INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Weather has historically been vital for human survival, impacting various aspects of daily life such as transportation, agriculture, tourism, and events For thousands of years, people have monitored and predicted weather patterns, a practice known as weather forecasting, which utilizes scientific models to anticipate future atmospheric conditions Accurate weather forecasts are essential for ensuring safety, as they help prevent dangerous situations and protect lives and property from potential disasters Governments play a crucial role in disseminating weather information and implementing safety measures to mitigate the effects of severe weather events Consequently, understanding weather forecasts and managing weather-related risks are critical for safeguarding human life and enhancing decision-making in areas like construction, policymaking, and environmental management.
In applied linguistics, hedges enable speakers and writers to express caution or probability rather than absolute certainty Research on hedging typically examines this linguistic phenomenon through various lenses, including textual analysis, speech act theory, politeness theory, genre-specific studies, interactional pragmatics, and the use of vague language.
Despite the extensive research on hedging in various disciplines, studies specifically focusing on hedging in weather forecasts remain scarce Recognizing the significance of this gap, the author initiated a research project titled “Hedging in Representatives in English and Vietnamese Weather Forecasts.” This research aims to enhance the existing literature and deepen the understanding of hedging practices within the context of weather forecasting.
Aims and Objectives of the Study
This study investigates the hedging devices and their functions utilized in representatives within English and Vietnamese weather forecasts Additionally, it seeks to uncover the similarities and differences in the use of hedging in these forecasts across both languages.
To achieve the aims, the objectives of this study are:
1 to examine hedging devices applied in representatives in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts
2 to analyze the functions of such hedging devices
3 to compare and contrast hedging in representatives in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts.
Research Questions
This study investigates hedging in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts, focusing on the main problem of how representatives are utilized in these contexts The research aims to address specific questions related to this phenomenon.
1 What hedging devices are used in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts ?
2 What are the functions of the hedging devices?
3 What are the similarities and differences in the use of hedging in representatives in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts?
Scope of the Study
Searle (1979) categorizes illocutionary acts into five types: Directive, Expressive, Declarative, Commissive, and Representative speech acts This study focuses specifically on representative speech acts, as they play a crucial role in knowledge sharing Additionally, the research is confined to examining the use of hedges in representative speech acts within English and Vietnamese weather forecasts.
Significance of the Study
The study is hoped to bring out some theoretical and practical contributions
This study aims to enhance existing research on hedging in representatives, providing a valuable reference for future studies It is anticipated that the findings will inspire subsequent researchers to further develop the topic of hedging in representatives, contributing to a deeper understanding of the subject.
Understanding hedging in weather forecasts is crucial for linguistics students, as it can enhance their comprehension of language nuances Additionally, this knowledge is valuable for both citizens and authorities in mitigating potential weather-related risks For instance, farmers can leverage weather forecasts to safeguard against adverse conditions that may impact their harvests, such as insufficient rainfall, excessive precipitation during harvest time, high winds affecting plantations, or temperature fluctuations in greenhouses Accurate forecasts enable individuals to plan their activities effectively, ensuring safety by avoiding outdoor exposure during severe weather events.
4 updated with the possibilities of the arrival of storms that cause destruction and havoc.
Structure of the Study
The study consists of six chapters:
This chapter outlines the justification for selecting the study area, detailing the aims, objectives, research questions, scope, and significance of the research Additionally, it provides a structured overview of the thesis to serve as a roadmap for the study.
Chapter 2- Literature Review and Theoretical Background
This chapter discusses the notions of representative speech act, hedges, relationship between hedges and conversational maxims and weather forecasts
This chapter states the chosen methods to carry out the study and to analyze the collected data It also deals with the procedures of the data collection
Chapter 4 – Findings and Discussion on Types of Hedges
This chapter describes hedging forms in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts as well as the similarities and differences between them Chapter 5 – Findings and Discussion on Hedging Functions
This chapter analyses the collected data to find out the major similarities and differences in hedging functions in the investigated weather forecasts in English and in Vietnamese
This part summarizes the main findings of the study, provides some implications for TEFL, and offers suggestions for further researches
LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview of speech acts
Speech Act Theory, initially developed within the Philosophy of Language to elucidate the functions of language, has since expanded its application across linguistics and, more recently, in computational models.
Speech Act Theory was introduced by J.L Austin and summarized in his William James Lectures presented at Harvard University in 1955 (Austin,
John Searle, a prominent student of J.L Austin, significantly advanced Speech Act Theory, shaping it into its current form His influential works, including publications from 1969 and 1979, as well as his collaboration with Vanderveken in 1985, are foundational to the understanding of how language functions in communication.
Speech acts, as defined by Yule (1996: 47), are actions executed through utterances, often categorized into specific types like apologies, complaints, compliments, invitations, promises, or requests When individuals communicate, they not only construct grammatically correct sentences but also engage in meaningful actions through their spoken words.
There are numerous speech acts in people’s utterances and Yule (1996:
53) classifies them into five groups, namely declarations, directives, expressives, representatives, and commisives
Representatives are linked to the speaker's beliefs regarding the truth of a statement (Yule, 1996: 53) They encompass factual statements, assertions, conclusions, and descriptions The primary function of representatives is to bind the speaker to the truth of the position expressed, affirming their commitment to its validity (Searle).
For example, The earth is flat
Commissives are a category of speech acts that involve the speaker committing to future actions These acts convey the speaker's intentions and include expressions of promises, threats, refusals, and pledges (Yule, 1996).
