INTRODUCTION
Rationale
In today's world, images, colors, sounds, and actions are vital tools for communication, with caricatures playing a significant role in conveying information globally These exaggerated drawings not only entertain but also educate, as they can be found in various subjects such as History, Literature, and Geography Caricatures encapsulate feelings, beliefs, and values, often imparting important moral lessons while addressing contemporary societal issues The grammar of visual design, developed by Kress and van Leeuwen, emphasizes that meanings are culturally rooted and can be expressed through both linguistic and visual discourse Furthermore, White and Martin's Appraisal Theory offers a valuable framework for analyzing verbal meanings, enhancing our understanding of artistic discourse, particularly in caricatures By utilizing minimal language, caricatures effectively communicate ideas, serving as a tool for comprehension across diverse cultural and social contexts.
Research on American and Vietnamese caricatures reveals significant differences, particularly in the realm of social caricatures, which provide a sharp critique of modern society Numerous linguistic studies focus on the meanings and language within these images For example, Economou (2009) explored verbal-visual texts through social semiotic theory and critical discourse analysis, while Chen (2009) examined the use of linguistic and visual semiotic resources in multimodal textbooks to convey interpersonal meaning However, there has been a lack of research applying Visual Grammar and Appraisal Theory to American and Vietnamese caricatures Thus, it is crucial to undertake a thesis titled “A Contrastive Analysis of Interpersonal Meaning in American and Vietnamese Caricatures from a Multimodal Perspective.”
Significance of the study
Analyzing American and Vietnamese caricatures is essential for both linguistic learners and artists, as it reveals how language interacts with imagery to reflect contemporary life This study will provide an in-depth analysis of the evaluative meanings and attitudes expressed in caricatures, along with a visual examination of their features It aims to clarify how caricatures effectively communicate with readers Additionally, the contrastive analysis of visual and evaluative meanings in these caricatures will serve as a valuable resource for teaching and learning about American and Vietnamese culture, as well as for researchers interested in the interplay of visual and verbal meanings in imagery.
Aims and objectives
This thesis explores the interpersonal meaning in American and Vietnamese caricatures, aiming to highlight the similarities and differences between the two cultures through a multi-modal lens.
The objectives of the study are to:
This article explores the visually interactive and verbally evaluative meanings present in American and Vietnamese caricatures through the lens of Kress and van Leeuwen's Grammar of Visual Design and White and Martin's Appraisal Theory By analyzing these caricatures, the study reveals how visual elements and verbal cues work together to convey cultural nuances and social commentary The findings highlight the distinct ways in which humor and critique are expressed in both American and Vietnamese contexts, emphasizing the role of visual design in shaping audience interpretation and engagement.
American and Vietnamese caricatures exhibit both similarities and differences in their use of visual and attitudinal resources, as analyzed through the lenses of Visual Grammar and Appraisal Theory Both cultures employ exaggerated features to convey humor and critique, yet American caricatures often emphasize individualism and personal traits, while Vietnamese caricatures tend to reflect collective societal values and cultural norms In terms of visual grammar, American caricatures frequently utilize bold colors and dynamic compositions to evoke strong emotional responses, whereas Vietnamese caricatures may favor subtlety and symbolism to convey deeper meanings Additionally, the attitudinal resources in American caricatures often highlight personal opinions and emotions, while Vietnamese caricatures emphasize community perspectives and social commentary Overall, these artistic expressions reveal distinct cultural approaches to humor and critique, shaped by their respective societal contexts.
Research questions
To achieve this aim, the following research questions are raised:
1 How do the images in American and Vietnamese caricatures carry Interactive meanings?
2 What are the sub-types of Attitude used in American and Vietnamese caricatures and how frequently are they used?
3 What are the similarities and differences between American and Vietnamese caricatures from multi-modal perspective?
Scope of the study
This research examines the multi-modal meanings expressed in American and Vietnamese caricatures, emphasizing Interactive meanings within the framework of Visual Grammar While Visual Grammar encompasses Representational, Interactional, and Compositional modes, the study is limited to Interactive meanings due to constraints of time, space, and available materials Additionally, the investigation focuses solely on the Attitude aspect of Appraisal Theory, which comprises three main types: Attitude, Engagement, and Graduation.
Organization of the study
The study is organized into five chapters as follows:
Chapter 1, Introduction, contains the rationale, aims, and objectives, research questions, the significance of the study, the scope of the study and the organization of the paper
Chapter 2, Literature review, presents Caricatures, Visual Grammar,
Appraisal Theory, then the previous studies related to the features of these theories are given
Chapter 3, Methods and Procedures, mentions research methods, the data collection, and the data analysis Besides, reliability and validity of the data are addressed in this chapter
Chapter 4, Findings and Discussions, examines the results of data analysis to explore how images in American and Vietnamese caricatures communicate visual and attitudinal meanings This section also includes a discussion of the research findings.
