Rationale
English is essential for the younger generation as it serves as a global means of communication, facilitating interactions across nations Its significance extends to various fields, including science, aviation, technology, diplomacy, and tourism, making it the primary language of the Internet Proficiency in English enhances job prospects in multinational companies both domestically and internationally However, the quality of English education in Vietnam's high schools and universities remains low, leaving many graduates unprepared for the job market due to inadequate language skills Common challenges faced by Vietnamese students include limited vocabulary, poor grammar, and difficulties in listening and speaking Addressing these issues is crucial to improving English language learning outcomes for students in Vietnam.
Numerous Vietnamese studies have explored the challenges in teaching and learning English, particularly regarding the use of L1 and L2 in classrooms This topic remains contentious, sparking debates among researchers and linguists Krashen (1983), a proponent of the Monolingual approach, argues that learners acquire a foreign language (FL) in a manner similar to their first language (L1), suggesting that L1 should be minimized in English instruction (Krashen, 1981) Conversely, other research indicates that L1 can serve as a valuable tool to facilitate the learning process.
The use of Vietnamese as a mediating tool in English language teaching and learning has been emphasized by various researchers (e.g., Flyman-Mattsson & Burenhult, 1999; Macaro, 2001; Polio & Duff, 1994; Rolin-Ianziti & Brownlie, 2002; Storch & Aldosari, 2010) Given the prevalent use of Vietnamese among English teachers, it is crucial to explore the role of both L1 and L2 in English instruction in Vietnam.
Aims of the study
The purpose of the study was:
- to identify whether there is any impact of using code switching in teaching in English classroom on the students’ knowledge of English tenses
- to identify the extent to what the use of code switching helps students’ use English tenses accurately.
Research questions
This research aimed to explore the effect of code switching on students' grammar accuracy in learning the Past Simple, Past Continuous, and Present Perfect tenses The study specifically sought to answer key questions regarding the relationship between code switching and grammar achievement in instructional settings.
1 Does the use of L1 in teaching grammar in EFL classroom improve students’ grammatical knowledge of Past simple, Past Continuous and Present Perfect tenses?
2 To what extent does the use of L1 in teaching grammar in EFL classroom improve students’use of English tenses (Past simple, Past Continuous and Present Perfect tenses)?
Research Hypothesis
The researcher hypothesized that the use of code-switching would positively influence students' grammar accuracy during instruction on the Past Simple, Past Continuous, and Present Perfect tenses This suggests that incorporating code-switching by teachers can enhance students' understanding and application of these grammatical concepts.
3 switching appropriately, it could help students get higher ability of grammar accuracy in using these English tenses.
Significance of the study
Given the current state of English teaching and learning, where students primarily learn English to succeed in tests, there is a pressing need to explore the role of code-switching in grammar instruction within EFL classrooms Previous research highlights the importance of both L1 and L2 in language acquisition, indicating a gap that this study aims to address This research is crucial as it investigates whether code-switching can enhance students' understanding and application of grammatical structures, particularly in using English tenses accurately The findings will provide valuable insights for English teachers and school leadership, offering recommendations to improve the overall quality of English education.
Design of the study
There are five chapters in the research report
Chapter 1 is to introduce the research: rationale, the research context, the aims of the study, the significance of study, the design of the study
Chapter 2 is to provide theoretical background and an overview of prior studies in relation to the study
Chapter 3 is to provide a clear and detailed description of the research
Chapter 4 is to express the findings of the study based on collected data
Chapter 5 is to give conclusion and limitations of the current study as well as suggestions for the researches in future Finally, the researcher provides referenced materials of the study as well as the appendix
Definition of code switching
Code switching refers to the practice of alternating between two or more languages or dialects within a single conversation or among different speakers and contexts (Romaine, 1992) Unlike language interference, code switching enhances communication by allowing speakers to convey meaning more effectively (Skiba, 1997) This phenomenon, often observed in bilingual or multilingual communities, occurs more frequently in spoken language than in writing and is also known as code-mixing or style shifting Linguists study the circumstances under which bilingual speakers switch languages, while sociologists explore the motivations behind it, such as group identity and contextual factors (Richard Nordquist, 2018) Overall, code switching serves as a valuable tool for facilitating understanding in diverse communication settings.
(Bloomberg, 2004) Numan and Carter also define the term as “a phenomenon of switching from one language
Code-switching is a widely used strategy in teaching English, both in our country and globally, as it fosters a comfortable learning environment that keeps students engaged and motivated Burden (2001) highlights its effectiveness in facilitating foreign language acquisition, while Cole (1998) notes that bilingualism has positively impacted English learning in Japan, leading to improved grammar and vocabulary, albeit at a slower pace Ellis (1994) emphasizes that exposure to the target language is crucial for success, although it may not be effective in every classroom, particularly those relying solely on the Direct Method, which can lead to frustration due to inadequate input Asmah Hj Omar (1992) further supports the benefits of bilingualism in learning English as a foreign language in Malaysia, especially for students struggling in conversation classes.
Many researchers (Lai, 1996; Cole, 1998; Critchley, 1999; Schweers, 1999; Burden,
Research by Tang (2002) and Greggio & Gil (2007) highlights the significance of code-switching in enhancing English language teaching and learning Code-switching is viewed as a valuable tool for language development, facilitating effective communication and information transfer between speakers and listeners (Skiba, 1997).
In 2006, it was suggested that low proficiency students find code-switching beneficial in their English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes, as it enhances comprehension by providing equivalent understanding and clarifying classroom procedures This approach can be effectively utilized as a teaching method for second languages and aids in language development by offering valuable language samples (Cook, 1989; 1991).