For example, I’ll be back
Expressives deal with stating what the speaker feels They express psychological conditions which can be the statement of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow (Yule, 1996: 53)
Directives are communication strategies used by speakers to prompt others to take action, encompassing commands, orders, requests, and suggestions These expressions can be framed positively or negatively, reflecting the speaker's intentions and desires (Yule, 1996: 54).
For example, Could you lend me a pen, please?
Declaratives are related to change the world via utterance The speaker has a
7 special institutional role, in a specific context in order to perform a declaration appropriately (Yule, 1996: 53)
For example, Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife
According to Searle, a representative speech act commits the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition, reflecting their belief that can be evaluated as true or false Performative verbs such as describe, classify, claim, and predict indicate these acts, which are considered illocutionary Specifically, representative speech acts showcase a speaker’s belief in the words they recite Yule (1996) emphasizes that these acts convey the truth of the utterance, while Searle and Vanderveken (1985) categorize representative speech acts into thirty-two subcategories.
Overview of hedges
This section explores the background and origins of the term "hedge," followed by a detailed discussion on the concept of hedging, including both form-based and function-based definitions.
Thirdly, she establishes the working definition of a hedge used in this thesis
2.2.1 Origin of the term hedge
Hedging refers to a barrier or means of protection and has been a part of language for centuries The term was first introduced by Lakoff in his 1972 article, "Hedges: A Study in."
The article "Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts" explores words that inherently possess fuzziness in their meanings The study highlights that the interpretation of hedges relies heavily on context, emphasizing that the impact of hedging is a pragmatic phenomenon rather than a purely semantic one.
Lakoff's groundbreaking concepts have been expanded upon by various linguists who now view hedging as both a semantic and pragmatic phenomenon (Mauranen, 2004: 173) This perspective shifts the understanding of hedges from merely indicating inexactness, such as in the phrase "a rose is kind of a flower," to recognizing their role in pragmatic strategies like politeness and mitigation.
Salager-Meyer (1994), a renowned French linguist known for his contributions to linguistic, rhetorical, and discourse analysis, presents a taxonomy of hedges that categorizes various word classes utilized as hedging devices.
According to Lakoff, hedges are “words whose meaning implicitly involves fuzziness- whose job is to make things fuzzier or less fuzzy”
Brown and Levinson(1987) state that “A hedge is a particle, word,
A modifier is a term or phrase that adjusts the extent to which a predicate or noun phrase belongs to a particular set It indicates that this membership may be partial or applicable only in specific contexts, or it can suggest that the membership is more accurate and comprehensive than one might initially assume (Levinson, 1987: 145).
According to Locastro (2003), speakers often use hedges to indicate partial adherence to conversational maxims Hedges are expressions that reveal a speaker's awareness of the Cooperative Principles while simultaneously signaling that they are not fully complying with them.
The impact of hedging devices in the discourse is measured by their overall effect on meaning or the message of the text oral/written Hyland
(1996) illustrates that hedging devices are used to indicate a lack of complete commitment to the truth of the proposition, and a desire not to express the commitment categorically
2.2.3 Hedges adhering to Varttala’s classification
Varttala (1998) introduces a framework for identifying hedging devices through the analysis of common epistemic lexical items This framework categorizes five key word classes: modal auxiliaries (e.g., may), main verbs (such as argue and believe), adverbs (including possibly and perhaps), adjectives (like potential and probable), and nouns (such as hypothesis, idea, and notion), as illustrated in Table 2.1.
This study adopts a framework for categorizing hedging types and functions based on Varttala (2001) and Quirk (1985) While no framework can fully encompass the extensive range of hedging, this combination aims to create a comprehensive set of hedging forms Additionally, the author establishes a working definition of a hedge, focusing on specific types of hedges for analysis.
10 lexical hedges or phrasal hedges
Table 2.1: Taxonomy of hedging devices
Types Subtypes Realizations of hedges
Modal Auxiliaries Will/would, can/could, may/might, shall/should, ought to, etc
Argue, predict, imply, suggest, propose, contend, forecast, claim, etc
Feel, believe, conceive, maintain, judge, think, wish, assume, estimate, speculate, reckon, claim, etc
Appear, seem, look, tend,etc
Probability adjectives Apparent, likely, possible, potential, probable, suggestive, etc Adjectives of indefinite frequency
Common, frequent, general, normal, usual, substantial, etc Adjectives of indefinite degrees
Fair, little, main, major, slight, relative, etc
Approximate, close, gross, virtual, etc
Probability adverbs (un)likely, perhaps, possibly, probably, apparently, etc
Commonly, generally, usually, often, frequently, etc
Fairly, highly, mainly, slightly, rather, quite, etc
About, almost, nearly, roughly, some, just, somewhat, approximately, greatly, mostly, etc
Argument, clue, claim, suggestion, etc
Tentative cognition Approximation, assumption, belief,
Types Subtypes Realizations of hedges
Trend, likelihood, guess, hope, etc
Verb phrases really do believe, want to make sure, mean actually, ect Adjective phrases Really good, really so clear, etc Adverb phrases Just like, completely just
Prepositional phrases For me, By the way
Other phrasal hedges Kind of
2.2.4 Hedges adhering to Grice’s conversational maxims
Effective communication relies on the application of certain rules to ensure successful conversations These rules, known as Cooperative Principles, assist both the speaker and the listener in effectively delivering and understanding messages Introduced by English philosopher Paul Grice in 1975, the Cooperative Principle emphasizes the importance of cooperation in communication.
