Rationale
In today's globalized world, English stands out as a dominant global language, facilitating communication and collaboration among approximately 1.5 billion speakers worldwide (Sawe, 2017) Its significance spans various sectors, including sports, politics, economics, science, and technology Recognizing the crucial role of English, Vietnam's Ministry of Education has implemented numerous policies to enhance English teaching and learning, establishing it as a core subject alongside Math and Literature Despite these efforts, many Vietnamese students still struggle with oral communication skills upon completing their education.
The motivation behind this study stems from my experience teaching English at Anh Son3 High School, where I strive to maximize student engagement in language use to enhance their oral communication skills, which in turn supports their overall language development, including listening, reading, and writing I believe that creating opportunities for students to practice speaking in the classroom boosts their enjoyment and motivation to learn Additionally, many students enter upper secondary school with a weak foundation in English, prompting me to explore effective techniques that encourage peer interaction and build their confidence in using the language within limited classroom time Furthermore, the growing demand for English proficiency in Vietnam, driven by the need for global cooperation, international trade, and cultural exchange in the 21st century, underscores the importance of mastering English for effective international communication amid the country's rapid economic growth.
Related to these problems, this study was carried out, entitling: Applying cooperative learning for large EFL classes: A case study at a mountainous high school.
Aims of the study
This experimental study investigates the impact of cooperative learning (CL) on English achievement among students at a mountainous high school in Anh Son district It focuses on the effects of CL on students' speaking competence, their use of interactional strategies in conversation, and their overall language proficiency By exploring these aspects, the research aims to contribute to the understanding of CL's role in enhancing speaking skills within the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context.
This study aims to highlight the impact of collaborative learning (CL) on the oral communicative abilities of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in the upper secondary level in Anhson district The findings are anticipated to contribute significantly to the teaching and learning of spoken English in this context.
1 explore the students‟ perceptions towards the use of cooperative activities in the classroom
2 investigate students‟ attitudes towards cooperative activities used in the classroom
3 examine the effectiveness of cooperative learning activities on the students‟ English speaking ability.
Background to the study
The rapid economic development and international exchanges in Vietnam have created a significant demand for proficient English speakers in various professions, particularly fluent communicators Despite improvements in English education over the past decade, students' overall proficiency, especially in oral skills, remains inadequate Many students struggle to communicate effectively despite years of study, highlighting the need for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) programs to better align with the country's political and economic growth It is crucial for students to enhance their ability to use English for meaningful communication.
To support Vietnam's rapid economic and social growth, new primary to high school English textbooks emphasize communicative principles and activities The goal is to enhance students' overall English proficiency, particularly in listening and speaking, preparing them for effective communication in their future careers Key oral skills include the ability to discuss topics during learning, engage with native speakers in everyday situations, deliver brief speeches on familiar subjects with clarity and correct pronunciation, and employ basic communication strategies in conversations.
Traditional Vietnamese teaching methods often prioritize knowledge delivery over communicative skills, which can hinder the effectiveness of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning In this approach, the teacher acts as the central figure in the classroom, delivering information, while students remain passive recipients of knowledge.
Teachers play a crucial role in introducing students to the rules and usages of the English language, often relying on grammar-translation methods rather than fostering communication skills (Guo, 2004) This approach is further reinforced by assessment practices that prioritize written exams, which rarely evaluate speaking abilities As Luchini (2004) notes, such testing influences teaching methods, leading educators to focus on preparing students for exams instead of enhancing their communicative competence Additionally, large class sizes, typically ranging from 35 to 70 students, hinder the implementation of communicative activities, compounded by limited classroom time that restricts opportunities for interactive learning.
Gao (2007) highlights that despite the availability of intensive reading and listening courses, students are provided with limited chances to practice speaking Consequently, there is a significant lack of communicative output, leading to many students being unprepared for oral communication in everyday situations.
