INTRODUCTION
Design of the study
This study is structured into three main parts to facilitate easy exploration and practical benefits for readers The first part serves as the introduction, outlining the rationale, scope, aims, method, and design of the study The second part, titled "Development," is divided into three chapters: Chapter I covers the theoretical background, Chapter II discusses the representational meaning with definitions and characteristics of its types, and Chapter III addresses implications, including learners' difficulties and suggested solutions.
Part three is conclusion, summarizing what have been discussed in the previous.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Semantics
There are many authors who define semantics Some of the most typical definitions listed as follows:
Semantics is the systematic study of meaning in language In other word, it is the study of how language organizes and expresses meaning
Semantics focuses on the literal meanings of words and how their combinations create core meanings, serving as the foundation for understanding the overall meaning of an utterance.
Semantics is concerned with the meaning of non sentence such as phrases and incomplete sentence just as much as with whole sentence
There are 3 main approaches of semantics including lexical semantics, formal semantics and cognitive semantics
Lexical semantics focuses on the meaning of words and their interrelations, exploring theories of word structure It examines the similarities and differences in lexical semantic structures across languages, as well as the connection between word meaning, sentence meaning, and syntax.
Formal semantics applies analytical techniques from formal logic to explore the study of meaning, focusing on the relationships between expressions, particularly sentences that convey propositions.
Formal semantics posits that the meaning of a sentence is defined by its proposition, which corresponds to a set of possible worlds, and focuses on the truth conditions associated with that meaning.
The main focus of formal semantics is on truth conditions, entailment, reference, denotation, contracdition model, inference, quantification
Cognitive semantics is seen as mapping from linguistic expression to cognitive structures and laguage is seen as part of the cognitive structure
Cognitive semantics emphasizes that meaning arises from conceptualization within the cognitive model, focusing on the connection between language expressions and mental entities, rather than traditional formal semantics concepts like reference and truth.
Cognitive models are fundamentally shaped by perception, as cognitive structures are linked to our perceptual mechanisms, making meanings largely perceptually grounded Additionally, semantic elements are derived from spatial or topological objects, with mental structures in cognitive semantics reflecting the meanings of linguistic expressions These cognitive models are predominantly image-schematic in nature Furthermore, semantics plays a primary role in syntax and partially determines it, while concepts exhibit a prototype effect.
Cognitive semantics is concerned with important notions as perspective, imagery construal, figure ground organization, abstraction, conceptual
Understanding that the meaning of an expression consists of a combination of features allows us to break down a word's meaning into what are known as semantic features or properties For instance, examining the word "mandate" illustrates this concept effectively.
E.g.: “I think I have a mandate to make the government work again”
A "mandate" refers to the authority granted to an individual or organization by supporters, distinguishing it from the term "responsibility," which simply denotes an obligation or duty.
“duty‟‟, it is given to “ sombody‟‟ or “ organization ” not an “ animal ‟‟ and especially by whose support it Such features are called semantic features
They can used to define the meanings of a word And the method involing the use of these properties is called “ componential method”
The semantic feature "female" is integral to the meanings of various words, including "bich," "hen," "actress," "maiden," "doe," "debutante," "widow," "ewe," "vixen," "girl," and "woman."
The terms "girl" and "woman" share a fundamental characteristic: they both denote "human." The table below illustrates the application of the componential method to analyze the meanings of various words, adapted from et al (1984:167).
Property actress baby Girl bachelor mare human + + + + + female + + - + young + + - -
The meaning of words is influenced by various semantic properties, and some scholars argue that a limited set of these properties can define the lexicon of any language However, there is considerable disagreement regarding what constitutes a semantic property, leading to challenges in definitions For instance, the term "baby" cannot be categorized strictly as "male" or "female."
” since a baby can be either sex
Word are also considered expression
Words and word form are distinguished from each other in terms of distinction between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning
Different forms of the word will share the same lexical meaning but different grammatical meaning
Different words may share grammatical meaning but different lexical meaning
1.4.1.2 - Lexical and grammatical meaning revisted:
The lexical meaning of the word really means the individual and reflective meaning of a word
The grammatical meaning can be defined as relationships between words based on contrastive features of arragements in which they occur
There are 4 major components of word –meaning: a) Denotation which includes: conceptual and referential meanings;
Denotation exists by virtue of what it refers to
Connotation encompasses the stylistic, affective, evaluative, and intensifying aspects of a word, reflecting its pragmatic communicative value based on context, purpose, and usage In contrast, structural meaning arises from a word's membership within a system or set, incorporating reflected, collative, associative, and thematic meanings.
Categorial meaning is a component of grammatical meaning, where words are classified into specific categories, such as nouns and verbs This classification determines the role a word plays in a sentence, influencing its overall meaning and function.