Effective communication relies on the cooperative principle, which emphasizes that participants in a conversation must contribute appropriately based on the context and purpose of the exchange This principle highlights the necessity for both speakers and listeners to work together to achieve mutual understanding Grice asserts that both parties share this cooperative intent, with speakers striving to convey their messages clearly The cooperative principle is further delineated into four sub-principles, known as maxims: quality, quantity, relation (or relevance), and manner, each guiding how conversations should be conducted to ensure clarity and comprehension.
2.2.4.2 Hedges adhering to Grice’s maxims
The field of pragmatics is significantly shaped by Grice's work on cooperative principles, which aim to clarify the intended meaning behind an utterance Grice posits that interlocutors are rational beings who collaborate to fulfill conversational goals, emphasizing the importance of making relevant contributions He identifies four maxims—quantity, quality, relevance, and manner—that guide effective communication, aiding in the interpretation of both direct and indirect speech acts Understanding these maxims is essential for grasping the nuances of conversation.
The maxim of quantity emphasizes the importance of providing just the right amount of information in communication—neither too much nor too little It requires speakers to deliver precise and relevant information while also considering what aspects to highlight By carefully balancing the details shared, speakers can ensure their messages are clear and effective, avoiding overwhelming or under-informing their audience.
(1) All I know is smoking damages your health
In this instance, the addresser limits the quantity of information by using All I know Therefore, the maxim of quantity is hedged
- The maxim of quality, where one tries to be truthful, and does not give information that is false or that is not supported by evidence In a
In a conversation, the listener tends to believe the speaker's statements are truthful, as the speaker avoids expressing anything they know to be false This dynamic creates an expectation for honesty, prompting the speaker to refrain from sharing information they consider incorrect.
(2) They say that smoking damages your health
The addresser expresses uncertainty about the truth of the statement regarding smoking's impact on health by using phrases like "They say that." This indicates a hedging of the maxim of quality, suggesting that the addresser is not fully confident in the claim that smoking damages health.
Overview of weather forecasting
2.3.1 Brief history of weather forecasting
Weather observation has significantly advanced since the creation of the first weather instruments In earlier times, people depended on personal experiences, astrology, and natural signs from plants and animals for weather predictions, which are now considered unreliable Today, enhanced monitoring networks, sophisticated instruments, effective communication systems, and well-trained personnel provide detailed and dependable weather records According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, current five-day forecasts are accurate approximately 90% of the time, while seven-day forecasts are correct about 80% of the time, and ten-day forecasts reflect actual weather conditions around 50% of the time.
A weather forecast is a prediction of upcoming weather conditions, typically delivered through media such as radio or television, detailing what to expect for the next day or several days ahead, as defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.
According to the website http://learnesl.net, a weather forecast is defined as a statement that describes recent weather conditions, current weather, and future weather predictions It is often presented as a daily report of meteorological observations and anticipated changes, typically issued by a government authority.
2.3.3 Forecast quality of weather forecasts
(This part is based on an article entitled “Forecast quality of weather forecasts” by Weather bonk (2020) on the web www weatherbonk.com)
There are three categories of weather forecasts: short-term, medium- term, and long-term weather forecasts
Short-term weather forecasts, typically covering a range of 1 to 7 days, provide detailed insights into various atmospheric conditions, including wind, rainfall, temperature, and cloud cover The accuracy of these forecasts is highest on the first day and gradually decreases by the seventh day.
Medium-term weather forecasts provide a general trend for conditions beyond the seventh day, indicating the likely direction of upcoming weather events These forecasts suggest that while a specific weather occurrence is probable, it has not yet been confirmed.
Season forecasts typically include long-term weather trends, focusing on temperature patterns—whether it will be too warm or too cold—and potential precipitation behaviors, indicating if conditions will be too wet or too dry.
Previous relevant studies
Hedges and hedging encompass a broad range of lexical and syntactic elements in text aimed at modifying and softening propositions These linguistic features play a crucial role in communication by adding nuance and uncertainty to statements, as discussed by scholars such as Leech (1983), Levinson (1983), and Quirk et al (1985).
Hyland (1994) defines hedging as a reflection of the relationship between the writer and the reader He categorizes hedges into two types: content-oriented, which focuses on accuracy and its real-world representation, and reader-oriented, which addresses the interpersonal dynamics and conduct rules between the writer and the reader (Hyland, 1998) Additionally, Hyland (2000) emphasizes the importance of understanding the pragmatic effects of hedges and recognizing them in texts as essential for developing rhetorical competence across various disciplines.
Research on hedging and intensifying devices in English peaked in the 1970s and 1980s, leading to numerous publications that explored their roles in both written and spoken discourse This study builds on prior works, including those by Chafe, Hermeren, and Holmes, which serve as references for analyzing hedging Over time, hedging has been examined from various perspectives, including cross-cultural comparisons, gender studies, translation studies, politeness theory, and academic discourse Recent studies share a focus on the pragmatic aspects of hedging, highlighting its significance as a strategy in interpersonal communication.
Salagan-Meyer’s theory (1994) categorizes hedges into various groups while examining their frequency and distribution across different genres Her research indicates that editorials and reviews utilize hedges more frequently than case reports and research papers, with the passive voice being a prominent hedging device in these contexts.
According to Varttala (1998), the communicative functions of hedges are different in specialist research articles and popular research articles
In popular research articles, hedging is used to convey textual precision and demonstrate interpersonal negative politeness Conversely, in specialist research articles, it serves as a textual tool that can indicate both imprecision and precision, while also reflecting interpersonal positive politeness.
Nikula (1997) examines the use of hedging in conversational speech among Finnish learners of English compared to native speakers The study reveals that learners employ hedges less frequently and with less diversity than their native counterparts Additionally, while native speakers often combine multiple hedges in various positions within their utterances, learners predominantly overuse "I think" at the beginning of their statements.