For many language learners, the ultimate goal of learning a language is to be able to apply what they have learned to real life situations (Savignon & Wang, 2003)
The importance of communicative practice in language classrooms is widely recognized, as highlighted by Gwyn-Paquette & Tochon (2003), who assert that foreign language learners must engage in oral communication and problem-solving to enhance their language proficiency Nunan (1991a) further emphasizes that active participation in communication significantly aids learners in mastering speaking skills in a second or foreign language.
Group work serves as a fundamental context for practicing communication skills in a second language In a small group of peers, individuals benefit from a more intimate and supportive environment, allowing them to experiment with their developing language abilities.
Collaborative Learning (CL) promotes structured group work, enabling students to use language as a tool for learning and enhancing peer interaction in the classroom Research by Kagan & McGroarty (1993) and others highlights that CL creates a supportive environment rich in meaningful input and output McGroarty (1991) emphasizes that engaging in pair and small-group activities based on CL principles significantly aids second language acquisition This raises the question of how CL can be effectively implemented in specific English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts.
Identification of the problem
Following the observation, the researcher identified several issues affecting the teaching and learning of speaking These challenges stem from various sources, including the teachers, students, and the speaking activities themselves.
One significant issue identified is the teaching methods employed by English teachers, who infrequently utilize interactive techniques such as games or group activities Instead, they predominantly focus on individual practice, leading to student boredom and an emphasis on reading and writing skills at the expense of speaking practice When speaking exercises are provided, they often rely on textbook conversations without incorporating more engaging methods Furthermore, the teachers' explanations of the material tend to be rapid and insufficiently detailed, hindering student comprehension Additionally, English is rarely used in the classroom setting.
Many students exhibited low motivation to participate in English classroom activities, often fearing to answer teachers' questions and feeling shy about practicing in front of their peers This lack of confidence resulted in diminished attention during speaking activity explanations, hindering their overall engagement in the learning process.
The third issue pertains to the reliance on textbook materials by the teacher, who predominantly utilizes only the textbook for teaching activities, neglecting supplementary resources from other sources.
Classroom management poses a significant challenge, as the current seating arrangement hinders effective discussions and conversations Additionally, the teaching methods employed in English classes render students passive, making it difficult for them to actively participate in communicative activities.
Scope of the study
The Cooperative Learning approach offers various techniques for teaching language skills, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing, as well as language components like vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation Due to time constraints and the breadth of issues involved, this research narrows its focus to techniques specifically aimed at enhancing students' speaking skills at a mountainous high school in the West of Nghe An province.
In the 2018-2019 school year, cooperative learning was implemented to enhance the speaking skills of twelfth-grade students at Anhson 3 High School This technique offers several advantages, as it encourages students to collaborate in groups, maximizing their learning potential Through teamwork, students engage in discussions, complete tasks, and submit their work, significantly reducing silence during speaking activities.
Cooperative learning fosters bravery and confidence among students by encouraging mutual support This approach provides opportunities for individual assistance, enabling students to collaborate on enhancing their vocabulary and pronunciation Through partnerships, they practice speaking and receive valuable feedback from peers As a result, cooperative learning not only increases speaking opportunities but also significantly improves students' communication skills.
A quasi-experiment is designed to compare the differences in mean scores between pretests and posttests of an experimental group and a control group This approach helps to assess the impact of an intervention by analyzing the changes in scores over time.
Significance of the study
Collaborative Learning (CL) research began in the early 1970s, demonstrating positive effects on academic achievement, social skills, and student learning across various educational settings (Slavin, 1995; Johnson et al., 2000) Interest in CL within second language acquisition emerged in the late 1980s, focusing on group work to enhance the understanding and practice of language and content for limited English proficient students in North America (McGroarty, 1989; Kessler, 1992; Holt, 1993; Kagan, 1992, 1995) Numerous researchers have emphasized the theoretical significance of CL in this context (Oxford, 1997; Dửrnyei, 1997; Jacobs, 1998; Crandall, 1999; McCafferty et al., 2006).
