INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
Reading has long captivated scholars due to its dual significance: it grants access to a wealth of knowledge and is essential for success in modern society Grabe (2009) emphasizes that while reading skills alone do not guarantee success, they are crucial for standing out, particularly in higher education, where enhanced reading abilities lead to greater academic achievement (Anderson, 2002) Moreover, effective language learning increasingly hinges on understanding a new language and its associated culture Additionally, the complex nature of the reading process presents a challenge that intrigues researchers, as it involves diverse cognitive activities among different reader groups, necessitating further investigation Consequently, reading training has emerged as a critical focus in language learning and teaching, demanding more academic scrutiny.
Grabe and Stoller (2002) highlighted that students often face challenges in constructing meaning while comprehending reading texts This struggle has led to numerous studies exploring effective methods to enhance learners' language acquisition Many of these research efforts advocate for the implementation of various reading strategies as practical solutions to address comprehension difficulties.
O'Malley and Chamot (1990) identified three essential categories of language learning strategies: cognitive, socioaffective, and metacognitive strategies, highlighting that reading strategies alone are insufficient for addressing poor comprehension Additionally, effective reading involves not only understanding the text but also integrating the reader's background knowledge (Anderson, 2005) Thus, reading is an active and fluent process that incorporates the monitoring of comprehension as a key metacognitive activity (Baker & Brown, 1984).
Since the 1960s, educational scholars have explored metacognitive strategies, which empower learners to manage their own learning processes (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998) Mokhtari and Reichard (2002) emphasized that awareness of metacognitive reading strategies significantly enhances text comprehension Therefore, incorporating metacognitive strategies is essential for improving learners' reading comprehension skills.
In Vietnam, metacognitive strategies in education have not received sufficient attention, despite their significant role in global scientific studies Research on metacognitive reading strategies, such as the works by Nguyen, T.M.T & Trinh, Q.L (2011) and Cuu, Q.T (2014), primarily focuses on learners’ awareness and the frequency of strategy use among secondary and tertiary students These studies highlight the need for explicit instructional methods to enhance reading abilities This paper aims to address the existing research gap in the teaching and learning context of Vietnam.
In Vietnam, the current methods for teaching reading skills primarily focus on answering questions from texts, often leading to a “teaching to the test” mentality that stifles critical thinking among students To address this issue, the integration of metacognitive strategies in reading comprehension can motivate students to reflect on their learning processes and evaluate the effectiveness of their reading strategies This study aims to explore the effects of teaching metacognitive strategies, presenting a novel approach to reading comprehension instruction within the Vietnamese educational context, particularly in the researcher’s area.
Related to the rationale for the study, learning environment and perceptions of teachers and learners towards reading comprehension are considered the fundamental reasons of this study
Founded in 1963, the University of People's Security (UPS) has been responsible for training security officers in the field of National Security in southern Vietnam Graduates are expected to reach an Intermediate level of proficiency to effectively fulfill their assigned duties.
Since its establishment in 1983, the foreign language department at this university has successfully supported students in their English language exploration for over 30 years UPS students stand out due to their unique experiences, as they are required to live in university dorms for four years and develop essential management skills for daily activities This environment provides a significant advantage for researchers to introduce metacognitive strategies, fostering deeper investment in students' thinking processes.
English teachers at UPS are well-versed in "reading skills" and "reading strategies" but often overlook the importance of "metacognition" and "metacognitive strategies" in their teaching practices They tend to believe that solely applying cognitive reading strategies can enhance learners' reading skills This raises questions about the role of metacognitive strategies in effectively improving students' reading abilities.
Learners often rely on bilingual dictionaries and word-for-word translations to fulfill task requirements during reading lessons This approach can result in a passive reading comprehension experience, where the importance of strategy usage and instructional guidance is overlooked (Tavakoli).
UPS students acknowledge the significance of reading; however, misconceptions about what constitutes a good reader often lead to a lack of engagement in reading activities A key requirement for being a proficient reader is having a strong vocabulary, which can be an unrealistic expectation for intermediate-level learners Additionally, the emphasis on achieving high scores in English tests further complicates the definition of a good reader, ultimately discouraging the development of reading skills Consequently, it is essential to examine learners' attitudes toward reading instruction in this study.
Aims of the study
This study investigates the impact of explicit metacognitive strategy training on students' reading comprehension at a Vietnamese university, focusing on their metacognitive awareness and reading performance The research aims to achieve four key objectives: first, to assess how explicit metacognitive strategy training enhances students' awareness of reading strategies; second, to evaluate its influence on their reading performance; third, to explore the correlation between increased metacognitive awareness and improvements in reading comprehension; and finally, to analyze students' attitudes towards reading instruction during the training process.
Research questions
To fulfil the aims above, this study is guided by the following research questions:
1 To what extent does explicit metacognitive strategy training increase UPS students’ metacognitive awareness of reading strategies?
2 To what extent does explicit metacognitive strategy training improve UPS students’ reading performance?
3 Is metacognitive awareness raising related to reading comprehension improvement?
4 What are UPS students’ attitudes towards the application of metacognitive strategies to teaching reading comprehension?
Significance of the study
Numerous global studies have confirmed the link between metacognitive strategies and reading comprehension, yet there is a lack of research focusing on the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy instruction in the Vietnamese context This study is significant as it aims to provide empirical evidence supporting the positive relationship between metacognitive strategies and reading comprehension, thereby addressing a gap in the existing literature on the application of these strategies in Vietnam.
This study serves as a foundational exploration of metacognitive strategies in language teaching, specifically focusing on reading comprehension at UPS The findings aim to deepen teachers' understanding of the connection between these strategies and reading comprehension, ultimately providing them with enhanced options for improving students' reading skills and refining their teaching methods.
Scope of the study
The study examined the use of metacognitive strategies in reading among second-year students at the University of People’s Security over a 12-week period, focusing on the short-term effects on reading comprehension and metacognitive awareness It aimed to understand how students perceived their reading strategies, as the researcher could not access their internal cognitive processes The research utilized convenience sampling, which limited the generalizability of the findings Ultimately, the study sought to evaluate the enhancement of students' metacognitive awareness and reading performance through the explicit incorporation of metacognitive strategies in reading lessons.