6 minimal and slow, code-switching is still perceived as a positive indication of the learning progress
This article contends that code-switching in the classroom should not be viewed as a flaw but rather as a strategic tool utilized by both teachers and students in the process of learning a second or foreign language.
Code-switching occurs when speakers of different languages with limited proficiency in each other's language interact, creating a hybrid communication space that facilitates understanding This practice not only fosters clearer communication but also influences the evolution of both languages among native speakers, leading to language variations (McArthur, 1998) It represents a complex phenomenon of language contact that encompasses various processes such as lexical and syntactic borrowing, language transfer, and linguistic convergence, among others Despite its significance, there is still debate in the literature regarding the precise definition and scope of code-switching (Poplack, 2004) From a sociolinguistic viewpoint, code-switching serves to express both social and linguistic meanings, fulfilling relational and referential functions.
Blom and Gumperz (1972) sparked interest in code switching during the late 1960s and early 1970s, leading to diverse perspectives among researchers While some, like Mahootian (1996) and Schendl (1997), viewed code switching as a natural occurrence without systematic rules, others, including Heredia & Altarriba (2001), MacSwan (2012), and Li (2000), argued that it is a rule-governed process Extensive research on bilingual interactions indicates that code switching is not merely a result of a speaker's limited proficiency but rather a distinctive feature of bilingual communication.
Bilingual speakers often engage in code-switching, which is the systematic alternation between two languages within a single conversation (Li, 2000) Research by Hobbs, Matsuo, and Payne (2010), Moodley (2007), and Unamuno (2008) indicates that code-switching can be an effective strategy for teaching and learning in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms.
Code switching, despite varying definitions among linguistics researchers (Al-Mansour, 1998; Poplack, 1980), can be categorized based on its conversational use Not all forms of code switching are beneficial for educational purposes This study focuses on three specific types of code switching: tag switching, intersentential code switching, and intra-sentential code switching.
Tag switching happens when a person moves an elliptical statement from onelanguage to another (Arthur, 1996)
Intersentential code-switching occurs when a speaker switches languages after completing a sentence, with the transition point varying by context and potentially happening at phrasal or discourse boundaries (MacSwan, 1999) Conversely, intra-sentential code-switching takes place within a single sentence without any pauses or interruptions, aiding early language learners by incorporating familiar words while maintaining sentence structure Linguists argue that examining intra-sentential code-switching can significantly enhance our understanding of the linguistic organization within bilingual cognitive processes (Lipski, 1985).
In the context of teaching and learning, both intersentential and intra-sentential code-switching are crucial strategies that can clarify key terms unfamiliar to students For instance, when dealing with subject-specific jargon, these techniques can enhance comprehension and facilitate better understanding of complex concepts.
8 it might be beneficial to break the sentence into smaller chunks using lexical and intra- sentential code switching to explain it to students.
Reasons for using code- switching
Code-switching is utilized for various reasons, primarily influenced by the speaker's intent and the audience In India's multilingual context, it occurs naturally, with Hindi-English code-mixing being particularly prevalent The current research highlights that many code-mixed expressions used by characters predominantly derive from Hindi, blended with English This practice often arises when speakers struggle to convey their thoughts in a single language, prompting them to switch codes to enhance understanding.
Secondly, code switching commonly occurs when an individual wishes to express solidarity with a particular social group
Code-switching occurs when a speaker's vocabulary is limited, leading them to switch languages when they cannot find the right words This linguistic shift is often employed to express specific emotions or attitudes, such as happiness, sorrow, love, anger, or regret In various situations, our emotional states can influence our language choice, resulting in a code-mixed variety that reflects our feelings and roles in communication.
Kow (2003) identifies several conditions that may lead to code-switching, including the absence of a specific word in either language, the unique experience of certain activities in one language, and the ease of expressing particular concepts in one language over the other Additionally, code-switching can occur to clarify misunderstandings, create specific communication effects, or continue using the most recently spoken language due to a trigger effect It can also serve to emphasize a point, express group solidarity, or intentionally exclude someone from the conversation.
Kow (2003) indicates that specific sociolinguistic contexts can influence code-switching, particularly when language learners face vocabulary limitations in English In such cases, they often resort to using words from their first language to bridge the gap in communication Additionally, code-switching can serve to express group solidarity, helping to build goodwill and rapport among speakers Various conditions can dictate the occurrence of this phenomenon, highlighting its dependence on the social context.
In educational settings, both students and teachers utilize code-switching, as noted by Borlongan (2009) Teachers effectively integrate code-switching into their English as a Foreign Language (EFL) curriculum, using it as a strategic tool in diverse language learning activities (Kasperczyk, 2005).
Code-switching activities, such as pair discussions, help students clarify misunderstandings in their target language while allowing partners to use their native language for better comprehension (Kasperczyk, 2005) This practice not only fosters engagement but also enhances the explanation of concepts between peers Teachers can also utilize code-switching to introduce new vocabulary effectively, aiding students' listening and comprehension skills in the target language (Kasperczyk, 2005) Although teachers often employ code-switching subconsciously, they may not fully recognize its functions and outcomes in the classroom (Mattson & Burenhult, 1999; Sert, 2005) This automatic behavior is deemed inevitable in classroom interactions (Qind, 2010), yet it plays a crucial role in supporting language learning, regardless of whether it is used consciously or unconsciously (Qing, 2010).
Mattsson and Burenhult-Mattsson (1999) identified ten functions categorized into topic switch, affective functions, and repetitive functions, which will serve as the conceptual framework for this study The following sections will outline these functions in detail.
According to Cole (1998), teachers can leverage students' prior knowledge of their first language to enhance their comprehension of a new language This process often involves topic switching, where teachers adjust their language based on the subject being discussed For instance, when teaching grammar, educators may switch to the students' native language to clarify specific grammar points This approach allows students to focus on new concepts through code-switching, effectively bridging their native language with the new foreign language content Consequently, this connection facilitates a clearer understanding of the material.
