INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
The Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET, 2012) highlights the importance of developing communicative competence in students as a key goal in foreign language education Upon completing the English curriculum in high schools, students are expected to acquire essential linguistic knowledge and enhance their communication skills However, challenges such as learner-centered methods, time constraints, lack of motivation, and the impact of examinations hinder the effectiveness of English language teaching from secondary to upper secondary levels (Le & Barnard, 2009) Consequently, the quality of English education remains low, with reading comprehension identified as particularly challenging for many students (Aegpongpaow, 2008).
Reading comprehension is a crucial language skill that enhances language acquisition and enables students to engage with diverse materials for various purposes (Poorahmadi, 2012) As Grabe (1991) highlights, reading is an essential ability, arguably the most significant skill in language learning.
Mastering reading comprehension is essential for students in foreign or second language programs, as it enables them to enhance their academic and intellectual pursuits Through reading, learners can acquire valuable information and knowledge, fulfilling their needs for learning, research, and entertainment.
The study reveals that many students struggle with reading comprehension, facing challenges in grasping key ideas, utilizing personal experiences, interpreting contextual clues, and engaging in self-questioning Previous research, such as Aegpongpaow's (2008), identifies specific reading difficulties, including vocabulary issues, grammatical complexities, organizational challenges within texts, and the length of reading materials, all of which hinder reading achievement Consequently, researchers emphasize the need for effective strategies to motivate students and enhance their reading skills To address these challenges, it is crucial for students to recognize their reading difficulties and learn how to overcome them (Koda, 2004 cited in Aegpongpaow).
2008) Koda also states that experienced readers normally apply their own effective reading strategies to remediate their reading problems and to develop an in-depth understanding of a reading passage
According Cohen (1998), metacognitive strategies are considered as part of effective strategies that enhance learners‟ reading ability To become successful readers, learners need to improve their reading ability via
Research indicates that metacognitive awareness plays a crucial role in reading comprehension, distinguishing successful readers from less successful ones Efficient readers often engage in metacognitive activities, allowing them to select appropriate reading strategies based on their goals and the demands of the task Additionally, those with high metacognitive awareness can monitor their comprehension process, evaluate the effectiveness of their chosen strategies, and make necessary adjustments to enhance understanding.
As Farrell (2001) states that once students‟ knowledge about metacognitive strategies and their regulation of cognition are improved, they will become better strategy users
Extensive research has explored the perceived use of metacognitive reading strategies and their impact on reading comprehension Notable studies by Chumpavan (2000), Shmais (2002), and Zhang and Wu (2009) highlighted the differences in strategy use between successful and less successful learners Subsequent research (Subasi, 2009; Phakiti, 2003; Aegpongpaow, 2008) confirmed a positive correlation between the use of metacognitive strategies and reading success, indicating that increased strategy use leads to higher reading scores Additionally, findings suggest that poor readers often lack awareness of these strategies and their significance in improving comprehension.
Eight investigations into enhancing learners' metacognitive awareness through strategy instruction (Rasekh and Ranjbary, 2003; ầubukỗu, 2008) have shown positive outcomes on reading comprehension These studies indicate that teachers who effectively implement metacognitive strategy instruction help students improve their metacognitive knowledge, which subsequently leads to enhanced reading comprehension results.
Research indicates that metacognitive strategies are crucial for second language learners in enhancing their reading skills By effectively planning, monitoring, evaluating, and remediating their comprehension before, during, and after reading, learners can significantly improve their understanding Furthermore, incorporating direct instruction of these strategies into reading lessons can increase students' awareness and perceived use of metacognitive techniques, ultimately leading to improved reading comprehension.
Many English teachers currently do not teach reading comprehension strategies effectively, as their guidebooks lack specific recommendations for instruction Consequently, classroom time dedicated to teaching these essential skills is minimal, with a heavy reliance on workbook assignments and content questions during reading lessons This approach may lead to students developing misconceptions about reading and having an incomplete understanding of the necessary strategies and processes for monitoring their comprehension.