The organization of the thesis
This thesis is divided into five chapters with the following descriptions
Chapter 1 gives an introduction to the study by presenting two primary reasons from the current setting of the authors with some theoretical aspects to figure out a research gap this study would fill out Moreover, the main aim of the study followed by four clear research questions are also presented, which directs the paper The contributions and scope of this study are mentioned in this part
Chapter 2 presents the review of literature in relation to reading comprehension, metacognitive strategies and roles of learners’ attitudes towards strategy instruction employed From that, the conceptual framework of this study is demonstrated
Chapter 3 deals with research method employed, sample and sampling procedures The research instruments with clear data collection and analysis procedures are described including reading comprehension tests, surveys of the awareness of metacognitive strategies and attitudinal questionnaires in this chapter
Chapter 4 includes analyzing data and discussing the findings based on research questions above
Chapter 5 indicates implications of the study for both English learners, English teachers and book writers as well as suggestions and recommendations for further study.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Terms and related theories
The initial section of Chapter 2 presents and analyzes key terms related to reading comprehension and metacognitive strategies, along with their interrelationships as demonstrated in prior studies, to establish the conceptual framework for the research.
Reading plays a crucial role in language acquisition, as highlighted by numerous studies exploring its various aspects According to Jensen and Petty (1980), reading can be simply understood as the process of transforming words from visual perception to verbal expression.
Reading instruction aims to develop essential reading skills by emphasizing the interaction between readers, texts, and authors' perspectives (Baker & Brown, 1984; Grabe, 2009) This interactive cognitive process can manifest in various ways, such as silent reading, where learners read to comprehend the text, or oral reading, which involves vocalizing the content, regardless of comprehension (Richards & Schmidt, 2002) Understanding these dynamics is crucial for enhancing reading proficiency among learners.
Reading comprehension is a critical focus in reading instruction, essential for developing successful readers and a primary goal in teaching diverse learners As a result, numerous definitions of reading comprehension exist, reflecting varying perspectives on the reading process and the factors involved.
The concept of reading comprehension has gradually changed over time In the traditional approach, McDonough and Shaw (1993) stated that a reader was considered
The concept of reading comprehension has evolved from viewing the reader merely as a passive recipient of knowledge to recognizing their active role in the reading process Recent definitions emphasize the dynamic interaction between readers and texts, highlighting a three-step process that includes understanding, analyzing, and interpreting the author's messages (Grabe & Stoller, 2002) Additionally, Richards and Schmidt (2002) proposed a clearer framework by categorizing reading comprehension into four types and levels, as illustrated in Table 2.1.
Types of Comprehension (Richards & Schmidt, 2002)
Literal comprehension Reading in order to understand, remember, or recall the information explicitly contained in a passage
Inferential comprehension Reading in order to find the information which is not explicitly stated in a passage, using the readers’ experience and intuition, and by inferring
Reading in order to compare information in a passage with the readers own knowledge and values
Reading in order to gain an emotional or other kind of valued response from a passage
Since the 1970s, ESL reading theory has evolved significantly due to the impact of psycholinguistics, leading to a better understanding of the factors influencing text comprehension for readers This evolution includes a thorough investigation of reading definitions from both psychological and linguistic viewpoints, highlighting the complex interplay between texts and readers in the comprehension process.
2003) suggested the model of reading in ESL in Figure 2.1
Coady’s Model of Reading Comprehension
Reading is an active process that involves three key elements: conceptual abilities, background knowledge, and process strategies It is essential for readers to draw upon their experiences and prior knowledge to fully engage with the text.
The agreement on this model is supported by the ideas of Adams & Collins (1979) and Mokhtari & Sheorey (2005), emphasizing that readers' understanding of texts heavily relies on their personal knowledge and experiences in interpreting the authors' messages While scholars may have varying perspectives on reading comprehension based on their research interests, it is essential to recognize the critical role of readers and their dynamic, independent thinking processes in defining reading comprehension.
Scholarly definitions of reading comprehension increasingly highlight the essential role of dedicated readers in the reading process Researchers emphasize the importance of proactive reader involvement, recognizing its impact on comprehension Consequently, recent studies have shifted focus towards learners themselves as key factors in addressing challenges related to poor reading comprehension.
Naiman, Frohlich, and Todesco (1975) found that successful language learners employ strategies differently than their less successful counterparts, with the former demonstrating a better understanding of how to select and use these strategies effectively In contrast, less successful learners often reuse a limited set of strategies without making progress in their tasks (Ajideh, Zohrabi, & Pouralvar, 2018) Skilled readers and language learners excel in reflecting on and monitoring their cognitive processes while reading, which aids in task completion (Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001) Additionally, less skilled readers typically lack a comprehensive understanding of declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge related to effective strategy use (Baker & Brown, 1984; Mokhtari & Reichard).
To enhance learners' reading comprehension, the implementation of effective reading strategies is essential In the context of teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL), it is crucial to consider the unique characteristics of learners when introducing these strategies.
2.1.1.2 Teaching reading comprehension in Vietnam context
In many Asian countries, particularly Vietnam, English reading proficiency is a key indicator of academic success Research indicates that students in EFL countries who excel in reading are likely to experience greater overall development and achievement (Anderson, 2002; Tavakoli & Koosha).
EFL students often engage passively with bilingual dictionaries during reading, leading to familiarity with sentence translation without significant improvement in reading performance (2016) In Vietnam, this passive engagement is reflected in teaching methods, where reading is often defined by teachers as merely extracting correct information for tasks, leaving little room for independent thought (Le, V H V., 2013) However, research by Phan, T T K (2014) indicates that students have a desire to explore and engage more actively in their learning process.
Recent studies have focused on various aspects of reading comprehension, including the effectiveness of teachers' code-switching (Nguyen, T B., 2017), students' attitudes and practices in reading fluency and comprehension using graded readers (Huynh, T M V., 2016), the integration of critical thinking in reading comprehension (Phan, T T K., 2014), and the impact of summarization strategies on understanding literary prose texts (Le, T H.).