Another situation where teachers seem to code-switch is to carry out affective functions
Teachers often utilize code-switching to convey their emotions and foster a sense of solidarity and rapport with students This practice enhances the creation of a supportive language environment in language learning classrooms While code-switching may not always be a deliberate choice by teachers, it can occur unconsciously, as noted by Sert (2005), highlighting that its natural occurrence may not guarantee intentional application.
In a repetitive teaching function, educators employ code-switching to enhance student understanding and provide clarity in instructions For instance, teachers may switch from the target language to the students' native language to effectively convey essential concepts.
The significance of foreign language content for effective comprehension is emphasized, yet the habit of repeating instructions in the native language can result in negative student behaviors When students become accustomed to translations in their native tongue, they may disengage from the original instructions, leading to detrimental academic effects due to reduced exposure to foreign language discourse (Sert, 2005).
Code-switching is a common practice where individuals alternate between languages or styles of speech, often influenced by their surroundings While this technique can enhance communication and help convey specific thoughts effectively, it also carries risks Many people use colloquialisms or switch languages to articulate particular ideas more clearly, as illustrated in Jennifer Monahan's story.
In a bilingual school environment, my colleagues and I frequently engage in code-switching, particularly when discussing topics like nonprofit fundraising and technology, which are more familiar in English This phenomenon occurs not only due to individual language proficiency but also among native French speakers, as we often refer to terms like "le smartboard" or "un programme de planned giving." Additionally, certain cultural concepts, such as bringing lunch from home, are less common in French culture, leading us to use the term "le lunchbox" to describe a lunch container.
Research by Hancock (1997), Liebscher & Dailey-O’Cain (2005), Sert (2005), and Wheeler & Swords (2010) highlights the functional uses of code-switching in educational settings Teachers can effectively utilize code-switching for facilitating discussions, maintaining class control, fostering rapport with students, and clarifying new concepts Additionally, there is a growing interest in the timing and context of language shifts, particularly regarding when these changes occur during discussions.
12 middle, or some other place, and why does the teacher switch from English to L1 in such cases?
Lin (2013) emphasizes that alternative methods would struggle to capture the same level of frustration experienced by students By analyzing instances of language switching, educators can uncover the underlying reasons for this shift, offering valuable insights into the use of the first language (L1) Understanding the rationale behind L1 usage can reveal whether the teacher employed code-switching as a strategy to support students' learning transitions.
“known to unknown” or to compensate his or her own deficiency in expressing the idea in English (Modupela, 2013, p 93)
First language (L1)
According to MacMillan dictionary, First language (L1) is defined as the main language a person speaks in a region or a country
A first language, also known as a native language or mother tongue (L1), is the language a person is exposed to from birth or during the critical period of language development Many people mistakenly believe their first language is the one they are fluent in, but it actually refers to the language(s) they encounter before their first birthday For instance, students often claim that English is their first language simply because they were born and educated in the UK, but this is only true if their parents communicated solely in English during their early years.
Second language (L2)
A second language (L2) refers to a language that is not a person's native tongue but is commonly used in their locality It is typically acquired after mastering the native language, particularly in regions where the second language is prevalent L2 is often utilized in educational and governmental contexts, especially in areas where the majority of speakers are non-native, such as English in India or Nigeria.
Definition of grammar
Grammar is essential for non-native speakers learning a language, with individual learners holding varied perspectives on its importance It is defined differently based on personal theoretical orientations, but fundamentally, grammar dictates how words are organized to create correct sentences In linguistics, grammar encompasses the structural rules that govern the arrangement of clauses, phrases, and words in any natural language This study of grammar also includes related fields such as phonology, morphology, and syntax, which together enhance our understanding of language structure.
Grammar is the system of rules that governs the creation of sentences, encompassing knowledge of parts of speech, tenses, phrases, clauses, and syntactic structures (Richards, 2012) It plays a crucial role in connecting phonology and semantics, linking sound and meaning (Leech et al., 1982) According to Cobbett (1984), grammar comprises rules and principles that enable effective word manipulation to convey meaning accurately It focuses on the form and structure of words and their relationships within sentences, indicating that alterations in word order or form can change a sentence's meaning Grammar includes both morphology, which examines word forms, and syntax, which concerns the arrangement of words to construct sentences Ultimately, grammar serves as the structural foundation for effective communication, allowing us to understand and express ourselves clearly The more we comprehend its workings, the better we can assess the meaning and effectiveness of language use.
Types of grammar
Teachers must focus on six essential types of grammar: traditional grammar, phrase structure grammar, prescriptive and descriptive grammar, transformational-generative grammar, functional-systematic grammar, and cognitive grammar (Wood, 1995) Each type offers unique approaches to analyzing and describing language, which in turn influences grammar teaching methods.
A traditional grammar is a framework for the description of the structure of a language
In traditional grammar, syntax is a key element of language, emphasizing structure over meaning To teach sentence organization effectively, traditional grammarians have categorized language into eight parts of speech.
The eight parts of speech—nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections—are essential for constructing sentences Each word can serve multiple roles depending on its context, making it crucial to identify their function Understanding these parts of speech is vital, as they influence sentence structure and punctuation.
Traditional grammar emphasizes the relationships between words in a sentence, categorizing them into roles such as subject, object, complement, and adverbial to identify different clause types like SV (He was walking) and SVO (She was reading a book) It is descriptive, aiming to illustrate linguistic structures, with the fundamental English sentence structure being subject + verb + object, exemplified by "He drinks water." Consequently, language instruction grounded in traditional grammar prioritizes the understanding of parts of speech.
