INTRODUCTION
Rationale
English is a widely spoken language, with millions of native speakers and over a billion individuals using it as a second or foreign language (Crystal, 2006) It serves as a vital tool for communication, trade, education, and travel, including in Vietnam Despite improvements in English teaching and learning in Vietnam over the years, many still find it challenging to read and comprehend due to various factors, notably the ambiguity arising from the transfer of word meanings, particularly in metaphors.
Both Vietnamese and English utilize metaphors, but their meanings can vary significantly Without a deep understanding of English, one may easily become confused and misinterpret these metaphors.
Secondly, in Haiphong Private University, metaphor is primarily learned through one lecture of Lexicology There is not enough time to research all aspects of metaphor
The exploration of animal-related metaphors offers valuable insights into English texts, culture, and lifestyle, making it a compelling subject for my graduation paper.
Aims of the study
This study will explore the use of animal-related metaphors in English, examining which animal names are commonly employed as metaphors by English speakers and analyzing their application in both written texts and spoken language.
The vast array of metaphors associated with animal names is too extensive for my graduation paper to encompass fully Consequently, I will concentrate on analyzing the metaphorical meanings of several common animal names frequently used in English.
In order to understand metaphors relating to the names of the animals in English and Vietnamese, the methods are shown below:
Materials analysis: I will read different reference books to collect necessary information and analyze them to contribute to the study
Exercise compilation: I will also compile some interesting exercises for English major students to read and study profoundly about metaphor
The study is divided into three parts:
Part I: Introduction: In the first part, I will present the rationale, aims, methods, scope and design of the study
Part II: Development: This part consists of three chapters:
Chapter 1: Literature background: The first chapter provides definition of metaphor and its characteristics
Chapter 2: Metaphors relating to the names of animals in English and
Vietnamese: This chapter focuses on analysing twelve common animals’ name that English people often use as metaphorical meaning
Chapter 3: Application of the study: The chapter provides some comparisons between metaphors relating to the names of animals in English and Vietnamese, some difficulties when learning English metaphors relating to the names of animals, some solutions to them and exercises in metaphors Part III: Conclusion: In conclusion, I will summarise briefly the main points of the study and draw some ideas for further research.
Methods of the study
In order to understand metaphors relating to the names of the animals in English and Vietnamese, the methods are shown below:
Materials analysis: I will read different reference books to collect necessary information and analyze them to contribute to the study
Exercise compilation: I will also compile some interesting exercises for English major students to read and study profoundly about metaphor.
Design of the study
The study is divided into three parts:
Part I: Introduction: In the first part, I will present the rationale, aims, methods, scope and design of the study
Part II: Development: This part consists of three chapters:
Chapter 1: Literature background: The first chapter provides definition of metaphor and its characteristics
Chapter 2: Metaphors relating to the names of animals in English and
Vietnamese: This chapter focuses on analysing twelve common animals’ name that English people often use as metaphorical meaning
Chapter 3: Application of the study: The chapter provides some comparisons between metaphors relating to the names of animals in English and Vietnamese, some difficulties when learning English metaphors relating to the names of animals, some solutions to them and exercises in metaphors Part III: Conclusion: In conclusion, I will summarise briefly the main points of the study and draw some ideas for further research.
DEVELOPMENT
Literature Review 1.1 Overview of semantic change
Semantic change plays a crucial role in enhancing the flexibility and richness of language To effectively study this phenomenon, it is essential to begin with fundamental concepts of semantic change, followed by an exploration of metaphors, particularly those associated with animal names.
Semantic change, as defined by Bloomfield, refers to the innovations that alter the meanings of words rather than their grammatical forms Consequently, the meanings of newly coined words often differ significantly from those of their original counterparts.
Bloomfield highlighted the example of the word "bite," which can denote a "harsh taste" rather than just the physical action of using teeth He also noted that semantic changes in words can often be linked to their connotations, as seen in terms like "understand," "forgive," "forget," and "overcome."
Until now, some classification schemes for semantic change have been suggested, of those, the most widely accepted scheme is proposed by Bloomfield
(1933) His scheme includes: Narrowing, Widening, Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Hyperbole, Meiosis, Degeneration and Elevation
Besides, we also accept the categorisation of Blank (1999) which consists of Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Specialization of meaning, Generalization of meaning, Cohyponymic transfer, Antiphrasis, Auto-antonymy, Auto-converse,
In brief, irrespective of semantic change is categorised according to Bloomfield or Blank, metaphor is always a common types of semantic change and play roles in the development of language
A metaphor is defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary as a word or phrase that describes someone or something in a way that differs from its usual meaning, highlighting shared qualities between the two and enhancing the description's impact.