Collaborative learning (CL) in ESL/EFL classrooms significantly enhances second language acquisition Research indicates that CL techniques boost motivation (Clément et al., 1994; Dửrnyei, 1997), increase self-confidence, and reduce anxiety (Tsui, 1996) Additionally, CL fosters a positive attitude toward language learning (Gunderson & Johnson, 1980) and contributes to overall language development (Bejarano, 1987; Ghaith & Yaghi, 1998; Ghaith, 2003; Ghaith & El-Malak, 2004; Stevens, 2003; Almaguer, 2005; Chen, 2005; Jalilifar, 2010).
Collaborative Learning (CL) techniques, such as Think-Pair-Share and Group Discussion, have not been extensively researched in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom Despite their potential to enhance student interaction, empirical studies focusing on the impact of these methods on language achievement, particularly oral proficiency, are scarce Furthermore, limited research exists on how interactive practices within the CL framework influence students' conversational strategies Therefore, this study seeks to investigate the effects of CL on English learners' oral proficiency and their use of interactional strategies in the EFL context, aiming to contribute to the existing body of CL research.
Research questions
This study focuses on three research questions as follows:
Question 1: What is the students‟ perception of cooperative learning?
Question 2 : What are the students‟ preferred cooperative learning activities?
Question 3: What are effects of cooperative learning on students‟ speaking performance?
Organization of the thesis
The thesis is structured into five chapters Chapter One introduces the study's rationale, aims, background, problem identification, scope, significance, research questions, and organization Chapter Two provides an overview of English teaching methods, including grammar translation, direct method, audiolingual method, total physical response, and communicative language teaching (CLT), while also discussing cooperative learning (CL), its definitions, comparison with traditional group work, theoretical foundations, principles, and techniques It further explores the application of CL in teaching speaking, covering definitions, aspects, types of classroom performance, difficulties, design principles, teacher roles, and challenges in large classes Chapter Three outlines the research setting, participants, study methods, including research questions, quantitative and qualitative approaches, quasi-experiment design, research instruments, and treatments Chapter Four presents and discusses the study's findings, while the final chapter concludes with suggestions for future research.
Overview of English teaching methods
The Classical or Grammar-Translation method has a long-standing tradition in language teaching, particularly in Western society, where it has evolved over centuries for both classical languages like Latin and Greek and modern foreign languages This method emphasizes the study of grammatical rules, morphology, written exercises, vocabulary memorization, and text translation Despite the emergence of newer teaching methods, it remains prevalent in modern language pedagogy The 1929 Coleman Report in America highlighted the importance of reading skills in education, given the limited opportunities for practicing spoken language Today, the Grammar-Translation method is still utilized internationally, particularly for classical languages, and, to a lesser extent, in some modern language courses, despite the lack of justification for its continued use in those contexts Major characteristics of the Grammar-Translation method were outlined by Prator and Celce-Murcia in 1979.
- Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language;
- Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words;
- Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given;
- Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words;
- Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early;
- Little attention is paid to the context of texts, which are treated as exercices in grammatical analysis;
- Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue;
- Little or no attention is given to pronunciation
There has been a renewed emphasis on grammar, highlighting the importance of form and structure in education Teachers are increasingly integrating grammatical structures into content-focused lessons However, the explicit teaching of grammatical paradigms in isolation is now uncommon.
The direct method, also known as the natural method, is a popular approach in foreign language teaching that exclusively employs the target language, avoiding the use of the learners' native language Originating in England around 1900, it stands in contrast to traditional methods like grammar-translation and Dodson's bilingual approach This method gained traction in the 1970s with prominent international language schools such as Berlitz and Inlingua Its primary emphasis is on developing oral skills, making it a distinctive choice for language instruction.
- teaching concepts and vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual materials
- teaching grammar by using an inductive approach (i.e having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language)
- centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation)
- focus on question-answer patterns
The Audiolingual/Audiovisual Method, originating from "The Army Method" developed by the U.S Army after World War II, focuses on creating proficient language speakers This approach is based on behaviorist psychology's habit formation model and Structural Linguistics theory, prioritizing memorization through pattern drills and conversation practices over communicative ability Key characteristics of the Audio-Methods include structured repetition and practice to reinforce language learning.