Prescriptive grammar defines how a language should be used according to established rules, serving as a normative guide for correct language usage It outlines what we should say or write, providing a framework of norms to adhere to while highlighting common errors to avoid This approach categorizes language use into what is considered acceptable or unacceptable.
Descriptive grammar focuses on the actual structure of language as used by speakers and writers, acknowledging that language is continually evolving (Quirk et al., 1985) This approach recognizes that certain phrases once deemed grammatically incorrect can become accepted over time The primary aim of descriptive grammar is to accurately and systematically describe how people communicate, rather than dictating what they should say or do (Harold Schiffman, 1997).
Descriptive and prescriptive grammar both focus on rules, but they approach them differently Linguists study the underlying patterns of language use, such as the flexibility of terms like "a few" and "a little." In prescriptive grammar, "a few" applies to count nouns (e.g., "a few students"), while "a little" pertains to non-count nouns (e.g., "a little salt") Consequently, we use forms like "few," "fewer," and "fewest" with count nouns and "little," "less," and "least" with non-count nouns Interestingly, the use of "less" with count nouns, as in "less students," has gained acceptance in modern usage (Zain, 2007).
Phrase-structure grammar, as described by Cook (1991), emphasizes the connections between words and phrases within a sentence, aiding in the comprehension of how these structural relationships convey the intended meanings of the speaker This concept is often illustrated through substitution tables, which are commonly utilized in foundational grammar education.
Transformational grammar is a theory that explains language constructions through linguistic transformations and phrase structures In this framework, the term 'rule' refers to an inherent principle, rather than an externally imposed guideline, that native speakers unconsciously adhere to when producing and interpreting sentences These rules serve as internalized directions for constructing sentences or their components.
Transformational generative grammar focuses on syntax, similar to traditional and phrase-structure grammar While phrase-structure grammar emphasizes the transition from individual words to complete sentences, transformational generative grammarians aim to explain how our minds generate sentences, transforming intent into utterance.
1981) Transformational generative grammarians argue that innumerable syntactic combinations can be generated by means of a system of formal rules, such as,
Transformational rules, as outlined by Zain (2007), are essential for converting phrase structures into different forms, such as changing active voice to passive voice These rules not only clarify the grammatical relationships among sentence constituents but also demonstrate how individuals can generate a wide variety of sentences, even those they have never encountered before.
Functional-systemic grammar emphasizes the interplay between syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, as highlighted by Halliday (1985) This approach focuses on the functional use of language, examining how utterances convey meaning that adapts to various contexts The semantics of an utterance, along with the dynamics between the speaker and listener, significantly influences the selection of expressions.
Cognitive Grammar presents a radical departure from traditional formalist linguistic theories, emphasizing a conceptualist semantics rooted in human experience rather than objective truth conditions This approach allows for a meaningful understanding of grammar, viewing it not as a separate formal system but as interconnected with the lexicon Grammar and lexicon coexist in symbolic structures that pair conceptual frameworks with their phonological representations, highlighting the role of imagination and mental construction in language.
Cognitive approaches emphasize that language is deeply intertwined with human cognitive abilities, rather than functioning as an isolated module This perspective suggests that language can be influenced by external factors, leading to a nuanced understanding of meaning in communication.
19 is viewed as being pervasive According to cognitive approaches, grammatical forms are meaningful elements (Andrew Spencer, 2008)
The positive role of L1 and approaches focus on L1 in second language teaching 19
The role of the first language (L1) in second language (L2) teaching has been widely examined, with Ellis (1994) emphasizing that prior linguistic knowledge significantly influences L2 acquisition Research indicates that theories disregarding the L1 are incomplete, as it plays a dual role in the learning process This section will review key theories that highlight both the negative and positive impacts of L1 on L2 acquisition In my school, particularly for students with lower proficiency levels, the use of L1 in L2 instruction proves to be essential for effective learning.
In some cases, L1 is really necessary in L2 classroom such as: conveying meaning, checking meaning of words or sentences, explaining grammar, organizing tasks,…
The advantages of using L1 in EFL classrooms
Using L1 in the classroom is not a given; it is employed when necessary, particularly for explaining complex terms and grammatical concepts by comparing them to L1 equivalents The extent of L1 usage depends on various factors, including the teacher's effectiveness in communication, the context, and the diverse learning styles and abilities of students Some researchers advocate for the advantages of incorporating L1 in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction.
According to Atkinson (1987, cited in Jadallah & Hasan, 2011), the use of L1 in language learning offers several advantages It is favored by learners for translation, which aids in expressing their emotions and understanding the nuances between their native language and the foreign language, thus preventing negative transfer Additionally, utilizing L1 effectively maximizes classroom time Atkinson identifies several specific applications of L1, including checking comprehension, providing instructions, fostering cooperation among learners, and enhancing presentations and reinforcement.
Butzkamm (2003) summarizes the principles and advantages of using L1 as follows:
- L1 use gives a sense of security and helps learners to be stress-free
- L1 is the greatest asset people bring to the task of FL learning
- A foreign language friendly atmosphere is best achieved through selective use of L1
- The use of L1 saves learners from a feeling of frustration they might have within their FL learning
- L1 techniques allow teachers to use richer and more authentic texts, which mean more comprehensible input and faster acquisition
- All newly-acquired foreign language items have to sink roots in our minds which are eventually deep enough for the items to function independently of the L1
Stern identifies the use of L1 in L2 teaching as a significant and enduring debate in language pedagogy This article reviews the historical evolution of L1's role in second language instruction, highlighting key teaching methods such as the Grammar Translation Method, Direct Method, Audio-Lingual Method, Communicative Approach, and Functional-Translation Method Each of these methods reflects changing perspectives on the integration of a learner's first language in the acquisition of a second language.