In the cognitive linguistic perspective, metaphor is described as a cognitive mechanism that involves mapping one experiential domain onto another, allowing for a partial understanding of the second domain through the lens of the first.
Linguists argue that metaphor significantly influences both literature and cognition In their book "Metaphors We Live By," George Lakoff and Mark Johnson highlight the prevalence of metaphors in everyday language, thought, and actions However, their research primarily views metaphor as a figure of speech, focusing on specific animal names used metaphorically.
Basically, English metaphors are classified into three types: Living metaphor, Faded metaphor and Dead metaphor a) Living metaphor
A living metaphor, or extended metaphor, is a unique figurative expression where a word takes on an unusual metaphorical meaning, often employed by individuals This literary device enhances both poetry and prose, making them more engaging, imaginative, and sophisticated.
But soft! What light through yonder window breaks?
It is the East, and Juliet is the sun!
Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, Who is already sick and pale with grief
In Shakespeare's comparison of Juliet to the sun, he highlights her beauty and radiance, while contrasting her with a sickly, pale figure likened to the envious moon overshadowed by the sun This vivid imagery allows us to appreciate Juliet's extraordinary allure Living metaphors are essential tools that poets and authors often employ to convey deep emotions and vivid imagery, while faded metaphors lose their original impact over time.
A faded metaphor occurs when a word loses its original impact and freshness due to prolonged and conventional usage Unlike living metaphors, which can sometimes lead to confusion due to their individual application, faded metaphors are widely accepted and understood in contrast.
He was so exhausted that he fell asleep at his desk (Hornby:75) (4)
The phrase "fall asleep" is not used literally; instead, it signifies the onset of sleep, often in an unintended or inappropriate context, such as dozing off at a desk While "go to sleep" implies a deliberate act of starting to sleep, and "get to sleep" suggests a struggle to fall asleep, "fall asleep" typically describes a more incidental transition into sleep.
Faded metaphors are intricately linked to lexical ambiguity and polysemy, often manifesting in expressions related to animal names, which are extensively examined in chapter two Additionally, the concept of dead metaphors is also addressed, highlighting their significance in language evolution.
A dead metaphor occurs when a word has lost its original meaning and is now used solely in a figurative sense This phenomenon reflects the evolution of language, yet such metaphors often go unnoticed in everyday use.
Sometimes I just sit and ponder, What the true meaning of life all about;
(Dwayne Bailey, Sometimes I Sit And Ponder)
In Old English, the verb "ponder" was synonymous with "weigh," but in contemporary usage, "ponder" refers specifically to thinking about something carefully In contrast, "weigh" has evolved to encompass a broader range of meanings.
“consider something carefully” is one of them
The term "deadline" originated in Civil War prison camps, where it referred to a 19-foot boundary from the wall that prisoners were prohibited from crossing; crossing this line could result in being shot.
The term "deadline" originally referred to a physical boundary, but has evolved to signify a specific time by which tasks must be completed This shift illustrates how metaphors can transform language, leading to the loss of some meanings while giving rise to new ones Overall, such changes enhance the diversity and adaptability of language, reflecting its evolution throughout different historical periods.
Metaphors relating to the names of animals in English 2.1 Metaphors relating to the name of Dog
2.2 Metaphors relating to the name of Cat
Cat is usually understood as a small animal that people often keep as a pet Now, it also alludes to a fellow, a man or a gossipy woman based on context of conversation
(a) Now, this cat wants to borrow some money from me What should I do? (Spears:69) (8)
(b) Mary can be such a cat, you know (Spears:69) (8)
In the given examples, the term "cat" is used metaphorically rather than literally referring to an animal In the first instance, "cat" signifies a friend seeking financial help from the speaker, while in the second instance, it describes Mary as a gossipy girl.
Compound words related to cats are abundant, with terms like "alley cat" and "tomcat" often used pejoratively to describe immoral or promiscuous individuals "Alley cat" typically refers to women, while "tomcat," originally meaning a male cat, is used for men Additionally, the term "cat nap" describes a short but refreshing sleep, reflecting the cat's tendency to oversleep.