- New material is presented in dialogue form;
- There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning
- Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis taught one at a time;
- Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills;
- There is little or no grammatical explanation Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than by deductive explanation;
- Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context;
- There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids;
- Great importance is attached to pronunciation;
- Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted;
- Successful responses are immediately reinforced;
- There is a great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances;
- There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content
(adapted from Prator & Celce-Murcia 1979)
Total Physical Response (TPR) is an innovative language teaching method created by James Asher, a psychology professor emeritus at San José State University This approach emphasizes the integration of language learning with physical movement, where instructors issue commands in the target language accompanied by body movements, prompting learners to respond through whole-body actions.
Total physical response is an example of the comprehension approach to language teaching The listening and responding (with actions) serves two purposes:
Total Physical Response (TPR) is an effective method for quickly recognizing meanings in a new language and passively learning its structure without explicit grammar instruction This approach is particularly valuable for acquiring vocabulary, including idiomatic expressions like phrasal verbs TPR is commonly used in conjunction with other teaching techniques and is especially popular among beginners and young learners, though it can be beneficial for students of all ages and proficiency levels.
Influenced by Krashen, approaches emerged during the 1980s and 1990s which concentrated on the communicative functions of language Classrooms were characterized by attempts to ensure authenticity of materials and meaningful tasks
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has become the standard approach in second language and immersion education This widely adopted method encompasses various definitions and interpretations, but Brown (2001) outlines key interconnected characteristics that effectively summarize its essence.
1 Classroom goals are focused on all of the components (grammatical, discourse, functional, sociolinguistic, and strategic) of communicative competence Goals therefore must intertwine the organizational aspects of language with the pragmatic
2 Language techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes Organizational language forms are not the central focus, but rather aspects of language that enable the learner to accomplish those purposes
3 Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use
4 Students in a communicative class ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts outside the classroom
Classroom tasks must therefore equip students with the skills necessary for communication in those contexts
5 Students are given opportunities to focus on their own learning process through an understanding of their own styles of learning and through the development of appropriate strategies for autonomous learning
6 The role of the teacher is that of facilitator and guide, not an all-knowing bestower of knowledge Students are therefore encouraged to construct meaning through genuine linguistic interaction with others
The task-based approach marks a crucial shift in education, emphasizing skills and competencies over mere content delivery This method prioritizes the rationale behind teaching, focusing on why specific material is presented By isolating essential skills and competencies, it ensures that students learn what is necessary to achieve their goals and objectives effectively.
Sample tasks such as ordering food at a restaurant, booking hotel accommodations, or engaging in more complex discussions like movie critiques and political opinions highlight a task-oriented approach to language learning, where the focus is on the task at hand rather than traditional language instruction methods.
To effectively implement this teaching method, educators need to grasp their students' needs and expectations, allowing them to create lessons that foster student success Grammar, vocabulary, and language skills serve as essential tools that empower students to reach their desired learning outcomes.
Before adopting the task-based approach, educators must ask themselves, “Why are my students learning English?”
Educators must then look at ways to help their learners achieve their personal and/or professional goals
The answers to these questions will help create a program that‟s relevant to your students
Cooperative Learning
Cooperation involves individuals collaborating to achieve common objectives, where each person aims for outcomes that are advantageous both to themselves and to their group members Collaborative Learning (CL) encompasses various teaching methods that encourage students to work in small groups, fostering mutual support in mastering academic content (Slavin, 1995) According to Olsen and Kagan (1992), this approach enhances learning through shared efforts and collective engagement.
Collaborative learning (CL) is an interactive educational approach where learners engage in structured group activities This method emphasizes the social exchange of information, ensuring that each participant is accountable for their own learning while also being motivated to support the learning of their peers.
Collaborative Learning (CL) is defined by Jacobs et al (2002) as a set of principles and techniques designed to enhance student collaboration and engagement They emphasize the importance of implementing CL strategies effectively in the classroom to optimize peer interaction and learning outcomes Additionally, Tong-Fredericks (1984) highlights that structured and well-managed pair or group work can significantly aid in language development.