The first method considered is the Grammar Translation Method, which derived from
The teaching of classical languages, particularly Latin and Greek, has significantly influenced second language (L2) education since the early nineteenth century in Western countries This method primarily focused on grammar instruction, bilingual vocabulary lists, and translation exercises, aiming to enable learners to read literature in the target language rather than to communicate verbally Consequently, it emphasizes literary language over conversational skills, allowing the first language (L1) to serve as a reference system during the L2 acquisition process.
The Direct Method emphasizes that second language (L2) learning should mirror first language (L1) acquisition, as highlighted by Stern (1983) This approach advocates for full immersion in the L2, utilizing it as the primary medium for instruction and communication while avoiding the use of L1 and translation techniques Although the Direct Method was highly popular from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, its prominence began to wane over time, as noted by Brown (1994).
56) points out, "(it) did not take well in public education where the constraints of budget, classroom size, time, and teacher background made such a method difficult to use." Even though this method was declined, it has been laying foundation on which many of later methods and approaches expended and developed, among of which are the Audio-lingual Method and Communicative Approach The origin of Audio-lingual Method is found in Army Method developed in response to the need for Americans to learn the languages of their allies and enemies alike during World War II, aims at helping learners “to be able to use the target language communicatively” (Larsen-Freeman, 1986) Similarly to the Direct Method, the Audio-lingual Method focuses on the spoken language and forbids translation at early level and the use of the students’ native language in the classroom (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, cited in Ellis, 2003, p 84) In contrast, in the Communicative Approach, which has attracted attention from language teaching profession during the past five decades, native language is allowed in restricted if it is feasible and translation may be used when learners find it essential or helpful (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, cited in Ellis, 2003, pp 84-85)
Recently, the significance of using the first language (L1) in language classrooms has garnered increased attention from language teachers, researchers, and scholars Numerous global studies have explored the role of L1 in second language (L2) teaching, aiming to enhance communicative methods that recognize L1 as a valuable resource in L2 education According to Weschler, this perspective highlights the potential benefits of integrating L1 into language learning environments.
(1997), the Functional – Translation Method, which combines the best of traditional
The integration of grammar translation with modern direct and communicative methods highlights the effectiveness of using L1 in language teaching This approach facilitates better understanding, allowing students to easily follow their teachers Consequently, code-switching proves to be a valuable tool in enhancing language instruction.
Comparison of tense in English and Vietnamese
The concept of time in English differs significantly from that in Vietnamese, which may pose challenges for Vietnamese students learning English tenses Huynh (2010) highlights the contrast between Vietnamese as a tenseless language and English as a tense-dependent language, making it difficult for Vietnamese learners to master and correctly use English tenses Comrie (1976) further emphasizes this complexity in understanding time reference across the two languages.
The concept of time reference in language can be categorized as either absolute or relative, and some languages grammaticalize this concept by incorporating tenses However, many languages do not possess grammatical time reference and thus lack tense, although it is likely that all languages can express time reference through lexical means, utilizing temporal adverbials to situate events in time.
Nguyen (1998) argued that Vietnamese is a tenseless language, relying on context, setting, and time markers to convey temporal meaning rather than grammatical tenses, as is common in English For instance, a past event in Vietnamese can be expressed without specific tense indicators.
Hôm qua, tôi đi mua sắm với mẹ tôi.Tôi và mẹ tôi mua nhiều thứ
However, English uses a sequence of past-tense sentences to express the same event:
Yesterday, I went shoppingwith my mother.I and my mother bought many things
Tense plays a crucial role in English grammar, while its usage, along with temporal markers, is often considered optional in Vietnamese (Huynh, 2010).
In Vietnamese, the use of tenses can lead to unnatural-sounding sentences when temporal markers are applied incorrectly This highlights the importance of understanding the nuances of tense usage in the language.
Hôm qua, Hôm qua, tôi đã đi mua sắm với mẹ tôi.Tôi và mẹ tôi đã mua nhiều thứ
However, in some cases the use of temporal makers is necessary, for instance
In English, Mother: Have you had breakfast? - Son: Yes, already
In Vietnamese, Mẹ: Con ăn sáng chưa? – Con trai: Dạ, rồi (ăn rồi)
The differences in the concept of time between English and Vietnamese are evident in their use of temporal markers Vietnamese speakers often avoid temporal markers to maintain simplicity, relying instead on context and scene settings to convey time references In contrast, English requires the use of tenses, making them essential for clear communication Thus, it can be concluded that Vietnamese tends to utilize temporal markers less frequently than English.
“đã, đang, sẽ ” in special cases
2.8.2 The equivalence of tense in English and Vietnamese
Despite notable differences in the concept of time between English and Vietnamese, there are similarities, particularly in the use of past and progressive tenses In English, regular verbs typically require the addition of “-ed” for the past tense, while irregular verbs use specific past forms Similarly, in Vietnamese, the word “đã” serves as a temporal marker for the past tense in most instances Additionally, “đã” is utilized to indicate the chronological order of two actions, highlighting its importance in expressing time relationships in the language.
She had left before he came./Cô ấy đã đi trước khi anh ấy đến
Except the word “đã”, the word “rồi” is thought as other temporal maker to express the meaning in perfect tense such as:
They have finished their research./Họ đã hoàn thành bài nghiên cứu của họ rồi
The word "đang" is essential for indicating the progressive tense, signifying ongoing actions However, it is utilized in both present and past continuous tenses, making context crucial for differentiation The following examples illustrate this concept effectively.
I am listening to music./Tôi đang nghe nhạc
She was reading book when he came./
Cô ta đang đọc sách thì điện thoại reo.