A survey conducted in 2014 examined cognitive strategies for learning English comprehension in high school (Luong, P T., 2014), alongside research on the frequency of cognitive-metacognitive reading strategies among English majors (Nguyen, T D & Trinh, H T., 2011) While various aspects of reading comprehension have been investigated in different contexts with valuable practical outcomes, there is a notable absence of similar studies within the UPS environment This study aims to fill that gap and enhance the practice of teaching reading comprehension in this specific context.
Review of previous studies
Reviewing previous studies, as outlined in Table 2.4, is crucial for establishing an overview of research issues, designs, and results This process allows for the identification of limitations in the reviewed studies and highlights existing research gaps that the current study aims to address The selected research primarily focuses on Asian countries, exploring the role of English in students' career paths and the participants' English proficiency levels Additionally, the diverse research methodologies employed contribute valuable insights into the application of metacognitive strategies for future practice.
Numerous studies in Vietnam have explored the effectiveness of metacognitive strategies on reading comprehension, primarily focusing on reading classes and materials while offering practical solutions (Le, T H L., 2011; Nguyen, T B., 2017; Tran, T T M., 2011) Additionally, extensive reading has garnered attention from researchers such as Huynh, T M V (2016) and Le, V H V (2013) Furthermore, the connection between reading comprehension and phrase reading is highlighted in Le, H V.'s research.
(2012) The employment of strategies are also considered in the papers of Luong, P T
In Vietnam, there is a limited number of studies focusing on metacognition, with most employing survey design methodologies Notably, recent research conducted by Nguyen, T D and Trinh, H T exemplifies this approach.
In 2011, a study focused on identifying the most commonly used cognitive and metacognitive strategies However, it did not assess the effectiveness of teaching these metacognitive strategies in enhancing reading comprehension or explore the close relationship between reading and metacognition.
Numerous researchers have explored the effectiveness of teaching metacognitive strategies for enhancing reading comprehension In Thailand, Wichadee (2011) investigated the impact of explicit metacognitive reading strategy instruction on the reading comprehension of 40 first-year EFL students at Bangkok University Similarly, the studies conducted by Zhussupova and Kazbekova have contributed to this area of research.
Recent studies, including those by Tavakoli & Koosha (2016) and Ajideh, Zohrabi, & Pouralvar (2018), demonstrated significant improvements in reading comprehension among students, as evidenced by post-test scores These studies emphasized the importance of explicit instruction through various models, such as Wichadee's (2011) metacognitive awareness strategy, which lacked detailed steps In contrast, the GUIDE model proposed by Zhussupova and Kazbekova (2016) offered a clearer framework for teaching reading comprehension using short stories, although curriculum constraints limited its implementation The CALLA model, recognized for its effectiveness in strategy training, was utilized in the aforementioned studies, yet specific activities for each step were not detailed to showcase the enhancement of strategy application Research designs, including pre-test/post-test and experimental designs, were employed to assess the impact of metacognitive strategy instruction, with findings indicating improved student engagement in using these strategies, supported by self-reports from participants in Wichadee's and Tavakoli & Koosha's studies.
A correlation design was utilized in the study by Dabarera, Renandya, & Zhang (2013), which focused on 67 Year-1 secondary students in Singapore The research aimed to establish the relationship between metacognitive awareness and improvements in reading comprehension, with results confirming a significant link between these two factors.
Research on metacognitive training highlights the importance of learners' efficacy and their perceptions of strategy instruction Tavakoli & Koosha (2016) demonstrated that self-efficacy can be enhanced through the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire Additionally, positive feedback from semi-structured interviews, as reported by Wichadee (2011) and Tavakoli & Koosha (2016), underscores the favorable opinions of learners However, there has been insufficient focus on learners' attitudes, which are crucial for effective practical implementation.
Research on the relationship between reading and metacognitive strategies in Vietnam is limited, posing significant challenges for authors seeking relevant studies on the application of these strategies in teaching reading comprehension While some public papers address metacognition in subjects like Math and science, studies in English primarily focus on the benefits of metacognitive strategy usage without exploring the strategies themselves This creates a gap in understanding how to effectively implement metacognitive strategies to enhance awareness and improve reading comprehension in the Vietnamese context Consequently, this gap motivates the researcher to investigate the effectiveness of such strategies on learners' metacognitive awareness and reading performance within their own teaching environment.
Table 2.4 below summarizes the studies regarding the application of explicit metacognitive strategy training in reading comprehension with the focus placed on research issues, methodology, participants, results and their implications
Summary of the Previous Studies
Study Research issues Methodology Participants Results Implications
The effect of explicit instruction of metacognitive reading strategies on ESP reading comprehension
Randomized subjects and posttest-only control group design
CALLA model on teaching metacognitive strategies
54 first and second year students studying Islamic Art and Architecture Engineering at Tabriz Islamic Art University
Explicit instruction of metacognitive reading strategies has a positive effect on the students’ final performance
Recommendations for teachers, learners and materials developers
The relationship between metacognitive awareness raising and reading comprehension improvement
Metacognitive strategy instruction via the Reciprocal teaching approach
67 year-1 Secondary students in Singapore
There is a relationship between metacognitive awareness-raising and reading comprehension improvement
Metacognitive strategy instruction was found to be effective in increasing metacognitive awareness, and was linked to small but statistically significant reading comprehension gains
The applicability of this research to Singapore or a similar context
The most frequently used cognitive – metacognitive strategies
Instrument: questionnaire on cognitive -metacognitive strategies
196 Can Tho University English-majored students
Planning and monitoring strategies in metacognitive strategy group are the most frequently used
Further studies should employ observations and interview for increasing reliability of the results
Ss’reading achievement and self-efficacy under metacognitive strategy instruction
Randomized pre-test posttest control group design Instruments:
Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire
CALLA model on teaching metacognitive strategies
100 English majors in Iran Explicit metacognitive strategy instruction positively and significantly enhance reading achievement and self-efficacy
Recommendations for teachers, learners and materials developers
Wichadee (2011) Effectiveness of metacognitive strategies on reading comprehension Students’ opinion on metacognitive strategies instruction
One group pre-test post-test design
Semi-structure interview Explicit strategy instruction
40 first-year students of one class at Bangkok University
Reading comprehension is improved through reading scores
There was a change in subjects’ behaviors of using metacognitive strategies
-Metacognitive strategies should be integrated in the curriculum
-Difficult metacognitive strategies should be considered
Effectiveness of metacognitive strategies on reading comprehension
+ Pre-investigation test + Implementation tasks
+Post-investigation test GUIDE on teaching metacognitive strategies
60 second-year students at the Eurasian National University
Teaching metacognitive strategies through short stories helps improve learners reading comprehension
- Development of reading comprehension through short stories
- Proposing GUIDE to support teachers and learners
Despite numerous studies in various educational settings, two significant limitations persist that this study aims to address Firstly, the clear instruction model lacks explicit representation Secondly, insufficient attention has been given to learners' attitudes regarding metacognitive strategy instruction.