2.2.2 CL and Traditional Group Work
Effective group work involves more than just having students collaborate; it requires a structured approach to cooperative learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1994) Jacobs (1998) highlights seven key differences between traditional group work and cooperative learning, emphasizing the importance of intentional group structuring for enhanced educational outcomes.
Table 2.1 Differences between traditional group activities and cooperative learning
Difference Traditional groups CL groups
Students form groups with whoever they want or whoever is sitting near them
Teachers (and students) plan group size and composition so as to maximize the potential of the groups
Students arrange their groups as they see fit
Group members sit in such a way as to see and hear one another easily and, at the same time, bother other groups as little as possible
Students are assumed to know how to work together
Collaborative skills are explicitly taught
When groups finish an activity, they disband
Groups often stay together for more than one activity perhaps for weeks or months and spend time discussing how they can work together better
Students are assumed to feel a common purpose with their fellow group members
Teachers attempt to build group solidarity and to care about one another
Group members are assumed to be interested in participating and learning
Teachers encourage each group member to feel responsible for participating and learning
Teachers use time while students are in groups to catch up on grading and other paperwork
Teachers actively monitor groups to see if they are learning and functioning smoothly
Collaborative Learning (CL) significantly differs from traditional group work in terms of group dynamics, learning experiences, and the teacher's role CL tasks are conducted in a structured and organized manner, unlike the often random organization of traditional group activities It's important to note that while Jacobs may present CL positively, he may not accurately depict certain aspects of traditional group work For instance, language teachers actively monitor students during traditional group work, as highlighted by Johnson & Johnson (1994a), who emphasize that simply placing students in groups does not guarantee a cooperative relationship; effective structure and management by the teacher are essential.
Cooperative learning (CL) activities are strategically designed and managed by educators to enhance teamwork among students In a true cooperative group, all members actively contribute to the task; if only one student does the work while others benefit without effort, it undermines the cooperative spirit (Johnson & Johnson, 1994a) Effective CL involves each participant being accountable not only for their own contributions but also for supporting their peers in achieving shared goals This productive collaboration is guided by specific principles, which will be explored further.
2.2.3 Theoretical Foundations of Cooperative Learning
Jean Piaget and Lev S Vygotsky were two influential developmental psychologists in the twentieth century Piaget's theory, as reviewed by Wagner (2008), posits that a child's knowledge is structured through schemas, which are fundamental units that help organize past experiences and inform new ones Cognitive development, according to Piaget, involves two key processes: assimilation, where new information is integrated into existing schemas, and accommodation, where schemas are modified in response to new information These processes work together to achieve a state of equilibrium, which is more likely to occur in collaborative environments Piaget emphasizes that cognitive development arises from a child's active engagement with their surroundings, where actions lead to observations and adjustments in understanding He also asserts that cognitive development follows a fixed sequence, meaning earlier stages influence later ones, a notion that has faced criticism from other theorists like Berger (1988).
Piaget's theory presents an equilibration model that highlights the significance of peer interaction in cognitive development, influencing modern educational practices Scholars advocate for collaborative learning environments where students actively engage with one another Research by Slavin (1995) and Nastasi & Clements (1991) supports the implementation of cooperative learning activities in schools, emphasizing that such interactions and discussions enhance student learning and contribute to academic success.
Vygotsky (1978) emphasizes the significance of social interaction in cognitive development, positing that children learn best through collaboration with skilled tutors, such as parents or teachers He introduces the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which represents the gap between a child's current abilities and their potential capabilities when guided by an adult or more knowledgeable peers Vygotsky asserts that effective learning occurs when children engage in cooperative dialogue, internalizing instructions and modeling behaviors to enhance their cognitive skills Peer interaction, scaffolding, and modeling are crucial for fostering individual knowledge growth Doolittle (1995) supports Vygotsky's theory, advocating for the integration of collaborative learning (CL) in educational settings based on its potential to enhance cognitive development.