Chapter 5, Conclusions and Implications, summarizes the main findings of the study which satisfy the research questions, draws conclusions and pedagogical implications, limitations, and puts forward suggestions for further studies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Caricatures
According to Ames (1998), the word "caricature" is derived from the
The Italian words "caricatare" or "carcate," meaning "exaggerate," form the basis of the term caricature, which the Oxford Dictionary defines as “a funny drawing or picture of somebody that exaggerates some of their features.” Caricatures serve as a medium for artists to highlight the realities of social life According to Perkins (1975), a caricature symbolizes an individual while adhering to specific scales and norms within a population, becoming a caricature when it exaggerates features relative to these standards Perkins further identifies key characteristics that define a caricature.
“individuation” and “exaggeration”, “humor”, “idealization”, “defects”, and
The concept of "personality" can be explored through the lens of animal-like figures in caricatures and cartoons, which effectively capture the essence of specific situations in a concise manner As a vital component of indigenous literature, caricatures reflect the political and social history of humanity By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, caricatures gained prominence in educational settings across developed nations such as England, Germany, the USA, and Australia Beyond entertainment, caricatures serve an essential educational purpose, highlighting societal issues and economic challenges while illustrating the struggles of citizens Consequently, caricatures have emerged as a valuable modern teaching tool in social studies.
Caricatures have evolved from primarily reflecting political issues to highlighting the negative aspects of modern life Despite their significance, research on caricatures remains limited due to societal barriers Notably, Ibrahim (2014) explored the use of caricatures in Iraqi media, examining Grice's maxims to assess compliance and the socio-pragmatic factors influencing language choices in their context In Vietnam, Nguyễn Khắc Huy (2015) studied the formation and development of caricatures in newspapers, offering suggestions for leveraging their impact in print media This research primarily focuses on how caricatures represent societal issues.
This study examines the significance of visual and evaluative language in American and Vietnamese caricatures, utilizing Kress and van Leeuwen's Visual Grammar (2006) and White and Martin's Appraisal Theory.
(2005) as the theoretical framework The following sections will present these frameworks.
Grammar of Visual Design
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), as defined by Halliday (1994), is a language theory that emphasizes the analysis of language structure, meaning, and purpose Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) further elaborate that Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) seeks to explain and describe how meaning is organized through various resources Building on the principles of SFL, Kress and van Leeuwen contribute to this understanding of language use.
(2006) suggested that meaning of images can be expressed “through the choice between different uses of color or different compositional structures” (Kress & Leeuwen, 2006, p 2) According to Kress and Leeuwen (2006),
“Analysing visual communication is, or should be, an important part of the
Visual Grammar, as outlined by Kress and van Leeuwen (2006), explores how language interacts with images in various media, including newspapers, magazines, and textbooks Their theory identifies three metafunctions—Representation, Interaction, and Composition—that work together to create meaningful communication This article will delve into these three modes of meaning, with a particular emphasis on Interactive meaning, which serves as the theoretical framework for the study.
Visual Grammar emphasizes Representational meaning, which effectively operates in visual contexts According to Kress and van Leeuwen (2006), a semiotic mode must represent aspects of the world as experienced by humans, showcasing objects and their relationships in an external reality Representational meaning pertains to how semiotic systems depict various objects or elements.
In semiotic analysis, participants are categorized into two main types: represented participants, which encompass the people, objects, and locations depicted in an image, and interactive participants, who are the individuals engaging in communication through images, including both the creators and viewers.
(2006) stated that Representational meaning is classified into two categories: Narrative representation and Conceptual representation
Figure 2.1 Main types of visual representational structure (Kress & van Leeuwen,
This review explores Kress and van Leeuwen's insights on how visuals convey meaning interactively, focusing on their Visual Grammar They highlight that visual communication engages both represented participants—depicted people, places, and objects—and interactive participants, which include the producers and viewers of the images The authors identify three key systems that facilitate this interaction: Contact, Social Distance, and Attitude, emphasizing the dynamic relationship between creators and audiences in visual representation.
Classificatory Analytic al Symbolical Representational structures
Figure 2.2 Interactive meaning in images (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006, p 149)
The first variable in the interactive meaning structure is Contact, which refers to where represented participants direct their gaze Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) identify two key values for this variable: Demand and Offer A Demand image occurs when the gaze of a represented participant meets that of the viewer, creating an invitation for a virtual relationship Conversely, an Offer image is characterized by a represented participant who does not look at the viewer, altering the nature of the interaction.
Knowledge orientationAction orientation interaction between the viewer and the depicted person is indirect or does not occur, and the image is called an Offer
Figure 2.3 Contact of Offer (VC7)
In Figure 2.3, the Contact of Offer is depicted with an elderly woman who is not making direct eye contact with the viewer; instead, she gazes at the fruit in the tree.
Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) highlight that the size of a shot—whether Close, Medium, or Long—reflects the social distance between the represented participant and the viewer The relationship depicted in images can convey Personal, Social, or Public distances A "very close" shot, focusing on a person's head or face, indicates an intimate distance, while a "close image" showing the head and shoulders suggests a close personal distance A "medium close" shot, revealing a person up to the waist, communicates a far personal distance A "medium long" shot, which includes the whole person, conveys a close social distance, whereas a "long" shot, where the person is surrounded by space, indicates a far social distance Lastly, a "very long" shot representing multiple people by their trunks suggests a public distance.
Figure 2.4 Picture taken from very Long shot (AC13)
In Figure 2.4, the image shows that a very Long shot is illustrated because the whole figure of the three people is presented with space around them
In this system, the concept of subjective image and perspective is highlighted due to the absence of human beings Perspective involves the relationship between the represented participants and the viewer, achieved through the selection of an angle or "point of view." This point of view not only influences the represented participants but also shapes the viewer's perception.
“subjectivity” is therefore subjective in the original sense of the word, the sense of “being subjected to something or someone” (Kress & van Leeuwen,
2006, p 131) There are two types of angles used in pictures: Horizontal angle which can be further divided into Frontal angle and Oblique angle, and
Vertical angle which is classified into High angle, Eye level and Low angle
In the context of horizontal angles, images can be categorized as either frontal or oblique A frontal image signifies "involvement," indicating that it represents elements of our world with which we are engaged (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006).
136) On the other hand, an image from an Oblique angle suggests
“detachment”, in that “what you see here is not part of our world; it is their world, something we are not involved with”
Vertical angle influences the power dynamics between represented participants and viewers, conveyed through three representation choices: High angle, Eye level, and Low angle A High angle suggests the viewer holds more power than the represented participant, while Eye level indicates an equal relationship Conversely, a Low angle implies the represented participant possesses greater power than the viewer For instance, in Figure 2.6, the viewer observes the fish from a High angle, making them appear small and positioning the viewer with symbolic power over the fish.
In short, the Interactional meanings concern with the relation between the represented participant and the viewer through the following realizations
Table 2.1 Realizations of types of interactional meanings
Demand Gaze at the viewer
Offer Absence of gaze at the viewer
Involvement Frontal angle detachment Oblique angle
Represented participant power Low angle
In summary, Interactional meanings reflect the social relationships between the represented participants and the viewer, influenced by factors such as gaze, social distance, and horizontal and vertical angles These Interactional meanings are central to the study, leading to the next section that will explore the final mode of meanings in Visual Grammar: Compositional meaning.
Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) emphasized the interconnectedness of representation and interaction, asserting that composition forms a unified whole Their three principles of composition—information value, salience, and framing—are applicable not only to images but also to any multimodal discourse that incorporates both linguistic and visual elements.
Information value in visual composition is determined by the strategic arrangement of elements within an image, influencing their relative significance According to Kress and Leeuwen (2006), elements positioned on the left are often perceived as Given, while those on the right are seen as New Similarly, Ideal elements are typically placed at the top, with Real elements at the bottom Additionally, the center and margin can also convey information value, such as featuring an image centrally with text surrounding it Kress and Leeuwen (2006) emphasize that the combinations of Given-New and Ideal-Real can effectively integrate with Center and Margin to enhance visual communication.
Salience refers to the varying levels of visual attraction that elements in images hold for viewers This concept can be achieved through techniques such as positioning elements in the foreground or background, manipulating their relative size, and altering sharpness For instance, in an advertisement poster, a product may be prominently displayed in a larger and brighter format to effectively draw the viewer's attention.
Appraisal
Appraisal, as defined by White and Martin (2005), refers to "the language of evaluation," which encompasses the expression of feelings, opinions, and judgments regarding individuals or objects By employing evaluative language, communication becomes significantly more effective, enhancing the clarity and impact of the message conveyed.
Appraisal Theory provides a framework for analyzing how speakers and writers express their positive or negative assessments of various subjects, including people, places, and events (White & Martin, 2005) This theory emphasizes the expression and intensification of feelings, as well as the integration of multiple voices in discourse Central to the Appraisal framework is the concept of viewpoint, closely related to stance, suggesting that speakers encode their perspectives in their communication (White & Martin, 2005) By utilizing the Appraisal framework, researchers can uncover the underlying feelings and opinions of authors, even when these viewpoints are not explicitly stated.