A cat nap a short but nice sleep
A fat cat an impolite way of referring to someone rich and powerful
A scaredy-cat someone who is frightened when there is no reason to be
The term "cat ice" refers to a delicate layer of ice formed over water that has already withdrawn, while "cat's cradle" describes something that is intricately complex or elaborate The phrase "cat's meow" signifies something or someone that is particularly enjoyable, desirable, or impressive Additionally, "cat's-paw" denotes a person who is manipulated by another for their own purposes, and "cat-soup" is a colloquial term for catsup or ketchup.
Metaphors relating to the name of cat are so numerous, there are not only compound words, but also idioms and proverbs
To be raining cats and dogs to be raining in great amounts
To be the cat's whiskers/pyjamas to be the best
To bell the cat to undertake or agree to perform a risky, dangerous, or impossible job or task
"To cat got your tongue?" is a phrase used to prompt someone who remains silent when they are expected to speak On the other hand, saying someone does not have a cat in hell's chance of doing something means they have absolutely no chance of succeeding.
Keep no more cats than can catch mice should not maintain any more people or things than can accomplish a purpose
To let the cat out of the bag to tell a secret carelessly or by mistake
To play (a game of) cat and mouse to play a cruel game with somebody in your power by changing your behaviour so that they do not know what to expect
To put/set the cat among the pigeons to say or do something causing trouble
To see which way the cat jumps to delay making a decision or doing something until you know what is going to happen
To shoot/sling the cat to empty one’s stomach; to vomit
Not enough room to swing a cat not very much space
A cat may look at a king everyone has rights to do things that are of no consequence to others
A cat in gloves catches no mice sometimes you cannot get what you want by being careful and polite
A cat in the meal-tub a surprise attack or ambush; a hidden or unseen danger (primarily heard in US, South Africa)
A cat in the sack a suspicious transaction
A cat on a hot tin roof someone who was on edge or nervous
A dead cat on the line something wrong
Seizing an opportunity can lead to significant achievements, much like taking a chance when it arises In the darkness, appearances lose their significance, illustrating that true value and meaning often lie beneath the surface and are not always visible.
Curiosity can lead to trouble, as the saying goes, "Curiosity killed the cat." When someone unexpectedly appears, it's often met with the lighthearted expression, "Look at what the cat dragged in!" This phrase conveys a sense of surprise and familiarity Additionally, when someone is feeling particularly pleased with themselves, they may be described as "the cat that ate the canary," indicating a state of happiness and self-satisfaction.
There are many ways to skin a cat there are many methods for achieving one's ends
When the cat's away the mice will play people enjoy themselves freely when their supervisor is not there
Who's she, the cat's mother? a reprimand given to someone
Figurative expressions involving the term "cat" are abundant, making it one of the most commonly referenced animals in language These expressions vary widely in meaning and context, highlighting the diverse ways in which cats are perceived and represented This study aims to summarize key aspects of these figurative uses.
The term "kitten," referring to a young cat, is often used metaphorically; for example, "have kittens" means to feel anxious or nervous, while "kittenish" describes a lively woman seeking attention from men The word "pussy," a child's term for a cat, also alludes to female sexual organs, whereas "pussycat" typically describes someone unexpectedly kind and friendly Additionally, the verb "pussyfoot" means to express opinions cautiously to avoid upsetting others.
2.3 Metaphors relating to the name of Cow
Cows are domesticated cattle primarily raised for their beef and milk However, the term "cow" is also used as a derogatory metaphor for women, similar to the term "bitch," though it is considered less offensive.
In Australian English and New Zealand English, cow is also an unpleasant person, thing, or situation For example, “a cow of a day” is a day with a lot of unpleasantness or trouble
It's been a cow of a day (Cambridge Dictionaries Online)
When “cow” is a verb, it is usually passivised and means that you frighten someone in order to make them obey you Thence, the phrasal verb
“cow someone into something” means that you intimidate someone into doing something through the use of guilt or shame
Compound words associated with cows are limited, including terms like "sacred cow," "cash cow," and "milch cow." The term "sacred cow" refers to a longstanding custom or system that is often deemed untouchable or beyond criticism, such as the "sacred cow of free market economics."