Wood et al (1976) expanded on Vygotsky's concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) by introducing scaffolding, which refers to the tailored support that tutors provide to enhance children's cognitive skills As children's knowledge and confidence grow, this scaffolding can be gradually removed, enabling them to independently complete tasks When children are within their ZPD for specific activities, scaffolding facilitates task achievement and fosters autonomy This developmental perspective has led to various collaborative learning techniques, such as dyad reading (Eldredge, 1988) and peer tutoring (Palincsar et al., 1987) While there is limited documentation on how more skilled peers benefit from these interactions, it is likely that they take responsibility for their own learning while also gaining valuable experience from guiding and assisting less skilled peers, as will be further explored.
Cognitive developmental theory emphasizes children's knowledge construction through social interaction, while cognitive elaboration theory focuses on individual knowledge processing Research indicates that for information retention and integration with existing knowledge, learners must engage in cognitive restructuring or elaboration (Wittrock, 1978, cited in Slavin, 1995) One effective elaboration method is explaining material to others, as suggested by Slavin (1995) Group work facilitates opportunities for learners to recall and restructure their knowledge, enhancing internalization Peer tutoring has proven beneficial for learning; a study by Webb & Farivar (1994) revealed that primary students achieved greater learning outcomes when they sought and received explanations from peers, compared to instances with no assistance or mere answers without explanations.
Cohen (1994) highlights that detailed and elaborate explanations are the strongest predictors of achievement in CL and regular classes, as noted by Webb (1983) This indicates that students who engage in explaining concepts not only enhance their understanding but also significantly benefit from the learning process.
Many scholars have applied this notion to education, and some CL techniques have been developed in the field of the learning and teaching of the second language
The Three-step Interview method, developed by Kagan in 1992, promotes active student engagement in learning by encouraging them to articulate and restate their peers' ideas This interactive approach is believed to significantly enhance language development among students, fostering better communication skills and collaborative learning.
Group work fosters language learning opportunities for students, as carefully structured interactions are known to enhance second language acquisition (Long & Porter, 1985) By promoting collaboration among students, educators can maximize interaction and improve overall learning outcomes.
CL is organized on the basis of the principles below, which are summarized from Johnson & Johnson (1994b), Kagan (1994) and Jacobs et al (2002)
The cornerstone of cooperative learning (CL) is "positive interdependence," which emphasizes that students can achieve their individual goals only when the entire group's objectives are met (Johnson et al., 1994) This principle, encapsulated by the phrases "all work for one" and "one works for all" (Holt, 1993, p.5), ensures that every member feels their contribution is vital to the group's success To achieve their shared goals, each member must understand their assigned tasks and assist others in comprehending them as well This collaborative effort not only motivates students to work together but also enhances the learning experience for all involved by fostering resource sharing and mutual support According to Kagan (1998), assessing whether a group activity encourages positive interdependence can be determined by whether one member's success benefits others and if collaboration is essential.
Teaching speaking
Speaking is defined by various experts as the active use of language to convey meaning, enabling understanding between speakers and listeners (Cameron, 2001) It involves a dynamic process where individuals express ideas, perceptions, feelings, and intentions through words (Clark & Clark, 1977) This interaction not only aims to share knowledge but also includes asking questions to gather information, facilitating a two-way exchange of understanding.
Speaking is a dynamic interaction between two or more individuals, where both the speaker and listener must quickly respond and contribute to the conversation (Johnson & Morrow, 1981) Each participant has specific goals they aim to achieve through their communication According to Brown and Yule (1989), speaking serves as a means to express needs, requests, and information This implies that speakers convey not only their thoughts but also their needs and requests Consequently, effective communication requires both speakers and listeners to accurately interpret and convey meanings and purposes, ensuring appropriate responses in the dialogue.
Speaking is the act of using language to convey meaning with a specific purpose, involving interaction between two or more individuals In this process, both the speaker and listener engage and respond to each other's contributions during the conversation.
When teaching speaking skills, teachers must consider four key aspects: fluency, accuracy, pronunciation, and vocabulary, as highlighted by Brown (2001) These elements are essential for designing effective speaking activities that enhance students' communication abilities A well-structured speaking activity should incorporate all four aspects to ensure comprehensive skill development.