In her 2009 study, Yu expands on Nikula's 1997 findings by exploring the pragmatic development of hedging among EFL learners She classifies hedges into several categories, including quantificational approximators, performative shields, modal shields, pragmatic-marker hedges, and various syntactic and discoursal hedging strategies The research employs written questionnaires, simulated debates, and oral interviews to gather data.
A study involving 211 Chinese learners from junior high school, high school, and university-level English courses in China reveals their progression in language use Initially, learners rely solely on performative expressions like "I think." As they advance, they incorporate a mix of intensifiers and mitigators, eventually reaching an advanced stage at the university level At this stage, students demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of hedging clusters that encompass various categories of hedges, showcasing their linguistic development.
In her 2013 study, Rabab’ah examines the use of hedging in academic articles related to nursing and education, highlighting both the similarities and differences in their application across these two fields The research delves into the reasons behind the use of hedges and categorizes them, providing insights into their significance in academic writing within these disciplines.
A recent study highlights notable differences in the use of hedging devices between nursing and education writers, with education writers employing these strategies more frequently The findings indicate that hedging serves various communicative purposes, such as moderating the strength of claims, expressing uncertainty, maintaining the writer's credibility, persuading readers, and minimizing potential rejection of their assertions.
In addition, Yang, J (2019) conducts Analysis of hedges in English advertising from the perspective of Cooperative Principle He employs
Grice's maxims play a significant role in analyzing the functions of hedges in English advertising, revealing that hedges represent a linguistic phenomenon characterized by fuzziness This study highlights the importance of hedges as a vital communication strategy for advertisers By utilizing hedges effectively, advertisers can enhance their promotional efforts and gain a deeper understanding of communication strategies Furthermore, this research underscores the necessity of exploring hedges within the context of advertising and the cooperative principle.
Vietnamese researchers have significantly contributed to the understanding of hedging as a pragmatic phenomenon Hoàng Phê (2002) defines hedging as expressions that prevent unexpected misunderstandings and reactions to statements Similarly, Nguyễn Quang (2003) identifies hedging as a strategy employed to mitigate the propositional content.
Nguyễn Lê Tố Quyên (2014) conducted a study titled “Types of Hedges Used by American and Vietnamese Celebrities,” which explores the syntactic and pragmatic features of hedges employed by these public figures The research findings indicate that quality hedges are the most frequently used type among both American and Vietnamese celebrities.
19 both American and Vietnamese data, while the use of quantity hedges, manner hedges and mixed hedges are different from each other
In his 2016 thesis, "A Contrastive Analysis of Hedges in Giving Comments by Judges in The Voice America versus The Voice Vietnam," Bùi Văn Sang identifies three primary categories of hedges: lexical, phrasal, and clausal The study analyzes hedging functions based on the four maxims of conversation, concluding that quantity hedges are the most prevalent, while other types of hedges are distributed unevenly.
Summary
This chapter provides an overview of speech acts, hedges, and weather forecasting, while proposing a theoretical framework for the current study Additionally, it includes a concise review of previous research to highlight existing gaps in the literature.
RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Research methods
This research used both quantitative and qualitative approach in analysis of English and Vietnamese weather forecasts in terms of hedging devices and hedging functions
The study employed a quantitative approach to analyze the frequency and percentage of various types of hedges, while a qualitative approach was utilized to uncover the pragmatic features associated with these identified hedges.
The study primarily employs descriptive and comparative methods to explore the similarities and differences in hedges used in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts.
Data collection and data analysis
The data collected meet the following criteria
Data will be gathered from reputable online newspapers in both English and Vietnamese, including sources like The Sun, Weather.com, WeatherBug, and VTV.vn.
Secondly, all the news will present weather forecasts in November and December of the year 2019
Thirdly, the average length of each forecast is between 15 clauses and
The author of the present study randomly collected the data mainly from the Internet The quantity of data included 30 English weather forecasts and 30 Vietnamese ones
The study analyzed representative speech acts from weather forecasts in both English and Vietnamese, utilizing the framework established by Searle and Vanderveken (1985) This classification was instrumental for the research, although it was noted that not all representative acts identified fit within this categorization, and several of Searle and Vanderveken’s categories were absent from the weather forecasts.
There were about 619 hedges found in the data sources, in which 290 hedges were used in the English weather forecasts and 329 were employed in the Vietnamese weather forecasts
3.2.4 Process and theoretical framework for data analysis
With the data of 30 English weather forecasts and 30 Vietnamese ones, the hedges wielded in the representatives in the two languages were positioned, sorted out regarding typology
With the above results, the author drew out similarities and differences in using hedges in English weather forecasts and Vietnamese ones
3.2.4.2 Theoretical framework for data analysis
Building on previous theories of hedges, particularly those by Searle and Vanderveken (1985), the author analyzed representatives in weather forecasts Additionally, a framework from Varttala (2001) was utilized to categorize and code the data into different hedge classifications For further information, please refer to the detailed analysis.