Effective language and metacognitive strategy training hinges on making students aware of and proficient in using these strategies To achieve this, instructors must meticulously prepare a model for strategy training However, some studies have not shown a positive correlation between metacognitive strategies and reading comprehension, primarily due to insufficient explicit instruction This study aims to provide clear guidance on strategy training using the CALLA model, benefiting both the researcher’s teaching context and serving as a valuable resource for other educators.
This paper aims to address a gap in existing research by developing a well-structured questionnaire to measure student attitudes effectively, as previous studies have highlighted the importance of learner feedback but lacked a focused instrument for accurate assessment.
Conceptual framework
This study investigated the impact of metacognitive strategy instruction on improving students' reading performance and metacognitive awareness while also examining their attitudes toward this instructional approach Additionally, the research explored the potential relationship between metacognitive awareness and reading performance, aiming to provide practical implications for future educational practices.
The metacognitive strategies selected for training are organized into three main categories: planning, monitoring, and evaluating, which correspond to the reading process stages of pre-read, while-read, and post-read These categories are ideal for enhancing reading strategies The chosen strategies, sourced from Phakiti (2006) and Israel (2007), align with the learners' cognitive levels and the appropriate difficulty Additionally, any overlapping strategies were removed to ensure clarity and effectiveness in the training process.
In the realm of planning strategies for reading, Phakiti (2006) identified two key strategies: setting goals and keeping goals, with a focus on the importance of setting goals Additionally, both authors emphasized the necessity of overviewing the text and task before reading, leading to the selection of this strategy for introduction Phakiti further highlighted the importance of identifying reading task expectations and planning actions, making these strategies essential for effective reading preparation While Israel (2007) concentrated on activating prior knowledge through text-to-text and text-to-self connections, these metacognitive strategies may not be suitable for the current study's participants due to their requirement for a higher level of metacognitive awareness.
During the reading stage, both Phakiti (2006) and Israel (2007) highlighted the importance of questioning as a strategy Phakiti (2006) specifically noted that learners should engage in self-questioning to enhance their focus on the text Consequently, this self-questioning strategy was selected from Phakiti's recommendations.
In terms of monitoring comprehension, Israel (2007) just mentioned general term
Phakiti (2007) identified three essential strategies for enhancing reader comprehension: checking comprehension, controlling concentration, and recognizing confusion to reassess understanding when faced with ambiguous information While these strategies are crucial for effective reading, the practice of checking comprehension upon encountering new information, as noted by Phakiti (2006), should be a continuous process rather than a conditional one Notably, the strategy of reflection stands out as particularly beneficial, as it can be applied across various domains to enhance learners' metacognitive awareness.
The three strategies identified by Israel (2007)—determining word meaning, summarizing, and identifying important information—were not selected, as they are primarily cognitive strategies.
In the final group, both strategies proposed by Phakiti (2006) were chosen, emphasizing the need for learners to evaluate the text comprehensively, focusing on its overall difficulty and reading demands However, the strategies of thinking like the author and utilizing prior knowledge for a more advanced reading approach were overlooked.
From the filtering stage, the author provided a list of appropriate strategies as below
Group Israel (2007) Phakiti (2006) Strategy selected
• Overviewing Information in the text
• Overviewing texts or reading tasks before reading
• Setting reading purposes or goals
• Keeping reading purposes or goals in mind
• Figuring out what needs to be accomplished
• Planning steps or actions before reading
• Overviewing texts or reading tasks before reading
• Setting reading purposes or goals
• Planning steps or actions before reading
• Checking comprehension when coming across new information
• Controlling concentration or attention during reading
• Double-checking comprehension when encountering ambiguous information
• Engaging self-questioning while reading
• Controlling concentration or attention during reading
• Double-checking comprehension when encountering ambiguous information
• Engaging self- questioning while reading
• Assessing levels of text difficulty and reading demands
• Evaluating accuracy in reading such as via task completion performance
• Assessing levels of text difficulty and reading demands
• Evaluating accuracy in reading such as via task completion performance
The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA), introduced by O'Malley and Chamot in 1990, aims to enhance language learning through strategic instruction and explicit training of learning strategies This study adopts the CALLA model to integrate metacognitive strategies into reading comprehension lessons, highlighting the importance of reflections from both teachers and learners throughout the training process The updated model by Chamot in 2005 includes six steps, providing additional opportunities for teacher reflection during the final assessment stage.
The study assessed students' awareness of metacognitive strategies before and after the training course, as outlined by Wenden (1998) This evaluation aimed to reflect their practices regarding metacognitive strategies Additionally, the research investigated the relationship between changes in their awareness of these strategies and their subsequent improvement in reading performance.
The study explored the effects of teaching metacognitive strategies on enhancing learners' reading performance Additionally, it investigated the relationship between reading performance and metacognitive awareness, testing the hypothesis that a correlation exists between the two.