White and Martin (2005) separate the Appraisal framework into three main sub-systems: Attitude, Engagement, and Graduation These sub-systems of Appraisal are indicated in Figure 2.7
Figure 2.7 An overview of Appraisal resources (White & Martin, 2005)
According to White and Martin (2005, p 42), Attitude “involves three semantic regions covering what is traditionally referred to as emotions, ethics, Â A
FORCUS raise lower sharpen soften and aesthetics” This means “emotional reactions, judgments of behavior and evaluation of things” It consists of three regions of feelings: Affect, Judgement, and Appreciation
Affect encompasses a range of positive and negative emotions, such as happiness, sadness, excitement, and interest (White & Martin, 2005) It can be categorized into two sub-types: Observed Affect and Authorial Affect Observed Affect refers to the writer's or speaker's observation and reporting of others' emotional responses, while Authorial Affect represents the personal feelings that the writer or speaker wishes to convey.
According to White (2001), Affectual positioning may be indicated in different ways as follow:
Verbs of emotion, also known as mental processes, play a crucial role in expressing feelings and attitudes Phrases like "Your offer pleases me" and "I hate chocolate" illustrate how these verbs convey affection, aversion, fear, and reassurance By using expressions such as "to love," "to frighten," "to interest," "to enrage," and their opposites, we can effectively communicate our emotional responses and connect with others on a deeper level.
- through adverbs (typically Circumstances of Manner) such as happily/sadly (Sadly the government has decided to abandon its commitment to the comprehensive school system.)
Emotions play a significant role in our daily interactions, influencing how we express ourselves and perceive others For instance, feelings of sadness may arise when someone makes a disappointing choice, while happiness can be felt when a friend joins a group Pride often accompanies personal achievements, whereas fear can manifest in specific situations, such as a phobia of spiders Additionally, confidence can replace worry, and enthusiasm can shift to disinterest based on circumstances Understanding these emotional adjectives enhances our communication and connection with others.
- through nominalization (the turning of verbs and adjectives into nouns) joy/despair, confidence/insecurity ( His fear was obvious to all, I was overcome with joy)
According to White and Martin (2005), Affect involves the sub- categories of Un/happiness, In/security, and Dis/satisfaction that is presented in Table 2.2
Table 2.2 The system of Affect (White & Martin, 2005, p 51)
Emotions can be categorized into two primary states: happiness and unhappiness Happiness is characterized by feelings of cheerfulness, buoyancy, and jubilation, often accompanied by love and adoration In contrast, unhappiness manifests as sadness, melancholy, and despondency, leading to feelings of heartbreak and sorrow Individuals may experience a range of emotions from grief-stricken and woebegone to dejected and joyless, resulting in a gloomy, downcast demeanor On the other hand, feelings of security are associated with confidence, assurance, and comfort, while insecurity brings about unease, anxiety, and surprise.
Dis/satisfaction involved, absorbed, engrossed; satisfied, pleased, chuffed/ impressed, charmed, thrilled flat, stale, jaded; cross, angry, furious; bored with, sick of, fed up with
- Un/happiness is construed in terms of emotions that relate to the
In the exploration of emotional experiences, "affairs of the heart" are often characterized by feelings of misery and antipathy associated with unhappiness, while cheer and affection are linked to happiness (White & Martin, 2005, p 51) For instance, the phrase "That’s her hungry cry" illustrates how unhappiness can be expressed through the affectionate attribute of "cry" within a Relational process.
“The baby just sent a text saying,WaaaaaWaaaWaaaaaaWaaaa! That’s her hungry cry.”
Figure 2.8 Example of Un/happiness Affect (AC14)
- In In/security, the emotional responses relate to “ecosocial” well- being in terms of “disquiet” and “surprise” for insecurity and
“confidence” and “trust” for security (White & Martin, 2005, p 50)
In Figure 2.9, the attitudinal meaning of security is expressed as trust in a Relational process through the attribute “an toàn”
Figure 2.9 Example of In/security Affect (VC8)
Dissatisfaction can be conveyed through feelings of ennui and displeasure, whereas satisfaction is expressed through interest and admiration (Martin, 2000, pp 151-152) For instance, in Figure 2.10, the relational process illustrates dissatisfaction through the attribute "jealous."
“But mom, how do I know I’m having a great time if I don’t get some jealous comments on Facebook?”
Figure 2.10 Example of Dis/satisfaction Affect (AC2)
Judgment involves evaluating human behaviors as either positive or negative, encompassing two main components: Social Esteem and Social Sanction Social Esteem includes aspects such as Normality, which assesses how unusual an individual is; Capacity, which evaluates their capabilities; and Tenacity, which reflects their dependability On the other hand, Social Sanction pertains to moral assessments, including Veracity, which measures truthfulness, and Propriety, which considers ethical behavior The understanding of these concepts is illustrated in the accompanying tables.