1998) These misconceptions may drive students incapable of using reading strategies effectively
This study investigates the impact of metacognitive strategy use on secondary school students' reading abilities By conducting a case study, the researcher aims to identify the metacognitive strategies employed by students and their correlation with reading comprehension achievement The hypothesis suggests that utilizing these strategies can enhance students' reading skills Ultimately, the researcher plans to advocate for the direct instruction of metacognitive strategies in English reading to elevate the quality of reading instruction.
Aims of the research
This study aims to explore the metacognitive strategies employed by ninth graders and examine how these strategies impact their reading comprehension skills.
The long-term goal is to enable English language teachers and learners to recognize the significance of integrating metacognitive strategies into reading comprehension practices.
Research questions and hypotheses
The main purpose of this research was to investigate the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy use on participants‟ reading comprehension achievement Specifically, the researcher attempted to answer the following questions:
1 To what extent do the ninth graders’ at the secondary school use metacognitive strategies in their EFL reading activity?
2 What differences in terms of achievement does the use of metacognitive strategies make to reading comprehension?
This study hypothesizes that the use of metacognitive strategies will positively impact reading comprehension achievement among ninth grade students Specifically, it suggests that increased utilization of these strategies will lead to higher scores in reading tasks The research aims to measure the effectiveness of metacognitive strategies on the reading performance of secondary school students.
Significance of the study
The findings of this study significantly enhance awareness of teaching and learning EFL reading It identifies the metacognitive reading strategies utilized by students, highlights achievement disparities, and addresses challenges learners face in applying these strategies Additionally, the study offers solutions to the low quality of English reading comprehension instruction among secondary school students, particularly ninth graders, aiming to improve educational outcomes Ultimately, the results raise awareness among both teachers and students regarding the impact of metacognitive strategies on English language reading comprehension, advocating for their more effective use.
Organization of the thesis
The report of the present study is presented in five chapters: 1) Introduction,
2) Literature Review and Theoretical Background, 3) Methodology, 4) Finding and Discussion, 5) Conclusions
Chapter 1 presents the problem and background of the study The aims of the research are introduced The significance of the study also follows to give the important implications of the study
Chapter 2 reviews related literature as the prior knowledge of the present study This chapter is considered as the second major component of the study since information about of similarities and differences of the past studies in relation to the field of research is included
Chapter 3 describes the methodology of the study It starts with the theoretical framework of the study A detailed description of the instruments for collecting data is followed by an explanation on how the data are analyzed Results of the study are presented in chapter 4 The results of the questionnaire are first reported to see to what extent metacognitive strategies are being used Next, the reading comprehension test results are stated to show the differences of achievement to metacognitive strategy use
Chapter 5 summaries key findings of the study An interpretation of these findings together with explanations in reference to previous studies is presented in the conclusion section This chapter finally discusses limitations, pedagogical implications and implication for further research related to this research topic
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Language learning strategies (LLS)
This section provides a general background of learning strategies in second language learning Issues regarding the definition, classification, and importance of LLS will be presented
In studies focused on Language Learning Strategies (LLS) that promote autonomous and independent language acquisition, LLS is defined through two key aspects: the components that make up LLS and the specific goals learners aim to achieve by employing these strategies.
As to the elements of LLS, researchers in the field have seen LLS under various issues For example, while Bialystok (1978, p.71) defines LLS as
“optional means for exploiting available information”, Rubin (1987, p.23)
Language Learning Strategies (LLS) are defined as techniques that enhance the development of a learner's language system, directly influencing their learning process While Oxford (1990) describes these strategies as "behaviors," Weinstein and Mayer (1986) expand this view to include both "behaviors and thoughts." The element of consciousness is also significant in LLS, as highlighted by researchers like Wenden and Rubin (1987), Oxford (1990), and Cohen (1998), who emphasize that these strategies are consciously employed by learners However, there is no consensus among researchers regarding the definitions of LLS, as they stem from diverse perspectives, including psycholinguistic and pedagogical viewpoints.