22 see Table 2.1 Next, the framework of Grice (1975) was used to analyze the functions of the hedges
Searle and Vanderveken (1985: 182) classify the categories in representative speech acts into thirty-two subcategories Here are the categories of representative speech acts
Table 3.1 The framework of the analysis of representatives
1) Asserting - stating firmly that something is true, good, valid, and so on
2) Claiming - asserting something based on the speaker claim
3) Affirming - carrying the positive assertion as opposed to negative assertion
4) Stating - connecting to the notion of setting something forth or representing something normally for the benefit or edification of the hearer
5) Denying - creating the action of denial and opposing or negating the proportion
6) Disclaim - the illocutionary denegation of claiming
7) Assuring - assuring is done when one assures one tries to make the hearer feel sure, normally because he already has some doubts
8) Arguing - the action which is against a certain thesis
9) Rebut - the act to argue against an argument or view already put forward
10) Informing - providing the hearer with necessary information
11) Notifying - asserting to a hearer with the additional of achievement that the hearer be put on notice
12) Reminding - asserting to a hearer with the additional preparatory condition that the hearer once knew and might have forgotten the proportional content
13) Objecting - the act of asserting with the additional preparatory
Subtypes Description condition that some proposition
14) Predicting - asserting with the proportional content condition that the proportional content is future with respect to the time of the utterance and the additional preparatory condition that the speaker has evidence in support of the proposition
15) Reporting - asserting with the proportional content condition that the proportional content is about the past with the respect to the time of the utterance
16) Retrodict - retrodicting is the opposite of predict
17) Suggesting - giving a suggestion for someone to do something
18) Insisting - the same illocutionary force with suggesting The different is that the force to do something where insisting has more authority to assert the hearer
19) Conjecturing - conjecturing is when P is to weakly assert that P while presupposing that one has at least some slight evidence 20)Hypothesizing - involving diagnoses and hypotheses regarding diseases and symptoms
21) Guessing - guessing can just be an unfounded stab in the dark
22) Swearing - swearing has both representative and commissive use
Swearing to a statement or a commitment adds a layer of solemnity and strength to the assertion This act signifies a serious promise or belief, enhancing the weight of the declaration.
23) Testifying - a special case of swearing, asserting in the capacity of being a witness and under an oath
24) Admitting - asserting the state of affairs represented by the proportional content which is bad
25) Confessing - admitting the speaker’s responsibility for a certain state of affairs which is bad
26) Accusing - asserting to someone with the proportional content condition that the proportional content predicates
Subtypes Description responsibility to some individual for the existence of state of affairs and with the preparatory condition that this state of affair is bad
27) Blaming - the main difference between blaming and accusing appears to be that whereas blaming can be done privately in one’s thoughts, accusing requires a public speech performance
28) Criticizing - asserting something is bad while expressing disapproval of the speaker
29) Praising - asserting something is good while expressing approval of the speaker
30) Complaining - complaining has both an assertive and an expressive use
To complain about P means to assert that P while also expressing genuine dissatisfaction with P and acknowledging that the situation is unfavorable.
31) Boasting - boasting has both representative and expressive use In the representative sense, to boast that P is to assert P while expressing pride that P because of the ego involvement in boasting, it is do not form a minimal pair
32) Lamenting - lamenting that P is to assert P while expressing dissatisfaction and sadness that P, because of the ego a feature lacking in lamenting Lamenting differs from complain, only by the fact that sadness.
Data-processing procedures
There were main steps followed by the author and presented as follows:
Step 1: Prepare and organize the data
The initial step in data analysis involved ensuring that the data was formatted for easy analysis The researcher tailored the depth of data preparation based on the available time and resources.
25 data This type of transcription actually involved data analysis as well as preparation
Step 2: Review and explore the data
The researcher began the exploration by reviewing various types of collected data, focusing initially on gaining an overall understanding rather than a detailed analysis This approach allowed the author to assess whether sufficient data had been gathered for further examination.
Step 3: Code the data into categories
Coding is the process of identifying different segments of the data that describe related phenomena and labeling these parts using broad category names
The author utilized the framework of representative speech acts to extract representatives from weather forecasts and subsequently identified hedging devices within these representatives Careful consideration was given to the identification of hedges, as not all words or expressions function as hedges in every context.
After collecting the data, the next step involved analyzing it through several key processes First, the forms of hedging devices were examined, followed by statistical analysis to obtain quantitative data, including calculating the occurrence frequency of various hedge types Second, the pragmatic functions of these hedging devices were analyzed using a similar approach to that of their forms Finally, a comparison and contrast of the hedging forms and functions in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts was conducted, highlighting significant differences and similarities.
26 that the quantitative analysis is combined with the qualitative analysis to explain the reasons for similarities and differences related to socio-cultural factors
Step 5: Report and interpret the data
Based on the findings, the author prepared a research report to discuss the study's results Additionally, the report outlines implications for enhancing learning and teaching strategies focused on the effective use of hedges in communication.
Validity and reliability
The study's data is authentic, ensuring validity and reliability, as it is sourced from widely recognized and publicly available websites For instance, AccuWeather is known for its comprehensive and accurate weather forecasts, as highlighted in the New Proof of Performance Results Similarly, WeatherBug offers online weather forecasts and live updates Furthermore, the author established clear criteria for data collection, ensuring the process was reliable and feasible.
The author conducted the analysis using well-defined frameworks, effectively reducing the risk of subjectivity Additionally, by considering both the co-text and the context of the situations, the analysis remains objective and grounded.
Summary
This chapter outlines the methodology employed in the present study, starting with an introduction to the research methods utilized It provides a comprehensive description of the data collection and analysis processes, along with the research procedures followed Lastly, the chapter addresses the validity and reliability of the study's findings.
27 are also presented to guarantee for the exactness of the study In the next chapter, the findings and discussion of the study are portrayed deliberately and significantly
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ON TYPES OF HEDGES
Types of hedges in the English weather forecasts
Table 4.1: Overall distribution of hedging categories in EWFs
Hedging categories Raw numbers Percentages (%)
Table 4.1 clearly illustrates that forecasters predominantly utilize lexical hedges, which comprise 93.1% of their hedging strategies, in contrast to phrasal hedges, which represent only 6.9% The subsequent sections will provide a detailed analysis of the distribution of these hedging categories.