Table 2.3 The system of Judgement of Social Esteem (White & Martin, 2005, p 53)
“how special?” lucky, fortunate, charmed ; normal, natural, familiar
…; cool, stable, predictable …; in, fashionable, avant garde
…; celebrated, unsung … unlucky, hapless, star-crossed
…; odd, peculiar, eccentric …; erratic, unpredictable …; dated, daggy, retrograde …; obscure, also-ran …
“how capable?” powerful, vigorous, robust
…; sound, healthy, fit …; adult, mature, experienced
…; witty, humorous, droll …; insightful, clever, gifted …; balanced, together, sane …; sensible, expert, shrewd …; literate, educated, learned
…; competent, accomplished …; successful, productive … mild, weak, whimpy …; unsound, sick, crippled …; immature, childish, helpless
…; dull, dreary, grave …; slow, stupid, thick …; flaky, neurotic, insane …; naive, inexpert, foolish …; illiterate, uneducated, ignorant
Dependability encompasses a range of qualities, including bravery, heroism, and perseverance, which contribute to a person's reliability and loyalty It contrasts sharply with traits such as timidity, impatience, and recklessness, highlighting the importance of being cautious and thorough A dependable individual is not only faithful and constant but also flexible and adaptable, demonstrating resilience in various situations In contrast, those who exhibit weakness or distraction may struggle to maintain the same level of dependability.
…; unreliable, undependable …; unfaithful, disloyal, inconstant
Table 2.4 The system of Judgement of Social Sanction
“how honest” truthful, honest, credible
…; frank, candid, direct …; discrete, tactful … dishonest, deceitful, lying …; deceptive, manipulative, devious …; blunt, blabbermouth …
The phrase "beyond reproach" signifies an individual who embodies qualities such as goodness, morality, and ethical behavior, being law-abiding, fair, and just This person is also sensitive, kind, and caring, displaying unassuming modesty and humility They are polite, respectful, and reverent, demonstrating altruism through generosity and charitable actions In contrast, those who are selfish, greedy, and avaricious represent the opposite spectrum, characterized by bad, immoral, and evil traits Such individuals may be corrupt, unfair, and unjust, often exhibiting insensitivity, meanness, and cruelty Additionally, they may display vanity, snobbery, and arrogance, along with rudeness, discourtesy, and irreverence.
For instance, in Figure 2.11, Appraisals are judgmental of the participants’ behavior as epithets in terms of Normality in “khùng” and Propriety in “giết”
Figure 2.11 Example of Judgement (VC9)
Judgement can be conveyed in two distinct ways: explicitly and implicitly Explicit Judgement involves clear expression through specific lexical items that carry evaluative meaning, such as "good," "bad," "politely," "rudely," "lazy," "desperately," and "skillful." In contrast, implicit Judgement may not be directly stated but is still understood through context and nuance.
(2005) claimed that Implicit Judgement refers to tokens of whole sentence or text, and are realized through ideational meanings and lexical metaphors
Figure 2 12 Example of Implicit Judgement (AC12)
In Figure 2.12, the caricaturist tends to use the word smart to imply the positive meaning but the whole sentence seems to show the negative meaning
It can be seen that the people are so silly and look like a robot when they use smartphones too much
Appreciation, as defined by White and Martin (2005), encompasses both the evaluation of objects and the aesthetic assessment of individuals This concept is categorized into three key components: Reaction, Composition, and Valuation, each associated with the emotional response of affection, the sensory experience of perception, and the intellectual process of cognition.
Table 2.5 The system of Appreciation (White & Martin, 2005, p 56)
Reaction impact “did it grab me?” arresting, captivating, engaging …; fascinating, exciting, moving
…; lively, dramatic, intense …; flat, predictable, monotonous …; remarkable, notable, sensational … unremarkable, pedestrian … dull, boring, tedious
…; dry, ascetic, uninviting …; quality “did I like it?” okay, fine, good lovely, beautiful, splendid …; bad, yuk, nasty …; plain, ugly, grotesque
…; appealing, enchanting, welcome … repulsive, revolting, off-putting …
Composition balance “did it hang together?” balanced, harmonious, unified, symmetrical, proportioned …; consistent, considered, logical
…; shapely, curvaceous, willowly … unbalanced, discordant, irregular, uneven, flawed …; contradictory, disorganised …; shapeless, amorphous, distorted
“was it hard to follow?” simple, pure, elegant …; lucid, clear, precise
…; intricate, rich, detailed, precise … ornate, extravagant, byzantine …; arcane, unclear, woolly …; plain, monolithic, simplistic …
“was it worthwhile?” penetrating, profound, deep …; innovative, original, creative …; timely, long awaited, landmark
…; shallow, reductive, insignificant …; derivative, conventional, prosaic
…; dated, overdue, untimely …; inimitable, exceptional, unique
…; authentic, real, genuine …; valuable, priceless, worthwhile …; appropriate, helpful, effective … dime-a-dozen, everyday, common; fake, bogus, glitzy …; worthless, shoddy, pricey …; ineffective, useless, write-off …
Figure 2 13 Example of Appreciation (VC15)
The appreciative instances are made through valuation in the epithets
“đẹp” and “xấu” in Figure 2.13
The above discussion shows that Affect refers to emotional responses while Judgement deals with evaluation of human behaviors, and Appreciation involves evaluation of aesthetic qualities of things
Attitude is a linguistic resource that allows writers and speakers to convey their feelings towards people and events It encompasses three key components: Affect, which reflects positive and negative emotions; Judgement, which pertains to evaluations of behavior through admiration or criticism; and Appreciation, which assesses the qualities of natural objects This study focuses on verbal meanings based solely on Attitude values due to time constraints The following section provides a concise overview of Engagement and Graduation.