This study aims to explore learners' attitudes by examining the definitions provided by McKenzie (2010) and Zimbardo & Ebbesen (1977), focusing on three key components: affections, cognitions, and behaviors In terms of affections, the criteria of enjoyment, confidence, and satisfaction were identified For cognitions, the study highlighted students' awareness of the benefits and drawbacks of their learning experiences Finally, the behavioral aspect was analyzed through three main factors: concentration, engagement, and application.
Based on the established conceptual framework, the researcher will gather data to address the study's research questions This data will be analyzed following the implementation of metacognitive strategy instruction.
The Conceptual Framework of the Study
Summary of the chapter
Chapter 2 provides a theoretical background to this study, including the definition and features of reading comprehension, metacognitive strategies, theoretical support for the explicit incorporation of metacognitive strategies in reading comprehension lessons as well as CALLA model for training This chapter also identifies some gaps remaining in the existing literature on the applying metacognitive strategies to enhance learners’ reading performance; raise their metacognitive awareness and the need to investigate learners’ attitudes towards metacognitive strategy instruction
Explicit instruction via CALLA Model (Chamot, 2005)
METHODOLOGY
Research design
This study explores the effects of metacognitive strategy training on reading performance and metacognitive awareness using a quasi-experimental design, specifically the "pre-test - post-test non-equivalent group design" as outlined by Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2007) This approach is recommended to minimize threats to internal validity while effectively showcasing differences both between and within groups, as well as facilitating causal inference (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007).
The true experiment utilizing a pre-test – post-test equivalent group design is considered superior for comparing differences between two subject groups However, researchers encounter significant challenges related to randomization, which are crucial for maintaining the validity of this design.
The author faced limitations in randomly assigning subjects due to the structured nature of the university setting, where classes were pre-formed This led to the selection of a pre-test - post-test non-equivalent group design as the most suitable approach for the study While quasi-experimental designs may pose threats to internal validity, they offer advantages in external validity by minimizing disruption to the educational environment (Tavakoli, 2012) To draw valid conclusions, the researcher must control extraneous variables and carefully analyze the cause-effect relationships, while acknowledging the constraints on generalization and the various factors that impact research validity.
Selection bias poses a significant threat to the internal validity of quasi-experiments, as highlighted by Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, and Razavieh (2010) To mitigate this threat, researchers are encouraged to implement "homogeneous selection" and conduct pre-tests with participants In this study, the researcher accessed placement test results through academic assistants to identify similar candidates, ultimately selecting two classes for the research Both groups underwent a pre-test to confirm their homogeneity in reading comprehension proficiency, and metacognitive awareness of reading strategies was also assessed These measures ensure that any differences observed in post-test results can be attributed to the treatments rather than pre-existing variances In conclusion, the study rigorously examined students' reading performance and metacognitive awareness before and after the intervention to maintain sample homogeneity.
A correlational design was utilized to examine the relationship between metacognitive awareness raising and improvements in reading performance, analyzing survey results on metacognitive awareness of reading strategies alongside reading test scores following the intervention.
An essential aspect of this study involved an attitudinal questionnaire that gathered feedback from students in the experimental group (EG) following their treatment This survey was specifically designed to collect data for future applications of the treatment.
The study utilized a quantitative approach, incorporating clearly defined data sources such as test scores and numeric questionnaires It employed a pretest-post-test non-equivalent group quasi-experimental design for the first two research questions, a correlational design for the third question, and a descriptive design for the final question.
Research site
The study was conducted at the University of People’s Security in Ho Chi Minh City, focusing on full-time program students who have recently graduated from high school English is taught through various programs, including full-time, transfer, and in-service, each with different training durations tailored to their specific objectives The researcher selected full-time students for this study to ensure that the results were not influenced by the additional work commitments of students in other programs.
In the 2018-2019 Academic Year, a study was conducted with the approval of the Vice Dean of the Faculty of Foreign Languages, involving 47 sophomore students who were not majoring in English and enrolled in the General English 1 (GE1) course.
The course spans 12 weeks, including an introductory week and a week dedicated to a mid-term test, with each week featuring five 50-minute class sessions Students are expected to enhance their English language skills across all areas, as this is a comprehensive general English course Notably, a consistent 50-minute reading comprehension session is integrated each week, during which metacognitive strategy instruction will be implemented to support students' reading development.
Pilot study
Piloting is a vital procedure to ensure the reliability of the study This study involves 2 kinds of pilots, i.e pilot teaching and pilot questionnaires
In preparation for the main study during the 2018-2019 academic year, a pilot teaching session was conducted in the previous academic year, 2017-2018 To enhance the validity of the research, two types of questionnaires were also piloted Due to the distinct characteristics of each questionnaire, the duration for testing varied.
In the pilot teaching conducted from September to November 2017 in class D27 (2.1), the researcher served as the lecturer, selecting this class for its alignment with the study's subjects and the use of the same textbook The primary objective of Phase 1 was to evaluate the effectiveness of the teacher's metacognitive strategy instruction through CALLA, focusing on teacher performance, time distribution, and materials, while also observing student behaviors and assessing their affective and cognitive responses To gather student feedback for an attitudinal questionnaire, the researcher engaged in discussions with various student groups, leading to modifications in materials and lesson plan time distribution for the experimental group.
In the second semester from February to May 2018, students in class D27 (2.2) participated in a pilot attitudinal questionnaire aimed at evaluating items related to metacognitive strategies in reading lessons The researcher encouraged participation based on shared backgrounds among potential participants and conducted instructional sessions before distributing the questionnaires.
Two weeks prior to the main study, a pilot survey assessing awareness of metacognitive strategies was conducted in Class D28, which was not selected for the study Students were chosen for the pilot due to their similarities in level and learning experience with potential participants The surveys aimed to gather feedback on clarity and understandability, and small discussions were held to clarify certain items This process enhanced the clarity and understandability of word usage and sentence structures, thereby improving the overall validity of the survey.