Debates the using L1 and L2 in language classroom
In EFL teaching, two main approaches regarding the use of the first language (L1) have emerged: the Monolingual approach and the Bilingual approach Critics argue that L1 use can impede language acquisition, leading proponents of the Monolingual approach to advocate for the exclusive use of the foreign language in the classroom (Jadallah, M & Hasan, F., 2011).
The monolingual approach is grounded in three key principles, the first of which emphasizes that individuals are immersed in their auditory environment from a young age This exposure enables them to listen, imitate, and respond to the sounds around them, ultimately leading to the successful mastery of their first language (L1), as highlighted by Krashen and Terrell.
Advocates of the monolingual approach argue that learners acquire a foreign language (L2) in a manner similar to their first language (L1), suggesting that the use of L1 should be minimized in language learning environments (Jadallah & Hasan, 2011) A study by Kharma and Hajjaj (1989) focused on Arab learners of English in the Gulf region, concluding that L1 should generally be excluded from foreign language classrooms to promote near-native competence in L2.
25 has the same process to L1 learning, claim that exposure is vital in the learning of L2 (Cook, 2001)
The second principle emphasizes that learners of a second language (L2) should be immersed in an L2 environment to enhance their learning Sharma (2006) asserts that increased exposure to English accelerates learning, enabling students to internalize the language and begin thinking in it Linguist Krashen supports this by stating that comprehensible input is crucial for second language acquisition, suggesting that success in learning a foreign language relies primarily on the input received (Brown, 2000) He warns that using the first language (L1) can lead to habitual reliance during challenging situations, potentially resulting in errors due to negative L1 transfer, such as the syntactic differences between Arabic (V-S-O structure) and English (S-V-O structure) Furthermore, Krashen (1981) notes that L1 can contribute to errors in L2 performance, particularly in contexts where translation exercises are common, highlighting the significant influence of the first language on learners' second language skills.
The third principle emphasizes the importance of using only the target language (L2) in L2 classrooms, as this practice highlights the significance of L2 in meeting learners' communicative needs (Littlewood, 1981, cited in Cook, 2001, p 409) and showcases the effective usage of the target language (Pachler & Field, 2001, cited in Miles, 2004, p 8).
In addition to three fundamental principles, the monolingual approach believes that
“the teacher who is a native speaker is the best embodiment of the target and norm for
26 learners” (Phillipson, 1992, p 194) Kieu, H.K.A (2010), in her thesis explains the above belief clearly This belief is based on the assumption that native L2 speakers possess
The preference for native English speakers in language education is evident in Vietnam, where many learners believe that native speakers possess a superior ability to demonstrate fluent and culturally appropriate language use Phillipson (1992) argues that this belief makes native speakers seem "intrinsically better qualified than the non-native." This principle is reflected in the advertisements of foreign language centers in Tuoi Tre Newspaper, one of Vietnam's leading publications, which highlights the strong inclination of Vietnamese learners towards native English instruction.
Critics of the Monolingual Approach, including teachers, researchers, and learners, argue that the use of the first language (L1) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes is beneficial, particularly for students at low and pre-intermediate proficiency levels Research by Latsanyphone (2009) indicates that incorporating L1 in vocabulary teaching significantly enhances retention of new words in both isolation and context Additionally, Siti and Abdul (2006) found that using L1 in essay writing instruction led to notable improvements in students' ability to generate ideas in their native language before composing essays in English.
Researchers like Atkinson (1993), Macaro (2001), Deller and Rinvolucri (2002), Widdowson (2003), Aurbuch (1998), and Harbord (1992) advocate that the first language (L1) is a valuable resource for enhancing second language (L2) learning, but emphasize the importance of using it thoughtfully.
Phillipson (1992) argues that the monolingual approach to teaching English is impractical, particularly given that non-native speakers make up the majority of English teachers globally (Hawks, 2001, as cited in Miles, 2004) Often, these teachers may lack sufficient proficiency to effectively implement an English-only teaching method, which can hinder their communication skills and negatively impact their teaching performance (Miles, 2004).
The monolingual approach in language education is often impractical, as it is nearly impossible to completely exclude the first language (L1) in lower-level classes (Nunan & Lamb, 1996, cited in Vaezi & Mirzaei, 2007) This English-only teaching method can lead to learners feeling alienated from the learning process (Pachler & Field, 2001, cited in Miles, 2004; Jadallah & Hasan, 2011).
Excluding the first language (L1) from the classroom is not only impractical but also deprives learners of a vital tool for language acquisition (Macaro, 2001) Auerbach (1998, cited in Sharma, 2006: 81) highlights the positive role of the mother tongue in various classroom functions, including language analysis, class management, and error explanation Harbord (1992) notes that attempts to create English-only classrooms often result in student incomprehension and resentment Mukattash (2003: 224) finds that incorporating L1 in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching enhances comprehension and facilitates meaningful learning Additionally, Cook (1999, p.186) argues that the traits attributed to native speakers are not essential for effective teaching, a sentiment echoed by Phillipson (1992, p.194), who questions the assumption that fluency and appropriate language use are exclusive to native speakers.
Training can significantly enhance language acquisition Non-native teachers often outperform native speakers because they have firsthand experience with learning a second language (L2), allowing them to better understand their students' needs This unique perspective serves as a valuable asset in their teaching approach (Phillipson, 1992, p.195).
Corder (1992, as cited in Ellis, 2003) emphasizes that adult learners bring their first language (L1) experiences into the classroom, which significantly influences their second language acquisition He argues that these learners not only possess an existing language system that can aid in learning a new language but also have an understanding of the communicative functions and potential uses of language (Jadallah & Hasan, 2011).