Engagement, as defined by White and Martin (2005), involves the interplay of attitudes and voices surrounding opinions in discourse It focuses on identifying the dialogic positioning linked to specific meanings and understanding the implications of choosing one meaning over another This concept encompasses two primary resources: Monogloss, which represents a single voice, and Heterogloss, which includes multiple voices Within Heterogloss, there are two categories: Expansion, where writers or speakers invite additional perspectives into the conversation, and Contraction, where they assert their viewpoints and reject opposing opinions.
Graduation tends to “grading phenomena whereby feelings are amplified and categories blurred” (White & Martin, 2005, p 35) It is divided into two main resources:
- Force is used to raise and lower the intensity of an utterance There are two ways to separate the force resource It can be divided into
“isolating” and “infusing” Secondly, it can be in the form of:
“intensification”, “quantification”, and “repetition” This study will focus on analyzing Force according to this way
- Focus aims to sharpen or blur the focus of a value It is subdivided into “sharpen” (scale up) and “soften” (scale down)
Previous studies
Appraisal Theory has evolved over two decades, leading to extensive research on the evaluative meanings expressed by speakers and writers within this framework Significant studies have utilized Appraisal as an analytical tool across various genres, including secondary school history writing (Coffin, 1997) and popular science (Fuller).
(1998) and media discourse White (1998) Based on Appraisal Theory, Liu
In 2010, a study was conducted on the teaching of college English reading in China, aiming to explore new applications for Appraisal Theory and innovative teaching methods Read and Carroll (2012) addressed the challenges of the Appraisal annotation study, outlining the methodology used and explaining how inter-annotator agreement was assessed through comparisons to scoring systems for information extraction, while also examining cases of systematic disagreement.
Auman (2014) examined online and print press coverage of the rise of the
The "Red Devils," Belgium's national football team, were examined through the lens of Appraisal Theory to analyze the positive and negative sentiments expressed in their coverage Ruo-mei (2016) explored the application of Appraisal Theory in teaching critical reading, marking it as a novel approach in College English reading instruction Appraisal systems facilitate the recognition of creative positioning, the impact of language choices, the intent behind writing, and the comprehension of underlying values and ideologies.
Research on Appraisal Theory in Vietnam has highlighted its significance in various fields Võ Duy Đức (2011) examined the stylistic, structural, and ideological aspects of business news reporting in both English and Vietnamese Meanwhile, Nguyễn Thị Minh Ngân (2017) focused on the evaluative language employed in English advertising slogans, revealing how advertisers utilize evaluative words to effectively communicate with potential customers.
Nobaew (2015) examined the impact of visual grammar on player perception in games, suggesting that his methods could be applied to similar genres Chen and Gao (2014) utilized Kress and van Leeuwen's Grammar of Visual Designs to explore how semiotic tools convey the representational meaning of movie posters Economou (2009) merged social semiotic theory with Critical Discourse Analysis, employing systemic-functional theory to analyze verbal-visual news media texts Additionally, Vietnamese researchers have focused on the application of Visual Grammar across various fields, with Unsworth and Ngo (2015) investigating its role in Vietnamese textbooks for teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL).
Hoàng Ly Na (2015) explored the interplay between verbal and visual elements in advertising discourse, focusing on the evaluative and visual meanings in English beauty product advertisements Similarly, Đoàn Trần Thúy Trang (2008) analyzed the use of imagery and typography in these advertisements, highlighting their shared goal of capturing consumer attention Her study categorized various types of images, including product visuals, images of people, and other elements, while also emphasizing the diverse typography used to highlight key messages.
