ảo não vẫn tiếp tục rên rĩ
The English sentence "there was the doleful cry" contains a main clause and an embedded clause "moaning on," which modifies the nominal group "the doleful cry." In contrast, the Vietnamese translation presents a single clause where the verb group "vẫn tiếp tục rên rĩ" corresponds to the embedded clause in English This indicates that the embedded clause in the English version is integrated into the main clause in the Vietnamese translation.
(37) There’s the very prime of the morning [[gone long before that time]] Phần tốt đẹp nhất của buổi sáng đã qua lâu trước lúc đó
Instance (37) mirrors the previous case, showcasing a class shift from an embedded clause to a main clause The embedded clause, which had been a post-modifier for the preceding nominal group, is now transformed into a standalone clause, indicating its departure long before that time.
In addition to the previously discussed class shifts, other types can occur, including transitions from prepositional phrases to verbal groups and from nominal groups to adverbial groups, as illustrated below.
(32) There were some persons [[sitting at cards]]
Có mấy người đang ngồi đánh bài
The instance above shows that the prepositional phrase at cards is recognized as the verbal group đánh bài
(33) There was a bare possibility of overtaking them
May ra còn có thể kịp họ
The nominal group possibility is translated as the adverbial group may ra
Catford (1965) defines unit-shift as the alteration of rank in translation, where the equivalent of a unit at one level in the source language (SL) corresponds to a unit at a different level in the target language (TL).
Table 4.8 Unit shifts in the translation of English clauses
English clauses Vietnamese translation Unit shift
There was no reply to my question
Không ai trả lời câu hỏi của tôi
There is a talk about you at
[117 WH, p 445] thế mà ở Gimmerton họ đặt chuyện về bà
(44) there were no signs of his coming
Chả có dấu hiệu gì là cụ trở về
There’s a little cake for each of you
Có bánh gato nhỏ, mỗi em được một cái đấy
There’s the very prime of the morning [[gone long before that time]]
Phần tốt đẹp nhất của buổi sáng đã qua lâu trước lúc đó
Gió cuồng, sấm dữ CL NG
There was a violent wind, as well as thunder
||There was a great fire, ||and that was all the light in the huge apartment||
Một đống lửa to là toàn bộ ánh sáng trong căn phòng to tướng
(50) there were so many hillocks and banks [[to climb and pass]]
Nhưng rồi lại tiếp tục phải trèo, phải qua không biết bao nhiêu gò và bờ nữa
There was the doleful cry
Tiếng kêu ảo não vẫn tiếp tục rên rĩ
(42) There was no reply to my question
Không ai trả lời câu hỏi của tôi
(45) There’s a little cake for each of you
Có bánh gato nhỏ, mỗi em được một cái đấy
S UMMARY OF THE C HAPTER
This chapter explores the structure of existential clauses and their components in Wuthering Heights, highlighting the findings from the application of translation shift tools Additionally, it discusses the impact of lexicogrammar shifts on the processes involved in the text.
The study identifies various types of 'existential' clauses as proposed by Halliday and Matthiessen (2004), highlighting the diverse positions of their circumstantial elements It analyzes the structures of nominal groups functioning as existents, revealing a range of modifiers, including deictic, numerative, epithet, prepositional phrases, and non-finite clauses Additionally, the research investigates translation shifts, particularly category shifts, noting that structural shifts are the most prevalent, followed by unit and class shifts Ultimately, these translation shifts can lead to changes in processes, with each category shift facilitating distinct process alterations.