Initially, researchers believed that the primary purpose of language learning strategies (LLS) was to enhance second language proficiency However, following Chamot's 1987 study, there is a consensus among researchers that LLS facilitate the learning process of a target language Bialystok (1978) and Tarone (1981) highlight that these strategies aid learners in achieving both linguistic and sociolinguistic competence In contrast, recent research by Chamot (1987), O'Malley & Chamot (1990), and Oxford (1990) has shifted the focus towards the processes and characteristics of LLS Oxford (1990) provides a definition of LLS that underscores their significance in language acquisition.
Learner strategies, or LLS, are specific actions that enhance the learning experience by making it easier, faster, more enjoyable, self-directed, effective, and transferable to new situations According to Oxford, the use of LLS not only fosters enjoyment in learning but also shifts the focus from merely achieving fluency in a second language to developing intelligent learners who understand how to learn more effectively (Tamada, 1997).
Oxford's (1990) definition of Learning Strategies (LLS) stands out as the clearest among various researchers' interpretations She emphasizes that LLS encompass learners' thoughts and behaviors aimed at facilitating the learning process, rather than solely focusing on achieving proficiency Consequently, her definition serves as the theoretical foundation for this study.
Although LLS have been classified by several researchers (Stern, 1975; Rubin, 1975; Rubin, 1987; Tarone, 1981; O‟Malley et al., 1985), Oxford (1990)‟s classification is acknowledged as the most comprehensive and applicable taxonomies (Ellis, 1994)
Rubin (1987) proposed an early classification of language learning strategies (LLS), dividing them into direct strategies—such as clarification, monitoring, memorization, and reasoning—and indirect strategies, which focus on creating practice opportunities However, this taxonomy is limited as it only reflects the strategies of successful learners Similarly, Tarone (1981) introduced a classification that distinguishes between language use strategies for real-life communication and language learning strategies aimed at enhancing linguistic and sociolinguistic skills This classification raises challenges in identifying learners' specific purposes when employing these strategies in their language learning (Tamada, 1997), leaving uncertainty about whether learners always have clear objectives.
15 language learning purpose when he or she is trying to communicate with other people in a second language
O'Malley et al (1985) classified language learning strategies (LLS) based on the level and type of information processing, diverging from Tarone's (1981) classification Their framework, informed by Anderson's (1984) cognitive theory, identifies 26 strategies categorized into three main types: metacognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective strategies O'Malley et al emphasize that all learners, whether consciously or unconsciously, employ learning strategies with specific purposes in mind when engaging in second language acquisition, even when utilizing communication strategies.
Oxford's Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), proposed in 1990, is recognized as the most comprehensive classification of language learning strategies (LLS) (Ellis, 1994) It categorizes strategies into two main groups: direct strategies, which include memory, cognitive, and compensatory strategies that impact language learning consciously, and indirect strategies, encompassing metacognitive, affective, and social strategies that influence learning unconsciously Oxford identifies 62 strategies within these six categories, providing more detailed explanations than previous researchers This extensive classification not only redefines and expands earlier models but also aligns well with learners' strategy use (Hsiao & Oxford, 2002) and integrates seamlessly with the four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
In summary, it has shown that many classifications of LLS have been made by researchers and authors so far However, they do not share the same
Different perspectives arise when examining the same issue, influenced by various domains Notably, Oxford's classification of LLS stands out as the most comprehensive and relevant framework available today.
In second language acquisition theories, researchers like Krashen (1982), Long (1985), and Ellis (1994) emphasize the importance of comprehensible input for effective language learning, while also highlighting the active role of learners in their education Learners must utilize language strategies to process new information and enhance comprehension Fedderholdt (1997) notes that those who effectively employ a variety of language learning strategies can significantly improve their language skills Metacognitive strategies, in particular, aid in organizing study time, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation Consequently, the role of language learning strategies (LLS) in education has garnered attention from researchers due to their substantial impact on learning outcomes.