Research in the art sector often encompasses films, advertisements, and cartoons, yet the impact of caricatures on cultural, social, and economic life remains underexplored Notably, Ibrahim (2014) conducted a sociopragmatic analysis of caricatures from Al-Baghdadia TV, revealing their reflection of current socio-pragmatic events and their role as a distinct media discourse genre Similarly, Burns (2004) investigated the artistic styles of freehand animal drawings and developed a generative program that mimics human cognitive processes in creating caricatures, emphasizing the exaggeration of style and subject Additionally, Salikhova, Safiullina, and Batyrshina (2016) highlighted how caricatures serve as a democratic means of musical journalism, reflecting audience attitudes toward historical art trends and enhancing emotional engagement Despite these studies, there is a notable gap in research combining Visual Grammar and Appraisal theories in the analysis of caricatures Therefore, further investigation into American and Vietnamese caricatures using these frameworks is essential to advance the field The next chapter will detail the research methodology and procedures employed in this study.
METHODOLOGY
Research methods
This study utilized a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods to explore the verbal and visual meanings in American and Vietnamese caricatures Qualitative methods were employed to analyze human behavior and the evaluative language present in these images, as outlined by MacDonald and Headlam (2008) Additionally, a quantitative approach was implemented to assess the frequency of verbal and visual meanings conveyed in the caricatures, providing a comprehensive understanding of their impact.
In addition to the primary methods employed, several other approaches were utilized in the research A descriptive method was implemented to detail the visual elements of the collected data, aligning with Kothari's (1990) assertion that the main aim of descriptive research is to portray the current state of affairs Furthermore, comparative and contrastive methods were applied to analyze the verbal and visual features in American and Vietnamese caricatures Lastly, analytic and synthetic methods were used to integrate the study's findings and formulate a comprehensive conclusion.
Data collection
This study utilized data primarily sourced from four websites: https://vtimes.com.au/, https://hoasibiem.com/, https://www.cartoonstock.com/, and https://www.boredpanda.com/ A selection of fifty American and Vietnamese caricatures was made, highlighting the contributions of renowned Vietnamese caricaturists such as Văn Thanh, Nguyễn Tài, and Trần Minh Dũng, whose works are prominently featured on Họa Sĩ Biếm.com and Viet Times Additionally, celebrated global caricaturists like Dan Wildt and Jerry King were included, with CartoonStock offering a vast database of over 500,000 cartoons The selected caricatures aim to illustrate interactive meanings from both visual and verbal perspectives, addressing complex societal issues that demand public awareness Consequently, the chosen caricatures exhibit distinct characteristics that warrant further exploration.
Data analysis
The fifty caricatures (25 American and 25 Vietnamese caricatures), were analyzed and classified on basis of these following steps:
The study explored the concept of Interactive meaning through the lenses of Contact, Social distance, and Attitude, focusing on the gaze, distance, and angle between represented participants (the subjects depicted in images) and interactive participants (the communicators, including producers and viewers of images) A descriptive method was employed to analyze visual elements in caricatures, followed by a quantitative approach to tally the frequency of these elements The results were organized into tables, which facilitated a detailed discussion of the findings.
Secondly, the fifty caricatures were analyzed based on Appraisal Theory In this step, sub-types of Attitude including Affect, Judgement, and Appreciation were investigated
The visual features were compiled into tables and figures, highlighting the common characteristics shared by both visual resources in terms of numbers and percentages A comparative analysis of these results revealed significant similarities and differences between the data sources, leading to a conclusive understanding of their visual attributes.
Procedures
This study commenced with a comprehensive review of existing literature to select the research topic Subsequently, 50 caricatures were gathered from reputable websites The visual and evaluative meanings of these caricatures were then analyzed, summarized, and organized into tables and charts Finally, the study examined how attitudinal values were utilized in the caricatures to effectively communicate the artists' messages, supported by relevant illustrations.
Validity and Reliability
To ensure valid and reliable research, data selection and identification were conducted according to established criteria and procedures The study utilized theoretical frameworks from prominent linguists, including Visual Grammar by Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) and Appraisal Theory by White and Martin.
2005) In general, the study has been fulfilled with serious efforts and knowledge gained from valuable materials by excellent linguists.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Findings of Interactive meaning
Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) identify two types of participants in images: represented participants, which include the depicted people, places, and objects, and interactive participants, comprising the producers and viewers who engage with the images This study analyzed fifty caricatures, focusing on the gaze of the represented participants, their social distance from the viewer, and the viewing angle A comprehensive discussion of these elements, including their frequency of occurrence, will be presented in the subsequent sections.
Contact is defined by the concepts of Demand and Offer, which are influenced by the gaze between represented participants and viewers When a represented participant avoids eye contact with the viewer, it signifies Offer, whereas making eye contact indicates Demand.
The analysis highlights a notable similarity between American and Vietnamese caricatures, as both consistently feature the concept of Offer, while Demand is notably absent Below are examples that illustrate the utilization of Offer in these caricatures.
In Figure 4.1, the girl and boy gazing at each other serve as the central participants, encouraging viewers to focus on the elements within the image rather than identifying with the figures themselves This suggests that caricaturists aim for the audience to understand societal themes through the visuals, rather than forming a direct connection with the depicted characters.