Table 4.2: The frequency of lexical hedges in EWFs
Subcategories of lexical hedges Raw numbers Percentages (%)
As indicated in Table 4.2, among the five sub-systems, Modal auxiliaries are found to be used most frequently Adjectives account for 14.4
In the analysis of lexical hedges, adjectives represent the highest proportion at 78.9%, significantly surpassing full verbs and adverbs, which account for 11.5% and 9.7%, respectively Nouns are the least prevalent among the five sub-types, comprising only 1.9% of the total, with just 5 out of 270 instances categorized as such.
Table 4.3: The frequency of modal auxiliaries as hedges in EWFs
Modal auxiliaries Raw numbers Percentages
Table 4.3 illustrates the frequency and distribution of eight modal verbs employed as hedges, highlighting their varied usage and the distinct strength of claims conveyed by the speaker Each modal verb serves a unique function in communication, underscoring the importance of their roles in speech.
The modal auxiliary "will" is the most commonly used in English as a foreign language (EWF) contexts, accounting for 59.2% of its usage It appears in various structures, including after nouns, noun phrases, pronouns, and in inverted forms.
(E1) After several days of wet, soggy weather, the West Coast will also see a break of rain and snow
(E2) From there, it will slide into the Upper Mississippi Valley and Great
Lakes late today into Wednesday
(E3) Not only will this system tap into Pacific moisture but bitter cold Canadian air will filter south in the storm’s wake
Modal verbs such as can, could, and may express possibilities, each with distinct nuances Collectively, could and may account for 23.3% of usage, primarily focusing on specific possibilities that are limited to particular times or locations.
In the following examples, "could" indicates modality, enabling speakers to express the possibility of snow in specific locations, such as the Grapevine on Interstate 5 in Southern California and the Upper Mississippi Valley.
(E4) Even the Grapevine on Interstate 5 in southern California could see accumulating snow
In the Upper Mississippi Valley, a light snowfall may pose a nuisance, but the potential for freezing rain could create hazardous conditions, resulting in slick and icy roads.
Forecasters frequently use the term "may" to indicate the possibility of something being true or occurring This word reflects uncertainty in predictions or intentions, highlighting the potential for various outcomes.
May in this sense usually refers to a future event when it combines with an event verb
(E6) Light rain may appear in the evening, so the atmosphere will become cooler
(E7) Rain accompanying the storm may add further travel difficulties by reducing visibility and creating a heightened risk of hydroplaning while traveling at highway speeds
In this research, can is realized as the fifth most frequent auxiliary with 7% This modal verb is used in both affirmation forms and negative forms
Forecasters use the modal verb can to talk about general possibilities For example,
(E8) However, drifting snow in part of this swath can be a problem through Sunday, due to high winds
In (E8), it is possible that moving in drifting snow can be a problem whoever you are, whenever you are and wherever you are It is a general possibility
The passive with can is possible if the agent is unspecified, i.e in agentless passives or when the agent is anyone
(E9) A few strong to severe thunderstorms cannot be ruled out near the central Gulf Coast
The auxiliary would is considered as a past form of will to express prediction This verb occurs only once in the data
(E10) Given this, it appears any precipitation would fall as rain from the Interstate 95 corridor of the Northeast
Must, should are used to say something that is necessary or unnecessary or to give advice While should/ should not occur 14 times (about 8.3%), must is employed only once (0.6%)
(E11) In the wake of the storm, Monday should be a good travel day over the region with temperatures reaching within a few degrees of average and some sunshine
(E12) "During episodes of strong, gusty winds, officials must space out the arriving and departing aircraft," Sosnowski said
Besides, the data shows that there are many particular lexical verbs (including tentative cognition verbs and tentative linking verbs) such as expect, forecast, appear, etc
Table 4.4: The frequency of lexical verbs as hedges in EWFs
The research identifies a total of 9 lexical verbs, with "expect" being the most frequently used, occurring 16 times, which accounts for 54.6% of the total This verb is primarily utilized in the passive voice, with two instances in the active voice followed by an infinitive.
(E13) West of the Continental Divide, temperatures are expected to remain above normal
(E14) The powerful tropical storm is expected lash the coast of Southern England by Tuesday night
In the examples provided, the term "expect" indicates that the weatherman is confidently predicting the occurrence of significant weather events, such as a powerful tropical storm or a predominantly dry day, without any uncertainty.
In English weather forecasts, meteorologists primarily rely on advanced technology and expert opinions, leading to the frequent use of the verb "expect," which accounts for over half of the lexical verbs used Conversely, the verb "predict," which is based on knowledge and experience, appears less frequently, with only two instances found in the data.
(E15) Today, the entire Southern area is predicted to be sunny
Forecast ranks second with 4 occurrences (about 12.9%) The use of forecast can be exemplified in (E16)
(E16) Winds are forecast to remain gusty in New York City on Thanksgiving Day
Statistics indicate that the lexical verbs "appear," "claim," "feel," "seem," "believe," and "suggest" are infrequently used, often appearing only once or twice This observation can be illustrated through specific examples.
(E17) The BBC Weather forecaster claimed it may not feel that way with heavy rain and strong gusts
(E18) Model ensembles suggest that rainfall next week could total around 0.5’’ in Yma to 1.5-2.0’’ in Phoenix
Linking verbs such as "feel" and "appear" serve to connect subjects with adjectives, providing additional information about their states or appearances This relationship enhances the understanding of the subjects by elaborating on their characteristics.