Give strategies instruction through CALLA
Discuss with the students on the instruction and their attitudes
Evaluate the students’ affection and cognition
Give strategies instruction through CALLA
Pilot questionnaire on the students’ attitudes towards incorporating metacognitive strategy instruction in reading through CALLA
Items in the attitudinal questionnaire
3.Pilot survey of awareness of metacognitive awareness
Two weeks before main study (July
Distribute survey on metacognitive strategy awareness
Pilot the survey Items in the survey on metacognitive strategy awareness
The piloting sequence is outlined in Table 3.1, highlighting the meticulous preparation of teaching materials and model training to ensure the success of the study.
Participants
The study involved full-time second-year students at the University of People’s Security (UPS), aged 19-22, who were identified as being at a Pre-Intermediate level in English These participants were chosen due to the unique learning environment at UPS, where students live in university dorms, fostering self-discipline and self-regulation, closely linked to metacognitive strategies (Brown, 1987) A preliminary survey revealed that most students had little familiarity with strategy training, particularly metacognitive strategies, and primarily approached reading as a means to find answers to questions, often relying solely on dictionaries for new vocabulary This lack of understanding regarding reading strategies highlighted the need for targeted intervention, prompting the invitation for these students to participate in the study aimed at enhancing their reading skills, in alignment with the objectives of the GE 1 course.
After completing the National University Entrance Examination, students spent their first year studying general subjects, including philosophy and martial arts, with English instruction beginning in the second and third years In the 2018-2019 academic year, 151 students were enrolled in the GE 1 program, divided into six classes based on their placement test results, ranging from low to high levels The highest level was Class 3, while three intermediate classes (D28 2.1, D28 2.2, and D28 2.3) and two lower-level classes (D28 1.1 and D28 1.2) were also established The researcher collaborated with the Academic Assistant to oversee two Level 2 classes, selecting Class D28(2.1) and D28(2.2) for the study due to their demographic similarities in age and gender.
The study involved 25 students from Class D28 (2.1) and 22 students from Class D28 (2.2), all taught by the same instructor as the researcher Utilizing convenience sampling, only students from these classes were invited to participate, resulting in all agreeing to join the study However, this sampling method posed a limitation as it did not accurately represent the broader population, leading to negligible generalizability of the findings To mitigate this issue, the researcher attempted to randomly assign participants to control and experimental groups by tossing a coin between the two classes.
As a result, the students of Class D28 (2.1) with the pictured-face coin were selected as Experimental Group (EG) and Class D28(2.2) as Control Group (CG)
The demographic data of the participants in both groups reveal a notable similarity in terms of gender and age Additionally, the researcher gathered Placement test results to confirm the homogeneity of the groups, ensuring a comparable foundation for the study.
Demographic Description of the Participants
Experimental Group (Class D28 2.1) Raw Count Percentage (%) Raw Count Percentage (%)
Teaching and learning materials
In a classroom's experimental setting, textbooks and syllabi play a crucial role in shaping teaching materials, which in turn influences the development of research instruments.
According to the official syllabus, the textbook which was employed in GE1 is American
"English File 2," authored by Clive Oxenden and Christina Latham-Koenig, is part of the American English File series, which comprises three levels: 1 to 3, designed for Elementary, Pre-Intermediate, and Intermediate learners The second book in this series serves as the official textbook for the GE1 course.
Haghverdi and Ghasemi (2013) highlight that this textbook presents engaging topics and stimulating texts in the reading domain It includes tasks that encourage learners to infer meanings, integrate language rules, and draw on prior knowledge, making it easier to apply what they've learned to new activities This approach is a significant advantage of using this educational series.
The CALLA Model, featuring six scaffolding steps, was utilized to explicitly teach metacognitive strategies during weekly 50-minute reading sessions This approach facilitates a gradual shift from teacher-centered to student-centered learning Due to the limited time for reading instruction, the researcher-teacher organized the three main groups—planning, monitoring, and evaluating—into smaller subgroups Additionally, four practice sessions were incorporated to reinforce learners' skills after completing each major strategy group Reading texts from Complete PET were also used to provide supplementary material.
Appendix B outlines activities for teaching metacognitive strategies, detailing specific tasks for each stage of the CALLA model instruction along with clear objectives and techniques for strategy training Utilizing this framework, lesson plans were developed to align with students' proficiency levels and preferences.
Time Distribution in the Syllabus for EG
Week Time Metacognitive strategy instruction Reading text
Survey of Awareness of Metacognitive Strategies in Reading Comprehension 1 (SAMSRC 1)
• Setting reading purposes or goals
• Overviewing texts or reading tasks before reading
“How much can you learn in a month?”
W3 Sep-20 • Identifying reading task expectations
• Planning steps or actions before reading
“Your most exciting sporting moments”
W4 Sep-27 Practice Planning group “The face of chess”
• Controlling concentration or attention during reading
• Double-checking comprehension when encountering ambiguous information
W7 Oct-18 • Engaging self-questioning while reading
• Reflecting “We’re all afraid of”
W8 Oct-25 Practice Planning + Monitoring “A famous rebel- but was he really?”
• Assessing levels of text difficulty and reading demands
• Evaluating accuracy in reading such as via task completion performance
“How old is your body?”
W10 Nov-8 Practice Planning + Monitoring + Evaluating “Are you allergic to mornings?”
W11 Nov-15 Practice Planning + Monitoring + Evaluating “Born to run”
Reading Test 2 SAMSRC 2 Attitudinal questionnaire
Research instruments
The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of explicitly teaching metacognitive strategies on students' reading performance To assess reading performance, a reading test comprising a pretest and posttest was utilized, specifically selecting the reading component of the B1 Preliminary (formerly Cambridge English: B1-Preliminary) The tests chosen included the Reading Paper of Test 2 from Collins Cambridge English Preliminary and Test 1 from Succeed in Cambridge English Preliminary Both tests were designed to be similar in structure, difficulty level, length, and allotted time, ensuring a consistent evaluation framework.
The Preliminary B1 test was chosen for assessing learners' reading performance in this study for several reasons Firstly, it aligns perfectly with the American English File 2 textbook used in the course, featuring similar language input and tasks The real-life texts and reading tasks in the textbook closely resemble those found in the B1 Preliminary reading test Secondly, the primary objective of the course is to develop language skills to reach the Pre-Intermediate level of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), as outlined by Vietnam's National Foreign Languages Project 2020 Therefore, implementing the standardized B1 Preliminary test for the participants was both necessary and appropriate.