He proposes that L1 can help learners “in the process of discovery and creation”; thus
The influence of a learner's mother tongue (L1) on acquiring a second language (L2) is recognized as a beneficial facilitator (Corder, 1992, cited in Ellis, 2003) Atkinson (1987) argues that allowing learners to utilize their L1 represents a humanistic approach, enabling them to express their true thoughts and feelings Additionally, he highlights that employing L1 can significantly enhance efficiency in explanations, thereby optimizing the learning process.
Justifications for L1 use in second language teaching
2.10.1 Studies demonstrating the positive role of L1 in L2 teaching
Miles (2004) conducted two experiments at the University of Kent to investigate the impact of L1 use in L2 classrooms The first experiment compared three low-level classes: one that exclusively used L2, one that allowed limited L1 usage by students, and one where the teacher, fluent in Japanese, integrated L1 periodically The second experiment focused on a single class, where two lessons were taught using L1 and two without The findings suggest that incorporating L1 in the classroom does not hinder L2 learning and may actually support its development.
A study involving 29 male university participants aged 18 to 19 in Tokyo, Japan, who had spent their first year studying English in England, revealed supportive findings for the use of L1 in the classroom (Miles, 2004) These participants, regardless of their majors, had Japanese as their first language and had studied English for six years in high school Additionally, Vaezi and Mirzaei (2007) explored whether translating from L1 to L2 impacts the linguistic accuracy of Iranian EFL learners, focusing on form.
In a study involving 155 Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners aged 13 to 24, participants were pre-tested to identify their familiarity with four specific structures: Passive voice, Indirect reported speech, Conditional type 2, and Wish + simple past From the pre-test results, 72 participants were selected and divided into experimental and comparison groups The experimental group translated Persian sentences into English using the taught structures, while the comparison group completed grammar exercises from their course book A post-test revealed that the experimental group significantly outperformed the comparison group in accuracy, supporting Atkinson's findings (Vaezi & Mirzaei, 2007).
Translating a paragraph or set of sentences into the target language can effectively reinforce structural, conceptual, and sociolinguistic differences between the native and target languages, enhancing accuracy in language learning (1987, p 244) While this exercise is not inherently communicative, it serves a valuable purpose in language education Additionally, research indicates that the purposeful and systematic use of the mother tongue can positively contribute to the teaching of other languages (Vaezi & Mirzaei, 2007, para 42).
Research supporting the bilingual approach highlights the attitudes of teachers and learners towards the use of L1 and L2 in second language teaching, particularly in specific classroom situations A study conducted at the University of Puerto Rico, Bayamon Campus, revealed that both teachers and students generally favor code-switching, with many respondents advocating for the occasional use of Spanish in English classes Participants indicated that using L1 can enhance comprehension and create a more comfortable learning environment The study identified various applications for L1, including explaining complex concepts, checking understanding, defining vocabulary, and engaging with students Schweers (1999) concluded that awareness of the similarities and differences between L1 and L2 can facilitate second language acquisition.
Incorporating Spanish into English classes has reduced the intimidation students feel towards learning English, demonstrating that both languages can coexist harmoniously This approach has fostered positive attitudes toward learning English and motivated students to enhance their English skills Inspired by Schweers's research, Tang (2002) conducted a similar study in the Chinese context, which yielded insightful results from participant questionnaires.
A study involving 100 first-year English majors and 20 teachers in Puerto Rico revealed similarities with Schweers’s research, while also highlighting differences in the contexts and reasons for code-switching in the classroom Tang's findings indicated that using Chinese in English classes can be "more effective" and "less time-consuming." The study concluded that a limited and careful use of the mother tongue can enhance the teaching and learning process without diminishing students' exposure to English This does not advocate for increased use of the first language in EFL classrooms but seeks to address misconceptions about the necessity and justification of using the native language when appropriate.
Research by Nguyen (1999) and Zacharias (2003) indicates that many educators support the use of L1 in L2 teaching Zacharias highlights several effective applications of L1 in the English classroom, such as clarifying new vocabulary and grammar, providing instructions, assessing student comprehension, and offering personalized feedback.
Kieu (2010) highlighted that the use of L1 in English language teaching varies across different classroom contexts, emphasizing the need to tailor approaches to specific environments Additionally, Jadallah and Hasan (2011) reviewed recent trends in language teaching, exploring the role of L1 in enhancing EFL learning during English classes Their findings revealed that all native English-speaking instructors and 62.5% of non-native speakers deemed the use of Arabic acceptable in EFL instruction.
Nguyen (2011) explored the role of Vietnamese in English language classes, examining whether it serves as assistance or interference in the teaching-learning process The study revealed that the strategic use of Vietnamese can enhance the effectiveness of English instruction Specifically, employing Vietnamese flexibly during brainstorming and explanatory activities encourages learners to utilize the target language more frequently.
Nguyen, Jang, and Yang (2010) found that the English-only policy in ESL/EFL classrooms did not ensure comprehensive understanding of lessons among most participating students Furthermore, around half of the students surveyed expressed negative sentiments towards the English-only approach.
2.1 1 Issues in learning English tenses of Vietnamese learners
Vietnamese students often struggle with English tenses due to the differences in how time is expressed in their native language Unlike English, which relies on verb conjugation to indicate tense, Vietnamese uses temporal markers, leading to frequent mistakes when students translate directly from Vietnamese to English This translation habit hampers their ability to think and express themselves in English naturally Additionally, the lack of necessity for verb conjugation in Vietnamese contributes to their difficulties in mastering this aspect of English Compounding the issue, many students face challenges with both regular and irregular verbs, even when they understand the need for tense usage Moreover, a focus on verb conjugation over the appropriate use of tenses in teaching exacerbates these difficulties, making it harder for students to use English tenses correctly and effectively.