(E19) But with cloud and rain and still a brisk southerly wind, it will feel quite chilly here for Friday
(E20) Motorists are urged to use caution as some roads that appear wet in this area could contain icy patches with temperatures close to freezing, making driving conditions treacherous
Table 4.5: The frequency of adverbs as hedges in EWFs
Table 4.5 illustrates the diverse use of adverbs as hedges in English weather forecasts, encompassing probability adverbs, adverbs of indefinite frequency, degrees, and approximative adverbs These hedges significantly enhance the lexical variety, comprising 26 tokens in total The adverbs "mainly" and "quite" are the most commonly used, representing 15.7% and 11.5% of the total, respectively.
(E21) In those areas, it will turn quite chilly with a patchy frost possible again in the early hours of Friday (Adverbs of indefinite degrees)
(E22) Moderate coastal flooding is expected further north along the mid- Atlantic coast, including Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, with inundations mainly in the 1-to-2-foot range
The adverbs "possibly" and "potentially" serve as hedges to indicate probability, with "potentially" exhibiting the weakest hedging strength among them.
Types of hedges in the Vietnamese weather forecasts
Table 4.12: Overall distribution of hedging categories in VWFs
Hedging categories Raw numbers Percentages (%)
As can be seen from Table 4.12, lexical hedges and phrasal hedges are used evenly in the Vietnamese weather forecasts with nearly 166 occurrences (about 50% each)
Table 4.13: The frequency of lexical hedges in VWFs
As can be seen from table 4.13, there are 5 types of lexical hedges with different rate of frequency The analysis shows that lexicall verbs take up
37.3% of the total number of lexical hedges analyzed in the data Modal auxiliaries take up 34.9 % and adverbs 24.1% Nouns account for only
Table 4.14: The frequency of lexical verbs as hedges in VWFs
1 dự báo/ được dự báo 23 37.2%
In analyzing Table 4.14, it is evident that the lexical verbs utilized as hedges in Vietnamese weather forecasts exhibit significant diversity This category is crucial in lexical hedges, accounting for 62 occurrences in total The verb "dự báo" (predict) appears 23 times, representing 37.2% of the total, while "cho thấy" (state) follows with 10 occurrences, comprising 16.1%.
In the analyzed data, the term "cảnh báo" (warn) ranks third with 5 occurrences, followed by "khuyến cáo" (recommend) with 4 occurrences The terms "đề nghị" (suggest), "đề phòng" (beware), and "ghi nhận" (record) each appear three times Meanwhile, "thông báo" (inform) and "đảm bảo" (ensure) are noted twice, while "dự kiến" (estimate) and "lưu ý" (note) each occur once These findings provide a clear overview of the frequency of various terms in the dataset.
Trong 12 giờ tới, áp thấp nhiệt đới sẽ di chuyển theo hướng Tây với tốc độ khoảng 15 km mỗi giờ, tiến sâu vào đất liền và dần suy yếu thành một vùng áp thấp.
(= It is predicted that within the next 12 hours, a tropical depression will move westwasts with a speed of 15km/h, move inland and then gradually weaken into a low-pressure area.)
(V2) Cảnh báo, từ hôm nay (31.10), trên các sông từ Hà Tĩnh đến Quảng Nam và khu vực Tây Nguyên sẽ xuất hiện một đợt lũ
(=It is warned that from today (31.10), the rivers from Ha Tinh to Quang Nam and the Central Highlands will appear a flood.)
Bà Lan nhận định rằng trong những tháng cuối năm, tình hình mưa bão có thể diễn ra dồn dập và có khả năng kéo dài đến tháng 1 năm 2020.
Miss Lan predicts that rain and storm activity will persist throughout the late months of the year, potentially extending into January 2020.
(V4) Ông lưu ý việc không để người dân vì hiếu kỳ xem bão mà ra ngoài rất nguy hiểm
(=He notes that curious residents who want to go out to watch the storm are not allowed because it is very dangerous.)
Vietnamese weather forecasters often utilize lexical verbs as hedges at the beginning of sentences, as demonstrated in examples (V1), (V2), and (V3) Additionally, they occasionally position lexical verbs after pronouns, as seen in example (V4).
Table 4.15: The frequency of auxiliary verbs as hedges in VWFs
Auxiliary verbs Raw numbers Percentages
Table 4.15 reveals four modal types used as hedging forms: sẽ (will), có thể/không thể (can/cannot), nên/không nên (should/should not), and cần (need) Notably, the modal sẽ occurs with a frequency rate of 58.6% Additionally, the modal auxiliaries có thể/không thể are favored over nên/không nên in hedging contexts.
44 nên, constituting 27.6% and 12.1% in their respective
The modal cần is quite rare in the Vietnamese weather forecasts; however, their occurrence also expresses the advice from the weathermen Below are the cases in the point
(V5) Nếu bão đi với tốc độ 10-15km/h thì khoảng 15-16 tiếng nữa (sau 22h hôm nay) sẽ đổ bộ vào đất liền với sức gió mạnh cấp 8-9, giật cấp 11
If the storm continues at a speed of 10-15 km/h over the next 15-16 hours, it is expected to make landfall with sustained winds classified as Category 8-9, accompanied by peak wind gusts reaching Category 11.
In Vietnamese weather forecasts, the modal verb "sẽ" is used with a lexical verb to indicate potential future actions, such as a storm making landfall with sustained winds of Category 8-9 and peak gusts reaching Category 11 Additionally, "có thể" serves as a common auxiliary verb to express the possibility of future events.