A fluent speaker is characterized by the ability to communicate quickly and confidently, minimizing hesitations, unnatural pauses, and word searches (Nunan, 2003, p.55) Mastery of appropriate pausing and stopping during speech is essential for fluency Additionally, a proficient speaker avoids constructing sentences word by word, instead grouping words into meaningful units, such as phrases or clauses, to enhance clarity and coherence in their communication.
According to Nunan (2003, p.55), accuracy in language learning occurs when students' speech aligns with authentic usage of the target language This concept focuses on the proper use of grammatical structures, including parts of speech, tenses, phrases, and sentences To attain a high level of accuracy, students must consistently employ the correct grammatical forms in their communication.
At the beginner level, the primary objective of teaching pronunciation is to achieve clear and understandable speech In contrast, at the advanced level, pronunciation goals shift to enhancing communication through elements such as stress patterns, intonation, and voice quality.
Vocabulary is a crucial aspect of language learning, significantly influencing students' English speaking fluency A limited vocabulary can hinder their ability to generate coherent sentences, making fluent speech challenging Consequently, it is essential for English teachers to actively work on expanding their students' vocabulary According to Nunan (2003), educators should prioritize teaching the most useful vocabulary first to enhance students' language skills effectively.
Every language learner should prioritize mastering the most frequent 1,000 word families in English, as this vocabulary is essential for effective listening, speaking, reading, and writing Whether in formal or informal contexts, focusing on these key words will significantly enhance language proficiency and communication skills.
Teachers must differentiate their approach to high-frequency words compared to low-frequency words It is essential to focus on high-frequency words throughout all four strands of a course to enhance students' vocabulary and comprehension skills.
High-frequency vocabulary deserves focused attention in both teaching and study, as it plays a crucial role in effective communication across listening, speaking, reading, and writing Additionally, it's important to encourage learners to reflect on their progress and take responsibility for their own learning journey.
The learners need to realize that they must be responsible for their own learning
2.3.3 Types of Classroom Speaking Performance
When designing speaking activities or instructional materials for second language or foreign language teaching, it is essential to understand the various functions of speaking in daily communication and the specific purposes for which students require speaking skills These functions include imitative, intensive, responsive, interactive, and extensive speaking, each serving a distinct role in enhancing language proficiency.
Imitative speaking performance involves learners mimicking words, phrases, or sentences without engaging in meaningful interaction The primary goal of this imitation is to emphasize specific aspects of language form An example of this type of speaking practice is drilling, where repetition helps reinforce language structure.
An intensive speaking performance involves producing brief segments of spoken language that showcase various competencies, including grammatical, phrasal, lexical, and phonological aspects Key prosodic elements such as intonation, stress, rhythm, and juncture play a crucial role in this process (Brown, 2004, p.273).
Responsive speaking performance in the classroom involves short replies that do not develop into extended dialogues, such as standard greetings, simple requests, and brief comments This type of interaction is typically initiated by a spoken prompt, ensuring authenticity, and may include one or two follow-up questions (Brown, 2004, p.141).
Chapter Summary
This chapter provides an overview of various English teaching methods, including Grammar Translation, Direct Method, Audiolingual Method, Total Physical Response, and Communicative Language Teaching It also explores Cooperative Learning (CL), defining its principles and differentiating it from traditional group work The theoretical foundations of CL are discussed, highlighting Cognitive Developmental Theory and Cognitive Elaboration Theory CL activities are meticulously structured around key principles such as positive interdependence, individual accountability, equal participation, simultaneous interaction, collaborative skills, and group processing.
The study focuses on collaborative learning techniques such as Think-Pair-Share, Timed-Pair-Share, Three-Step-Interview, Round Robin, Group Discussion, and Brainstorming, which are designed to engage students in language practice It reviews the nature of speaking, covering its definition, key aspects, types of classroom speaking performance, common difficulties, principles for designing speaking techniques, and the teacher's role during speaking lessons Additionally, it addresses the challenges of teaching English in large classes The following chapter will outline the research methods employed to gather data aimed at answering the research questions.