Chapter summary
This chapter offers a comprehensive review of essential literature concerning grammar instruction, highlighting the challenges faced by Vietnamese students in mastering English tenses It also discusses the ongoing debate between monolingual and bilingual approaches regarding the use of the first language (L1) in second language (L2) classrooms.
A total of 33 prior studies focused on the use of L1 in teaching English in Vietnam, revealing that incorporating L1 in EFL classrooms, when appropriate, has beneficial effects on learners These findings offer valuable insights for developing the framework for the current study in the following chapter.
Research context
Tan Thanh High School in rural Long An province faces significant challenges in teaching and learning English, primarily due to inadequate facilities, conflicting teaching methodologies, and students' attitudes The school's limited resources, such as a lack of language labs and audio materials, hinder students' listening skills Additionally, English teachers disagree on teaching approaches, with some advocating for English-only instruction, while others prefer a mix of English and Vietnamese or exclusively Vietnamese This discord prevents a cohesive teaching strategy, negatively impacting English language quality Moreover, students focus on mastering grammar and vocabulary solely to pass exams, neglecting the communicative competence emphasized in the curriculum To address these issues and enhance students' English learning experience, further research is needed to explore effective teaching methods that align with students' needs.
Participants
In the present study, forty participants were randomly chosen from the students of 260
In a rural high school in Long An province, 11th graders aged 17 to 18 participated in a study, consisting of 25 females and 15 males, all at a pre-intermediate English proficiency level The participants were divided into a controlled group and an experimental group, both receiving instruction through a seven-year English program Two experienced English teachers conducted the grammar lessons and assessed the students' performance on grammar tests The study focused on the Language focus section of the English 11 textbook, utilizing a communicative approach with the PPP model for teaching grammar.
Research aims
This study aims to investigate the impact of code switching—utilizing both the first language (L1) and second language (L2) in grammar instruction—on students' accurate use of English tenses It seeks to determine how effectively code switching aids students in mastering English tenses, highlighting its role in enhancing language proficiency in the classroom.
Design
This study investigates how code switching affects students' grammar accuracy in learning the Past Simple, Past Continuous, and Present Perfect tenses Employing a descriptive approach, the research highlights the relationship between code switching, treated as an independent variable, and students' grammar achievement, regarded as a dependent variable.
Research instrument
A test was created by the researcher and given to participants at Tan Thanh High School in Long An province This test was reviewed by two English teachers involved in the grammar lessons of the current study The assessment included various components aimed at evaluating students' understanding of grammar.
The study involved 36 multiple-choice items designed to assess pre-intermediate students' understanding of three grammatical tenses: simple past, past continuous, and present perfect The test was divided into three sections focusing on English grammar, error identification, and vocabulary, with vocabulary levels tailored to be simple and accessible Developed by the researcher and refined with feedback from two experienced English teachers in Long An province, the multiple-choice format enabled objective scoring and evaluation of students' grammatical accuracy However, this format also presented a 25% chance of guessing, raising concerns about the true understanding of the material, and it did not effectively demonstrate how students would apply these grammatical forms in real-life situations.
Materials
The research utilized the Tieng Anh 11 textbook and lesson plans from two English teachers to teach three tenses to two groups, tailored to meet the study's objectives The lesson plans followed the communicative approach, specifically the PPP model, and extended over nine periods instead of the single period outlined in the syllabus at the experimental high school Six periods were dedicated to teaching each tense separately, while the remaining periods focused on distinguishing between them and providing additional practice In the controlled group, lesson plans emphasized the use and distinction of the three tenses in English, whereas the experimental group was instructed to express these concepts in Vietnamese.
Schedule
The researcher conducted the study from September (2017) to June
(2018) and the specific tasks would be expressed in the following table:
The researcher completed the detailed outline of the thesis proposal including the title, research questions and research methodology
The researcher read, generalized, synthesized the references and wrote the Literature review 1 weeks
The researcher chose the participants randomly from the students of the school through the results of proficiency test 2 weeks
English teachers taught three target tenses for both experimental group and controlled group
Both groups were taught these three English tenses in nine periods and the teachers would teach the two groups two periods per week
The researcher delivered the test for the participants to collect the data 1 week
The researcher analyzed the data that was collected from the test 4 weeks
The researcher wrote the thesis report based on the comments’ supervisor and collected data 12 weeks
The researcher completed the thesis report after modifying 2 weeks
Procedure
The study began with the approval of the school Principal and involved one of seven classes of eleventh-grade students from a rural upper-secondary school in Long An province.
Administering the placement test To identify the level of individual participants of two classes (controlled and experimental class) so that the researcher selects forty participants
(from participants taken the test) who have the same level of proficiency in English to participate in the research
In order to select the participants for the present research, several steps were carried out as following:
After obtaining approval from the school Principal, the researcher administered a 45-minute placement test to seven eleventh-grade classes This proficiency test consisted of twenty multiple-choice questions, covering four key areas: English grammar, error identification, vocabulary, and reading comprehension.
+ Secondly, the researcher and two experienced English teachers (who were invited from the school) scored the tests
+ Finally, the researcher selected 40 students who got from 55 to 65 percents of the total score of the test
In a lesson focused on teaching the Past Simple, Past Continuous, and Present Perfect tenses, a teacher instructs two groups of students In the controlled class, instruction is conducted entirely in English to emphasize the distinctions among the three tenses Conversely, in the experimental class, the teacher incorporates both English and Vietnamese to facilitate understanding of the tense differences.
Administering the t-test A multiple choice test is conducted to participants to check participants’ accurate use of three tenses (see Appendix 2).
Chapter summary
This chapter outlines the study design and methodology used for data collection and analysis to address the research questions It details the participants, materials, and instruments utilized in the research, along with the specific data collection process The subsequent chapter presents the research findings following the data analysis.