A lexical / semantic field is the organization of related words and expressions in to a system which shows their relationships to one another
The value of a word is established through its relationship with neighboring or contrasting words, illustrating that a language's vocabulary functions as an interconnected system of lexems.
A semantic field is a set of interrelated senses based on a conceptual field or spectrum
E.g.: In terms of colour : 4 primary color terms: Blue, green, yellow, red
Environment : overfish, overexploit, pollute, contaminate, ozone depletion, rain forests
Beach : towel, umbrella, lotion, bikini, sand
Carpenter: lumber, nails, drills, saw, chisel
Dentist: filling, cavity, extract,pull
Degree of redness : red, Scarlet, orange, Crimson, rose
Words of the same part of speech that cover the same conceptual field E.g.: cooking: boil, bake, fry, broil, steam
Words of different parts of speech but thematically related
E.g.: Holiday: to book ( a fight ), a package tour, hotel, luxurious, etc
A sentence serves as a fundamental unit of grammatical structure, encompassing various parts of speech such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives, along with grammatical classes like words, phrases, and clauses In English, it typically consists of a single independent clause.
THE REPRESENTATIONAL MEANING IN ENGLISH
The representational meaning is rather abtract in English semantics Therefore the learners need to pay much attention to its genneral characteristics as follows to approach and study it easily
According to Halliday, the experiential subcomponent of the representational meaning provides an acount of the underlying content of a sentence or an utterance It handles within its scopes:
(a) Processes: actions, events, states, relations
(b) Participating entities ( participants): persons, objects, abstractions
(c) Circumstances: time, places, reasons, conditions, results… which are associated with the process
The nominal group encompasses different participant types, while verbal groups illustrate the process involved Additionally, other units, such as prepositional phrases and adverbial clauses, serve to express the circumstantial elements of the sentence.
E.g.: She kicked the dog out of the house
The participants realized by NPs: she and the dog
The process realized by the verb: kicked
The circumstance realized by the PP : out of the house
The relationships between processes, participants, and their circumstance are expressed through what Halliday terms transitivity network Transitivity really means “ going through” or “extending to another entity”
[15;155] what we see here is that the participant “Mary‟‟ performs a doing –
“kissing”, Which is directed at the goal “the dog ”
In the realm of transitivity, clauses can be categorized into two main types: transitive and ergative sentences This classification helps to effectively address the specific situations related to the actual occurrence of various sentence patterns.
In transitive sentence, the most prominent roles are actor, goal, if the process is one of the action
Or they are “attributor” and “attributant‟‟ If the process is one of ascription ( attribution )
E.g.: Bill Gates is the richest man in the world
In the ergative type, the central roles are the “causer” of the process and the
“affected” the participant affected by the process
It is possible to rephrase it in to “ the play pleases everyone”, or “the play causes him to like itself ”
In Halliday's framework, sentences that describe an action process are categorized as extensive, while those focused on attribution are classified as intensive Additionally, Halliday distinguishes between effective and descriptive extensive transitive sentences, highlighting the nuances in how actions are expressed.
The action is goal directed or targed at another object called goal This means that the sentence has to involve at least two participants
[15;156] Some sentences may have three participants
It involves non – directed action since the sentence is associated with just one participant
E.g.: The recruits marched Actor – the recruits, Process - marched
Halliday speaks of another type called “nuclear”
It is the one associated with the either one or two participants
The door was opened (by Mary)
The phrase "the recruits marched" can be transformed into "the sergeant marched the recruits." Halliday introduces the role of initiator, distinct from the actor role, to explain this transformation In this context, the initiator is "the sergeant," while the process remains "marched."
And the logical subcomponent handles logical relations between various types of elements of sentence and such relation as subordination and apposition
2 - Functions of the representational meaning
The representational meaning can be defined in terms of experiential and logical functions
2.1 - The experiential function is to communicate ideas:
The primary function of a speaker is to convey the essential elements of their message by referencing people, objects, events, qualities, places, actions, and circumstances, all of which are integral to our world.
[15;151] E.g.: Bill Gates gave me books to read after each session
2.2 - The logical function relates ideas to each other on an equal or subordinate basis:
E.g.: I came, I saw and I conquered ( equal)
The rise in Microsoft stock in 1996 meant that he made on paper about
Process is a powerful concept which represents the possible world as consisting of going on: doing, happening, feeling and being
According to Halliday (1994: 106-107), the transitivity system in English constructs various processes, distinguishing between our external experiences in the world and our internal experiences The primary process that represents our outer experiences is known as the "material" process, while the "mental" process reflects our inner experiences Additionally, Halliday highlights a third crucial element, the "relational" process, which allows us to generalize and connect our experiences.