The examination is conducted by Cambridge Assessment English, a reputable organization acknowledged by numerous educational institutions and professional bodies globally, with over 2 million candidates from more than 140 countries (UCLES, 2014) This widespread recognition ensures the reliability and validity of the test, making it suitable for assessing learners’ comprehension in line with the reading comprehension measurement criteria of this study.
The article outlines a structured approach to evaluating reading strategies, focusing on essential skills such as goal-setting, choosing suitable reading methods, grasping main ideas, understanding overall text, and scanning for specific information (UCLES, 2014).
The B1 Preliminary test consisted of 35 questions in five separate parts of reading tasks
Part 1 included five multiple-choice questions It involves five public signs, notices, or labels, each with a short text In order to answer the multiple-choice questions, students were required to read the signs and notices for main ideas
Part 2 consisted of five matching questions This part aimed at testing students’ detailed comprehension of factual material Students should read five short descriptions of five people and had to match each person with one of the eight short, factual texts on a particular topic
Part 3 had ten true/false questions These questions aimed to test students’ ability to work with a longer, factual text, scanning for specific information To scan for specific information, students had to read a text of about 400 words in the form of brochure extracts, advertisements in magazines and website information
Part 4 included five multiple-choice questions These questions were designed to check whether they had understood the writer’s purpose, the writer’s attitude or opinion, or an opinion quoted by the writer Students were expected to read a text of about 200 words with opinions and attitudes implied
Part 5 was in format of a text with ten multiple-choice cloze questions to In order to complete this, students had to read through the whole text to establish its topic and general meaning Then, they selected the correct word to fit in each space
Fifty-five minutes was the allowed time for completing this test The detailed specifications of a reading test was presented in the table 3.4
Part Number of questions Format Objectives
1 5 Three-option multiple choice Comprehending main ideas
3 10 True/ False Scanning for specifics
4 5 Four-option multiple choice Reading for main ideas
5 10 Four-option multiple choice in cloze Comprehending for overall text
3.6.2 Surveys of leaners’ awareness of metacognitive strategies
Changes in students' metacognition significantly influence study outcomes, particularly regarding reading comprehension One crucial factor is the awareness of metacognitive strategies, which can be assessed through improvements in metacognitive awareness before and after interventions This enhancement serves as clear evidence of the treatment's effectiveness in boosting students' reading comprehension To address this need, a measurement instrument was developed, known as The Survey of the Awareness of Metacognitive Strategies.
Metacognitive Strategies in Reading Comprehension (SAMSRC) To ensure the appropriate application of SAMSRC in this study, it was subsequently built up and piloted for its validity and reliability
The SAMSRC tool, developed by Mokhtari & Reichard in 2002, was utilized to assess the effects of strategic reading instruction on students' reading comprehension In this study, SAMSRC served as both a pretest and posttest to measure changes in students' awareness and application of metacognitive strategies However, a notable limitation of SAMSRC as an offline self-report tool is its inability to accurately capture the actual use of these strategies To address potential biases from respondents, the SAMSRC was administered immediately following Reading Test 1 in the first session and Reading Test 2 in the final session for both the experimental group (EG) and control group (CG).
The first part of SAMSRC was demographic information of respondents with sex, self- perceived reading ability (Items 1 and 2) The respondents were required to tick the box for choosing answer
SAMSRC utilized a Five Likert scale (Never, Only Occasionally, Sometimes, Usually, Always) to assess the self-reported use of metacognitive strategies, drawing from the frameworks of Phakiti (2006) and Israel (2007) The study focused on three primary categories of metacognitive strategies: planning, monitoring, and evaluating, as they relate to language learning Each category included multiple statements designed to enhance students' awareness of their metacognitive processes These statements were derived from established tools, including the MARSI (Mokhtari & Reichard, 2002) and Wichadee's (2011) cognitive and metacognitive strategy use questionnaire, with a selection of relevant statements presented in Table 3.5.
Selection of Items in SAMSRC
A P la nn ing s tra teg ies
• Setting reading purposes or goals
- I have a purpose in mind when I read
- I think about whether the content of the text fits my reading purpose
A.1 I made sure to clarify the goal and know how to complete it
A.2 I have a purpose in mind when I read
A.3 I think about whether the content of the text fits my reading purpose
• Overviewing texts or reading tasks before reading
- I preview the text to see what it is about before reading it
- I skim the text first by noting characteristics like length and organization
A.4 I preview the text to see what it’s about before reading it
A.5 I skim the text first by noting characteristics like length and organization
• Activating prior knowledge - I think about what I know to help me understand what I read
A.6 I asked myself how the test questions and the given texts related to what I already knew
- I read carefully requirements of a task
- I ask myself what I am expected to do
A.7 I read carefully requirements of a task
A.8 I determined what the test tasks/questions required me to do
• Planning steps or actions before reading
I think of steps to complete tasks before reading
A.9 When I started to complete the test, I planned how to complete it and followed the plan
A.10 I was aware of the need to plan a course of action
B M o nito ring s tra teg ies
B.1 I stop from time to time and think about what I’m reading
B.2 I go back and forth in the text to find relationships among ideas in it
• Controlling concentration or attention during reading
- I try to get back on track when I lose concentration
B.3 I was aware of which strategy to use and how and when to use it
- I decide what to read closely and what to ignore
B.4 I was aware of how much the test remained to be completed
B.5 I try to get back on track when I lose concentration
B.6 I decide what to read closely and what to ignore
• Double-checking comprehension when encountering ambiguous information
- I check my understanding when I come across conflicting information
B.7 I corrected mistakes immediately when found
B.8 I check my understanding when I come across conflicting information
• Engaging self-questioning while reading
B.9 I asked myself whether I am understanding what I read
• Reflecting B.10 I thought through the meaning of the test tasks/questions before answering them
C E v a lua ti ng s tra teg ies
• Assessing levels of text difficulty and reading demands
- I tried to identify easy and difficult test
- I evaluate the difficulty of the text whether it is suitable with my level
C.1 I tried to identify easy and difficult test
C.2 I evaluate the difficulty of the text whether it is suitable with my level
• Evaluating accuracy in reading such as via task completion performance
- I checked my own performance and progress while completing the test
- I checked my accuracy as I progressed through the test
C.3 I checked my own performance and progress while completing the test
C.4 I checked my accuracy as I progressed through the test
The Planning group incorporated five metacognitive strategies, resulting in ten statements based on the frameworks of Mokhtari & Reichard (2002) and Wichadee (2011) The first strategy emphasizes the importance of setting clear reading purposes or goals, leading to the addition of statement A.1 for enhanced clarity The second strategy, which involves overviewing texts prior to reading, is well represented by statements A.4 and A.5, requiring no modifications To better define the strategy of activating prior knowledge, statement A.6 was introduced For identifying reading task expectations, statements A.7 and A.8 were adapted with slight revisions to A.8 from the original sources Finally, the last strategy focuses on planning steps or actions before reading, prompting the creation of new statements A.9 and A.10 to emphasize both the actions and their underlying reasons.