Vietnamese caricature, like its American counterparts, illustrates a scene where the doctors and the patient avoid making eye contact with the viewer This dynamic suggests that the participants are positioned as objects for the viewer's observation rather than engaging directly with them.
Caricaturists skillfully highlight the relationships among participants, providing viewers with a deeper understanding of the imagery presented Their work not only captures the essence of these connections but also encourages audiences to engage with contemporary social realities For example, in Figure 4.3, participants are depicted engrossed in their phones, illustrating a poignant commentary on modern life.
Social distance refers to the spatial relationship between represented participants and viewers in visual media Different shot sizes convey varying degrees of this distance: a Close shot captures the head and shoulders of the participant, a Medium shot includes the body down to the knees, and a Long shot presents the participant within a broader context, surrounded by space.
4.1.2.1 Social distance in American caricatures
The occurrence frequency of each frame size is compared in Table 4.1
Table 4.1 reveals that the Long shot is the predominant frame size in American caricatures, comprising 68% of the total In contrast, the Close shot is the least utilized frame, making up only 8% Meanwhile, the Medium shot is more frequently used than the Close shot, representing 24% of the total frame sizes.
Table 4.1 Frame size in American caricatures
Frame size Number of occurrences Percentage
The following figures are some examples of the types of Social distance
In Figure 4.4, a close-up of the woman highlights the intimate personal distance between the participant and the viewer, suggesting a strong connection In contrast, Figure 4.5 utilizes a medium shot to convey social distance, altering the viewer's perception of the relationship Figure 4.6 further explores this dynamic, illustrating the varying degrees of distance in visual representation.
Long shot called Public Distance
Caricaturists often utilize Medium and Long shots to effectively showcase all characters, items, and scenes, enhancing viewer engagement and comprehension of the context In contrast, Close shots focus solely on the main characters, which can hinder the audience's understanding of the surrounding circumstances and may make it challenging to attract interest in the caricatures.
4.1.2.2 Social distance in Vietnamese caricatures
Table 4.2 illustrates the frequency of frame sizes in Vietnamese caricatures, revealing that Close shots are not utilized at all In contrast, Medium shots have a marginally higher occurrence, but Long shots dominate with a significant 88%, compared to Medium shots at 12%.
Table 4.2 Frame size in Vietnamese caricatures
Frame size Number of occurrences Percentage
Figure 4.7 depicts a Medium shot, highlighting a social interaction distance, while Figure 4.8 presents a Long shot that emphasizes the Public distance between the participants and the viewer In this wider view, the entire scene is visible, showcasing the fairy, the girl, the cloud, and the bag.
The distribution of sub-types of social distance in Vietnamese caricatures varies significantly, with caricaturists predominantly utilizing long shots This choice encourages viewers to immerse themselves in the scenes and backgrounds depicted Occasionally, medium shots are employed to reveal the authentic aspects of modern life, enhancing the viewer's understanding of the subject matter.
4.1.2.3 A comparison of Social distance in American and Vietnamese caricatures
Figure 4.9 Frequency of Social distance in American and Vietnamese caricatures
Figure 4.9 illustrates the similarities and differences in the use of social distance sub-types in American and Vietnamese caricatures Notably, the Long shot is the predominant choice, comprising 68% of American caricatures and 88% of Vietnamese caricatures Following this, the Medium shot accounts for 24% in American caricatures and 12% in Vietnamese caricatures, while the Close shot represents the smallest percentage in both cultures.
Close shotMedium shotLong shot shot, accounting for 8% and 0% in America and Vietnam, respectively
Vietnamese caricaturists utilize long shots 88% of the time, compared to 68% by their American counterparts, indicating a notable difference in frame size This preference may stem from a desire to provide comprehensive insights into societal contexts and engage readers more effectively, resulting in a higher prevalence of long shots in both cultures.
Conclusion
Chapter Four explores the interpersonal meaning of visual grammar and the attitudinal values of appraisal theory in American and Vietnamese caricatures, highlighting both their similarities and differences.
The interactional meaning in caricatures is conveyed through types of contact, social distance, and angles, reflecting the relationship between participants Both American and Vietnamese caricatures predominantly utilize Offer Gaze to engage viewers While both cultures favor a wide range of Long shot-Public Distance, American caricatures also incorporate Personal Distance, which is absent in Vietnamese caricatures Additionally, Frontal and High angles are frequently employed in both American and Vietnamese caricatures to illustrate the viewer's power over the depicted characters.
In examining attitudinal values, both Vietnamese and American caricatures employ diverse evaluative language, with a notable preference for appreciation values Vietnamese caricatures demonstrate a higher frequency of affect and judgment values compared to their American counterparts, which predominantly favor appreciation values This distinction highlights the varying linguistic approaches to emotional expression and evaluation in caricature across the two cultures.