Halliday identifies three primary types of processes—material, mental, and relational—while also acknowledging intermediary processes that blend characteristics of these categories Behavioral processes serve as a bridge between material and mental processes, reflecting the external expressions of our inner consciousness and physiological states Meanwhile, verbal processes exist at the intersection of mental and relational processes, symbolizing the relationships formed in human consciousness and expressed through language Lastly, existential processes connect material and relational processes, highlighting their intertwined nature.
3.1.1.1 - Material processes: processes of doing
Material processes are those that express our outer experiences
The matreial processes usually involve one or two enties :
- If there is one enties, it is the actor
If there are two enties , they are the actor and goal
The actor can do something to the goal
[15;159] The lion caught the tourist
The actor can create or bring about the goal
E.g.: He has built a fortune along away
Material processes refer to actions or activities where one entity performs an action on another These processes encapsulate the concept of "doing," allowing us to explore the relationship between the entities involved By utilizing the verb "do," we can effectively inquire about and analyze these material processes.
E.g.: what did the lion do?
What did the lion do to the tourist?
In a process involving a goal and an actor, representation can be expressed in two ways: actively, as in "the lion caught the tourist," or passively, as in "the tourist was caught by the lion."
1.The lion Caught the tourist
2.The tourist was caught by the lion
Actor Process Goal Goal process Actor
Figure 1: active and passive clauses
- Material process are not necessarily concrete, physical events; they may be abstract doing and happening
3.1.1.2 - Mental processess ( processes of sensing )
Mental proceseses are those that express our inner experiences Mental processes involve two entities :
Senser ( the concious being that feels, sees or thinks ) and phenomenon ( that which is „sensed‟, felt, thought or seen)
- In a clause of mental process, there is always one participant who is human or human- like This is the one that senses –feels, thinks or perceives
In mental processes, pets and domestic animals are often regarded as conscious beings This perspective suggests that only entities attributed with consciousness can feel, think, or perceive By assigning this role to an animal, it can be viewed as a conscious being.
E.g.: The emty house was long for the children to return
In material process clauses, there is no evidence of a specific pattern, as these processes do not necessitate human participants; the differentiation between conscious and non-conscious beings is irrelevant.
In a mental process clause, the key elements include what is felt, thought, or perceived, which can refer to a person, object, or fact.
Jane saw that the stars had come out
In a material process, every participant is considered a thing, encompassing both tangible entities like persons, creatures, objects, institutions, and abstractions, as well as various processes such as actions, events, qualities, states, or relations These elements can also serve as objects of consciousness in a mental process, highlighting their significance in our experiences, including our inner thoughts and imagination.
“Mary liked a gift, Tim knows the city, Jane saw the stars” are „things‟ that could appear in a material process also But we can also say:
Mary was pleased that she‟d got a present
Tim realised that he was in a big city
In these examples, what is being „sensed‟ is not thing but a fact
Facts cannot act as participants in material process clauses, as they cannot perform actions or have actions performed on them While facts can be perceived—seen, felt, or thought—they lack the ability to engage in actions For instance, in the expression "the fact that his father was ill upset him," the fact itself does not perform any action.
- A third distinction between material and mental process is that of tense and aspect formal markings
In the mental process, the unmarked present tense is the simple present; we say:
E.g.: I like the book ( not I am liking the gift)
Do you know the city? ( not are you knowing the city? )
I see the ghost over there ( not I am seeing the ghost over there.)
But in a material process the unmarked present tense is the present in present
E.g.: The teacher is speaking loud to the whole class ( not the teacher speaks loud to the whole class)
The little boy is playing football ( not the little boy plays fooball)
The president is selling his plan to congress ( not the president sells his plan to congress.)
Both tenses can be utilized with both types of processes, but one tense is typically marked, indicating a specific interpretation The simple present tense, when applied to a material process, conveys a general or habitual meaning.
E.g.: They build a house for every employee
The Present in present with a mental process is a rather highly conditioned kind of inceptive aspect, as in I feel I am knowing the city for the first time (
„I am getting to know‟); This is somewhat difficult to contextualize, with the result that, taken out of the context, it is quite likely to be understood as something else
E.g.: I am seeing the ghost over there as a material process
These tense patterns are set out in the following table :
Tense / process Present Present in present
They build a house ( for every employee)
( unmarked They are building a house
I am knowing the city ( for the first time)
IMPLICATION
THE DIFFICULTIES OF LEARNERS WHEN USING REPRESENTATIONAL AND SUGGESTED SOLLUTION
1.The difficulties of learners when using representational meaning
Students in the English department often face challenges in understanding and utilizing the abstract and complex nature of representational meaning, which can hinder their learning process.
1.1 - Distinguishing between attributive and identifying:
Intensive relational processes are complex and can be categorized into two distinct modes: attributive and identifying This complexity often leads to difficulties for learners in distinguishing between the two modes.