Language Learning Strategies (LLS) play a crucial role in enhancing students' communicative competence Specifically, communication strategies, a subset of LLS, are employed intentionally by speakers to navigate challenges in second or foreign language communication (Bialystok, 1990) According to Oxford (1990a), LLS are vital for language acquisition as they facilitate active and self-directed engagement, which is key to fostering communicative competence.
Research into Language Learning Strategies (LLS) indicates that these strategies can enhance students' learning abilities Early studies by Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) identified effective techniques used by successful language learners These learners actively employ strategies to monitor their use of a second or foreign language, which aids in improving their listening and speaking skills.
A study by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) highlights that effective foreign language learners are conscious of the language learning strategies (LLS) they employ and their purposes Additionally, Graham's (1997) research in French emphasizes the role of second language teachers in enhancing students' understanding of LLS and training them to develop and utilize these strategies effectively.
To further emphasize the vital role of LLS in learning and teaching, Oxford
Cognitive strategies facilitate interaction in the target language, while metacognitive strategies empower learners to manage their own learning processes Effective strategies address learners' emotions, and social strategies enhance learning through interaction with native speakers, such as seeking pronunciation corrections or collaborating with classmates on language challenges Additionally, memory strategies aid in storing and retrieving information, whereas compensation strategies are utilized to maintain communication despite gaps in linguistic knowledge.
This study emphasizes the significance of metacognitive strategies in reading, as supported by numerous research findings (Phakiti, 2003; Huy, 2005; Aepongpaow, 2008; Zhang & Wu, 2009) While acknowledging the interconnectedness of six language learning strategies proposed by Oxford, the focus here is solely on metacognitive strategies within the context of English as a foreign language The following section will explore key aspects of metacognition, including its definition, knowledge of metacognitive strategies, and the challenges learners face in implementing these strategies in reading.
Metacognitive strategies
It is acknowledged that metacognition has received a considerable attention by language teaching theoreticians and researchers for the past decades This section focuses on literature involving metacognition in the field of reading Some major definitions of metacognition, knowledge about metacognitive strategies will be discussed
The term metacognition is defined as "cognition about cognition," or
"thinking about thinking." Metacognition in language teaching and learning is understood variously by different educators and researchers (Flawell, 1978; Collins, 1994; Leahey and Harris, 1997; Maitland, 2000) An example of this is Flavell‟s (1978) early definition He defined metacognition as "knowledge that takes as its objects or regulates any aspect of cognitive behavior" (p 8)
Metacognition, often defined as the knowledge and self-regulation of one's own learning processes, encompasses awareness and monitoring of cognition (Collins, 1994; Leahey & Harris, 1997) Aebersold and Field (2004) further describe metacognition in reading as the comprehension of the underlying factors that shape readers' knowledge and perceptions In essence, it involves understanding how readers acquire knowledge and form their perceptions.
In addition to defining the term metacognition, O'Malley, Chamot, and their collaborators [Stewner-Mazanares, Russo and Kupper (1985)], articulates the contrast between metacognition and cognition in terms of general learning strategies metacognitive strategies involve thinking about the learning process, planning for learning, monitoring [of] comprehension or production
19 while it is taking place, and self- evaluation of learning after the language activity is completed Cognitive strategies [by contrast] are more directly related to individual learning tasks and entail direct manipulation or transformation of the learning materials (1985, p
From the definitions of metacognition mentioned, the concept can be defined as the learners‟ conscious awareness of their own cognition and their conscious executive processes of learning reading
Additionally, metacognition is classified via two major aspects: (1) knowledge about one‟s own cognition which involves knowledge about self, task, and cognitive strategies and (2) knowledge about self-regulation of one‟s own learning which involves knowledge about metacognitive strategies (Flavell, 1978)
While there is much research to suggest that the former influences learners‟ reading behavior and improves their reading comprehension (Carrell, 1992; O'Sullivan & Joy, 1994), many educators (Collins, 1994; Maitland, 2000) consider the later as crucial for reading comprehension since it helps readers to regulate their reading process for better comprehending a text The coming section will primarily present the knowledge about metacognitive strategies since it is most relevant to specific issues of the present study
Understanding metacognitive strategies, also known as self-regulation strategies, is crucial for enhancing reading comprehension According to Collins (1994), simply being aware of one's understanding or lack thereof is insufficient; learners must actively manage their reading processes to achieve true comprehension.