“Cash cow” is a business term implying the part of a business that always makes a profit and that provides money for the rest of the business
The movie studio saw the actress as a cash cow (Merriam- Webster Dictionaries)
The actress is perceived as a "cash cow" for the movie studio, indicating that she is expected to generate significant revenue The term "cash cow," akin to "milch cow" in British English, refers to an individual, organization, or product that reliably produces profit with minimal effort.
Governments throughout the world are privatising their milch cows (Hornby:351) (4)
The term "milch cow" refers to groups or companies that were once state-owned and have since been privatized, generating significant profits This usage contrasts with the meaning of "milch cow" in other contexts.
The beet itself makes one of the best feeds for milch cows, and is excellent for other domestic animals
In "The Vegetable Garden: What, When, and How to Plant," the term "milch cow" is employed in its literal sense, referring specifically to a cow that is raised solely for the purpose of milking.
“Holy cow” or “holy shit” or “holy mackerel” or “holy smoke” are American overused words that express states of surprise, astonishment, joy, glee, incredulity, sometimes including confusion and anger
I can't eat, I can't sleep Since you walked out on me, yeah Holy cow, whatcha doing, child, child
In Dorsey’s song, the phrase “holy cow” conveys the speaker's shock and bewilderment at their partner's departure, leaving them unable to eat or sleep, unsure of the reasons behind the breakup Unlike the term “sacred cow,” which originates from Indian culture and signifies a revered animal, “holy cow” serves as an informal exclamation akin to expressions like “Oh!” or “My God!”
Some sayings also use the name of cow including “have a cow”, “till the cows come home” and “Why buy the cow when you can get the milk for free”
(a) My mother had a cow when I said I was going to buy a motorbike (Hornby:351) (4)
(b) You can talk till the cows come home, you'll never make me change my mind (Hornby:351) (4)
The idiom "have a cow" in American English signifies a state of anger or anxiety, often triggered by concerns over safety or responsibility, as illustrated by a mother’s reaction to her child's desire to buy a motorbike Similarly, British English features a related expression using the term "kitten" to convey feelings of anger or anxiety, highlighting cultural variations in idiomatic expressions Both phrases reflect the emotional responses tied to specific situations, emphasizing the universal nature of parental concern.
“have kittens” and “have a cow” are synonymous
Application of the study 3.1 S
3.1 Some comparisons between metaphors relating to the names of animals
3.1.1 Some similarities between metaphors relating to the names of animals in English and Vietnamese
Both Vietnamese and English cultures utilize animal-related metaphors, revealing notable similarities, particularly with the term "dog." In both languages, "dog" serves as a common offensive term, carrying negative connotations in various expressions Interestingly, some idioms featuring the word "dog" are identical in both languages, highlighting a shared linguistic and cultural understanding.
The saying "Barking dogs seldom bite" suggests that those who make the most noise are often the least dangerous Similarly, "You can’t teach an old dog new tricks" emphasizes the difficulty of changing established habits in older individuals Lastly, the phrase "If you lie down with dogs, you will get up with fleas" warns that associating with the wrong company can lead to negative consequences.
Metaphors associated with snakes, monkeys, wolves, and pigs in Vietnamese closely parallel those in English In Vietnamese, snake-related metaphors are abundant and significant For instance, "Sư hổ mang" informally describes a cruel monk, while "rắn mất đầu" refers to an organization lacking a leader Notable idioms include "Cõng rắn cắn gà nhà," meaning to set a fox to keep the geese; "Khẩu Phật tâm xà," which translates to a honey tongue with a heart of gall; "Vẽ rắn thêm chân," meaning to draw legs on a snake; and "Đánh rắn động cỏ," or stomping the grass to scare the snake.
In common with English, metaphors relating to the name of monkey in Vietnamese often refer someone mischievous “Đồ khỉ”, “khỉ gió”, “khỉ khô”,
The term "khỉ mốc" refers to derogatory language associated with monkeys, implying a person who is indecent or engages in playful behavior inappropriately Similarly, the phrase "làm trò khỉ" translates to engaging in bad or mischievous actions.
3.1.2 Some distinctions between metaphors relating to the names of animals in English and Vietnamese
Apart from similarities, metaphors relating to the names of animals in two languages also have distinctions
The term "dog" illustrates cultural differences in language, as its connotations vary between English and Vietnamese In English, the metaphor "hair of the dog that bit you" suggests a more positive interpretation, while in Vietnamese, the word for dog is exclusively associated with negative meanings.