The distinction between attributive and identifying characteristics is often misunderstood, particularly in the phrase "a smart boy." While some may perceive this as identifying, it is actually an example of attributive usage, as indicated by the indefinite article "a," which is a hallmark of attributive adjectives.
The distinction between attributive and identifying modes is less clear in circumstantial relational clauses compared to intensive types For instance, the phrase "on the mat" can either refer to a class of objects (those that are on the mat) or identify a specific object (the object recognized by being on the mat) This complexity makes it challenging for learners to differentiate between attributive and identifying expressions.
The cat is on the mat The best place is on the mat
The fair lasts all day The fair takes up the whole day
The whole day is taken up by the fair
1.2 - Distinguishing between types of relational processes in the following cases:
The relational processes have complex, large characteristics The English system of relational processes operates with three main types: intensive, circumstantial, processive Each of these come in to distinct modes:
Identifying : a is the identity of x
In circumstantial processes, attributes convey circumstances either through the attribute itself or the process involved In identifying circumstantial processes, the relationship between two entities is highlighted, represented as a characteristic of either the participants or the process Similarly, in possessive processes, the possessive relationship can manifest as either an attribute or a process When identifying possessive processes, this relationship is also depicted through features of the participants or the process Due to the complexity of these relational processes, learners often struggle to differentiate between the various types.
Learners often confuse the verbs "has" and "owns," mistakenly viewing them as interchangeable possessive terms However, "has" functions as a possessive-attributive verb, while "owns" serves as a possessive-identifying verb This misunderstanding leads to incorrect identification of entities, where "has" is seen as a carrier or attributive, and "owns" as the identifier.
1.3 - Distinguishing between mental and behavioural processes:
In behavioral processes, the participant, known as the "behaver," is typically a conscious being, similar to the "senser." These processes are the least distinct among the six types, lacking clearly defined characteristics As a result, behavioral processes often overlap with processes of consciousness, leading to confusion among learners who may mistake behavioral actions for mental processes.
Many learners often perceive "watch" as a verb related to mental processes; however, it is actually classified as a behavioral process While it may seem closely associated with mental activities, the verb "watch," as illustrated in the example, is utilized in the present continuous tense, highlighting its characteristic as a behavioral process.
Many of these verbs also occur non – behaviourally, so the learners always have difficulties distinguishing behavioural and mental processes
They think we‟re stupid
Many learners mistakenly categorize the verb "think" in both sentences as behavioral processes However, "think" in the first sentence represents a behavioral process, while in the second sentence, it denotes a mental process.
1.4 - Distinguishing verbal and behavioural processes:
Verbal processes is near behaviour With this complex characteristic, the learners sometimes make mistakes when distinguishing between verbal and behavioural processes
E.g.: She was talking to her boyfriend
In the sentence above, the learners sometimes consider „talk‟ as verbal processes like the verb „tell‟, but actually It is behavioural processes
1.5 - Distinguishing between material and behavioural processes:
Behavioral processes share similarities with material processes, featuring verbs like "sing," "dance," "lie down," and "sit." These processes exhibit characteristics of both material and mental actions, which can lead to confusion for learners trying to differentiate between behavioral and material processes.
The learners always identify „sang‟ as material processes but it is behavioural ones
1.6 - Distinguishing between material and mental processes:
E.g.1: I am seeing the ghost over there
Many mistakenly define material processes by overlooking the crucial distinction of tense between material and mental processes While mental processes typically utilize the unmarked present tense, or simple present, the act of "seeing" is actually categorized as a material process rather than a mental one.
E.g.2: A person can learn to control stress by setting realistic goals
The learners always consider the verb „learn‟ as material; however, actually,
The mental process of cognition often leads to the misidentification of a "person" in a sentence While they may be perceived as an actor, they are actually the undergoer of the process experienced by the senser or experiencer.
1.7- Identifying between the actor and goal:
The learners find it difficult identifying the actor and goal because the material processes are not concrete, physically events; they may be abstract doings and happenings
The president dissolved the parliament
In the language, actions are grammatically categorized, as illustrated by the questions, "What did the major do?" and "What did the major do to the committee?"
As processes become more abstract, distinguishing between the Actor and the Goal becomes increasingly challenging In concrete scenarios, the roles are typically clear—such as in the example where the boy is the Actor when kicked, while he becomes the Goal when described as having been kicked However, even in concrete situations, it is important to acknowledge instances where the Actor is involuntary, blurring the lines between the roles of Actor and Goal.
While the verb may be active, it describes an occurrence rather than an action; the focus shifts from "What did the tourist do?" to "What happened to the tourist?" In more abstract contexts, we frequently encounter active and passive forms that convey similar meanings with minimal distinction.
E.g.: The girl‟s shool and the boys‟ school combined / were combined
A new approach is evolving / is being evolved