Part B of the Monitoring group comprises five strategies designed for instruction, derived from items B.1 to B.10 Notably, the strategies of Checking Comprehension, Engaging in Self-Questioning while Reading, and Reflecting were not included in the measurements by Mokhtari and Reichard (2002) and Wichadee (2011) Consequently, items B.1, B.2, B.9, and B.10 were developed to enhance students' awareness of these specific strategies To address Controlling Concentration during reading, items B.3 and B.4 were incorporated based on existing statements from other tools, highlighting the importance of meaningful attention from readers Additionally, item B.7 was revised to clarify the process of Double-Checking Comprehension when faced with ambiguous information, emphasizing the correction of mistakes.
In the last group of Evaluating strategies, all items from C.1 to C.4 were chosen from the tools of Mokhtari & Reichard (2002); Wichadee (2011) without modifications
To ensure students fully understand the material, SAMSRC was initially written in English and subsequently translated into Vietnamese For analysis purposes, only the Vietnamese version will be utilized.
Data collection procedure
In the 2018-2019 academic year, a teacher-researcher conducted an experiment over 12 sessions from September to November, as illustrated in Figure 3.1 The study utilized a three-phase data collection procedure, which included a pretest and pre-questionnaire, followed by the treatment phase, and concluded with a post-test and post-questionnaire Initially, both the experimental group (EG) and control group (CG) participants completed a pretest to evaluate their reading comprehension and a questionnaire to gauge their metacognitive strategy awareness Subsequently, the treatment was implemented for the experimental group.
CG received traditional reading comprehension instruction, followed by a reading posttest and a questionnaire assessing metacognitive strategy awareness This allowed the researcher to compare results between the treatment and control groups Additionally, learners in the experimental group completed questionnaires regarding their attitudes towards the use of metacognitive strategies in reading.
After the data collected would be classified and followed the steps in data analysis plan to ensure correct interpretation of the results.
Data analysis procedure
The analysis of data gathered from reading tests, SAMSRCs, and questionnaires regarding learners' attitudes towards the integration of explicit metacognitive strategies in reading comprehension lessons utilized both descriptive and inferential statistics.
The B1 preliminary test scores were evaluated using the answer key from the Cambridge Assessment Center, with results recorded before and after the treatment These scores were then systematically transferred to IBM SPSS (Statistical Product and Services Solutions) for analysis.
1 st Session (Sep - 6) SAMSCR 1 Reading Test 1
12 th Session (Nov - 22) SAMSCR 2 Reading Test 2 Attitudinal questionnaire
1 st Section (Sep -7) SAMSCR1 Reading Test 1
12 th Session (Nov - 22) SAMSCR 2 Reading Test 2
The data collection procedure, version 24, was utilized for data analysis, employing statistical tests such as the Independent Sample t-Test and the Paired Samples t-Test These tests were conducted to determine if there were significant differences between the experimental group (EG) and the control group (CG).
The analysis of the questionnaire data, gathered through a Likert scale, will focus on mean scores to determine the level of agreement with the statements presented.
To analyze the Likert scale data from the SAMSRC and the questionnaire, it is essential to establish the mean score ranges for calculation This range is derived by subtracting 1 from 5, resulting in a total of 4, which is then divided by 5 to yield an interval of 0.8 The lengths of the range are determined accordingly.
- From 1 to 1.8 represents Never/ Strongly disagree
- From 1.8 to 2.6 represents Only Occasionally/ Disagree
- From 2.6 to 3.4 represents Sometimes/Uncertain
- From 3.4 to 4.2 represents Usually/ Agree
- From 4.2 to 5 represents Always / Strongly agree
The specified ranges will be utilized to evaluate the average scores of Likert scale items concerning metacognitive awareness of reading strategies and students' attitudes towards metacognitive strategy training.
3.8.3 Research questions and data analysis
The research instruments and statistical tests are presented in correspondence with the research questions in Table 3.9
Research Questions and the Corresponding Research Instruments and Statistical Test
Research question Instrument(s) Data and Statistical tests
1 To what extent does explicit metacognitive strategy training increase UPS students’ metacognitive awareness of reading strategies?
Participants’ scores Descriptive statistics Independent-sample t-Test Paired-sample t-test
2 To what extent does explicit metacognitive strategy training improve UPS students’ reading comprehension performance?
Participants’ scores Descriptive statistics Independent-sample t-Test Paired-sample t-test
3 Is metacognitive awareness raising related to reading comprehension improvement?
Pearson product-moment correlation test
4 What are UPS students’ attitudes towards the application of metacognitive strategies to teaching reading comprehension?
Chapter summary
In Chapter 3, we outlined the treatment and instruments, ensuring they align with the research design, participants, data collection, and analysis procedures The established directions and discussions are crucial for effectively conducting data analysis, which will be further explored in the upcoming chapter.