In Vietnamese culture, cats symbolize agility and wisdom, leading to the frequent use of metaphors related to them However, the Vietnamese term for cat poses a significant challenge for English learners due to its stark differences from the English word Some Vietnamese expressions have English equivalents, such as “Mèo già hóa cáo” (An old fox not easily snared), “Mèo khen mèo dài đuôi” (Each bird loves to hear himself sing), and “Mèo mù vớ phải cá rán” (Even a blind squirrel finds a nut once in a while).
In Vietnamese culture, the cow is viewed as a gentle and useful creature, yet it is often considered somewhat unintelligent The term "đầu bò," meaning "cow's head," is used to describe someone who is stubborn and difficult to manage, while "bò đội nón," or "cow wears a hat," refers to a foolish person These expressions reflect the cultural perception of cows and their symbolic meanings in Vietnamese society.
In Vietnamese culture, the term "con bò cái" (cow) is occasionally used as an offensive reference to an unpleasant woman, though this usage is not widespread Instead, Vietnamese speakers often prefer the metaphor of a buffalo, which belongs to the same family as cows, similar to how English speakers might use "horse" metaphorically.
Unlike in English, where birds are sometimes used as slang for women, Vietnamese culture does not employ bird names in this context Instead, such terms are often associated with slang for male anatomy, similar to the English word "cock." Birds appear in a limited number of Vietnamese idioms, such as "Cá chậu chim lồng," which symbolizes a life devoid of freedom, and "Chim sa cá lặn," depicting a stunningly beautiful woman so captivating that it causes birds to fall and fish to sink in embarrassment Additionally, the English idiom "Birds of a feather flock together" translates to "Ngưu tầm ngưu mã tầm mã" in Vietnamese, emphasizing the idea that like-minded individuals tend to associate with one another.
Metaphors associated with the terms for "chicken" and "lion" differ significantly between languages In contemporary usage, "gà móng đỏ" (chicken with red claws) is a slang term in Vietnamese that parallels the English phrase "alley cat," referring to a prostitute Conversely, "gà công nghiệp" (broiler chicken) is often used to describe individuals who are passive and inexperienced, suggesting that they have been overly coddled and sheltered by their families.
In Vietnamese culture, the term "lion" often refers to a jealous and aggressive woman, akin to the English metaphors "dragon" or "tigress," which convey strength and bravery Conversely, while Vietnamese people view the dragon as a symbol of power and courage, the English perspective on the lion emphasizes its representation of strength and valor.
“dragon” to depict an impetuous woman
The symbolism of the fox varies significantly across cultures, particularly in Oriental traditions where it embodies both positive and negative traits According to Hans-Jürg (2006), the fox is often seen as a magical familiar spirit, characterized by its mischievousness, deceit, and the ability to transform into an alluring woman Additionally, in Vietnamese culture, the term “Hồ ly tinh” (or “Hulijing”), which translates to "fox spirit," is used to describe a seductive woman who engages in affairs with married men or disrupts relationships.
In English, the term "rat" symbolizes disloyalty, while in Vietnamese folklore, it embodies notions of smallness, weakness, and cowardice This duality is reflected in various metaphors associated with the word "rat."
“Chuột gặm chân mèo” (Mouse gnaws on a cat’s leg); “Ném chuột vỡ lọ” (People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones); “Đầu voi đuôi chuột”
(The mountain has brought forth a mouse); “Cháy nhà ra mặt chuột” (Rats abandon a sinking ship) and “Chuột sa chĩnh gạo” (Marry a fortune)
In conclusion, both Vietnamese and English utilize animal-related metaphors, which, despite differing in quantity and significance, serve similar functions in enhancing verbal communication and contributing to the overall evolution of language.
3.2 Some difficulties when learning English metaphors relating to the names of animals
3.2.1 Some difficulties when learning English metaphors relating to the names of animals
Misunderstanding English can lead to significant mistranslations, emphasizing the need for thorough learning of the language and its usage For instance, idiomatic expressions like "Birds of a feather flock together" translate to "Vật họp theo loài" in Vietnamese, while "Đếm cua trong lỗ" is akin to the English saying "count your chickens before they hatch." Here are some common challenges we often face in translation.