(V6) Về tình hình sóng, khu vực ngoài khơi sóng cao từ 4-6m, ở Phú Yên có thể lên cao nhất 7m
(= As regards waves, the offshore areas’ waves will be 4-6m in height and Phu Yen can see waves with their height reaching an estimated maximum of 7m.)
(V7) Bão Kammuri sáng 30/11 duy trì cường độ ở mức 150 km/h, có thể mạnh lên thành siêu bão trong 2 ngày tới
(= Kammuri storm on November 30 th will maintain its intensity of 150km/h and can strengthen into a super typhoon in the next two days.)
In (V8), the auxiliary nên (should) is often used to give advice or warnings for the coming disasters
(V8) Riêng nhóm nhạy cảm (người già, trẻ em và người mắc bệnh hô hấp) nên ở trong nhà, đóng kín các cửa sổ
(= The sensitive group such as the old, the children and the people of respiratory infections should stay at home and close all windows.)
Table 4.16: The frequency of adverbs as hedges in VWFs
Table 4.17 reveals a significant prevalence of adverbs in hedging, with the adverb "khoảng" (around) being the most frequently used in weather forecasts, appearing 17 times (42.5%) Following this, the adverbs "chủ yếu" (mainly), "xấp xỉ" (approximately), and "thường" (usually) are utilized 4 times (10%), 3 times (7.5%), and 2 times (5%) respectively.
Showers are localized weather phenomena, making their exact development difficult to predict As a result, forecasters often use the term "scattered" as a hedge in their predictions.
Due to the influence of cold air, scattered rain is expected in the mountainous regions of Northern Vietnam.
In the next 24 hours, the storm is expected to predominantly travel towards the west-southwest at a speed of 15 km/h.
When mentioning numbers such as temperature or air quality index, forecasters usually use approximative adverbs before the numbers like in examples (V11) and V(12)
(V11) Cho đến 4 giờ sáng nay 11.11, vị trí tâm áp thấp nhiệt đới ở khoảng 13,1 độ vĩ bắc và 108,9 độ kinh đông, ngay trên đất liền khu vực các tỉnh nam
(= Until 4 a.m on November 11 th , the centre of the tropical depression will be at around 13,1° N and 108,9° E overland of the provinces in the south and central region of Vietnam.)
(V12) Còn theo hệ thống quan trắc của Tổng cục Môi trường tại 556 Nguyễn Văn Cừ, chất lượng chỉ số AQI lúc 7h là 199, xấp xỉ ngưỡng tím
(= According to the climate observing system of the department of the environment located at 556 Nguyen Van Cu , Air Quality Index (AQI) at 7h will be
Table 4.17: The frequency of nouns as hedges in VWFs
Table 4.14 reveals the frequencies and types of noun hedges utilized in Vietnamese weather forecasts The analysis shows a variety of nouns serving as hedges, with "xu hướng" (tendency) appearing once, "nguy cơ" (risk) occurring twice, and "khả năng" (likelihood) noted three times.
( V13) Khả năng trong ngày 15/11, bão Ramon gây mưa lớn cho đảo Luzon, Rappler cho hay
(= “On November 15 th , the likelihood of Ramon storm can cause a heavy rain in Luzon” Rappler said.)
Ông Trần Quang Năng, Trưởng phòng Dự báo thời tiết tại Trung tâm Dự báo Khí tượng Thủy văn quốc gia, cho biết rằng vào ngày 28-29/12, áp thấp nhiệt đới có khả năng chưa đủ mạnh để trở thành bão.
(=Mr Tran Quang Nang, the manager of the national weather forecasting
47 center (NCHMF) analyzes the intensity of the tropical depression on December 28- 29th that there are many possibilities it may not strengthen into a storm.)
Similarities and differences of hedges in EWFs and VWFs
This section is devoted to encapsulating the similarities and differences of hedges in the English weather forecasts versus the Vietnamese ones
4.3.1 Summary of the quantitative data of hedge usages
Graph 4.1: The frequency of hedging categories in EWFs and VWFs
The frequency of hedging categories in EWFs and VWFs
Graph 4.1 illustrates that word hedges significantly dominate in EWFs, representing almost 97% of the total In contrast, VWFs exhibit a nearly equal distribution between word hedges and phrasal hedges, comprising 49.5% and 50.5%, respectively.
EWFs and VWFs exhibit notable similarities in the hedging forms they utilize, with modal auxiliary verbs, lexical verbs, and various lexical items—such as nouns, adverbs, and adjectives—being the most frequently occurring elements in both types of writing.
Full verbs and modal verbs are key components of hedging in both data sets Interestingly, adverbs, adjectives, and nouns contribute similarly to expressing modality, with adverbs being more significant than the latter two.
The analysis reveals that the frequency of phrasal hedges in Vietnamese Written Forms (VWFs) closely matches that of lexical hedges, while a significant contrast exists in English Written Forms (EWFs), where lexical hedges are utilized eight times more than phrasal hedges Notably, phrasal hedges are predominantly found in Vietnamese data but are seldom used in English contexts This discrepancy may be attributed to the non-inflectional nature of the Vietnamese language, where words maintain their form throughout a sentence, and verbs lack endings to indicate tense, person, or finiteness Instead, temporal context is often conveyed through adverbs, with the term "sẽ" occasionally used to indicate future actions.
Another difference is that the Vietnamese forecasters use significantly
English speakers tend to use fewer hedging devices compared to their counterparts, as they prefer directness in communication In contrast, other cultures may employ more tentative language when making predictions, reflecting a careful approach This difference highlights a common critique among English speakers, who often view indirect communication as a waste of time.