Metacognitive strategies are essential for enhancing students' self-efficacy and success in cognitive tasks, as highlighted by Nist and Simpson (1994) Among various strategies identified in literature, three key metacognitive strategies are particularly emphasized in reading: planning, self-monitoring, and self-assessment (Jacobs & Paris, 1987).
Effective reading planning involves creating a comprehension strategy that enhances student engagement and motivation while clarifying reading purposes (Dutta, 1994; Sequero, 1998) This approach encourages students to consider their reading objectives, as a lack of purpose can reduce reading to mere scanning (Tompskin and Hoskisson, 1995) During the planning phase, students should engage in various tasks, including proposing strategies, connecting prior knowledge, predicting content, and determining evaluation standards for their comprehension (Simmons, 1994; Craig and Yore, 1996) Ultimately, this planning process supports students in achieving their goals through self-questioning techniques, such as identifying the nature of the task and setting specific objectives.
What kind of information and strategies do I need? How much time and resources will I need? (Schraw, 1998, p.121)
Self-monitoring, as defined by Glazer (1992), involves readers regulating their own comprehension during reading Schunk (1997) emphasizes that this metacognitive strategy enables students to recover lost understanding and adjust their reading techniques when comprehension falters Zimmerman (1995) adds that self-monitoring can improve reading by enhancing selective attention, allowing students to evaluate the effectiveness of their performance and learning strategies, and offering opportunities to discover better approaches when goals are not achieved This is particularly vital for foreign language learners, as self-monitoring strategies assist in compensating for their limited vocabulary and grammar knowledge.
Self-monitoring is categorized into two major types: fix-up strategies and studying strategies (Collins, 1994; Menchaca & Ruiz-Escalante, 1995; Schwartz, 1997) The former is used for resolving comprehension failure, including focusing on what is understood, deciding on the important of ideas, slowing down and allocating extra processing to problem areas, rereading problem areas to look for clarification, looking back at the text to resolve a problem, taking notes of problems areas, making an educated guess based on prior knowledge, and consulting an external source (e.g a teacher, a classmate, or a dictionary) The later is employed to enhance storage and retrieval, including underlining, outlining, note-taking, summarizing and self- questioning
Researchers indicate that self-monitoring can be effectively achieved through self-questioning, enabling students to assess their comprehension as they navigate learning tasks Key questions such as “Why am I reading this selection?”, “How am I doing?”, and “What could I have done?” can facilitate this reflective process.
22 differently?” (Young et al., 2002 cited in El-Koumy, 2004, p.21) can assist students to monitor their own understanding of a text
Self-assessment is a crucial metacognitive strategy that empowers students to monitor and refine their strategic thinking in literacy learning (Shoemaker, 1998) It fosters student autonomy (Williams & Durden, 1997) and enhances metacognition, leading to improved thinking and learning outcomes (O'Malley & Pierce, 1996; Andrade, 1999) Additionally, self-assessment boosts student motivation, increasing engagement in the learning process (Todd, 2002) It also builds self-esteem and confidence, enabling students to identify and address gaps in their performance Furthermore, it alleviates the assessment burden on teachers.
To foster students' engagement in assessing their metacognitive knowledge, it is advisable to utilize teacher-constructed questions alongside self-questioning techniques This approach, as highlighted by Arter and Spandle (1992), emphasizes the importance of self-reflection in the learning process.
Reading comprehension
Section 2.2 presented an overview of metacognitive strategies It has become clear that metacognition has a primary role to play in the field of reading Therefore, in this section issues concerning reading comprehension such as the definition of reading, nature of L2 reading, the role of metacognitive strategies in reading comprehension, and reading comprehension of good and poor readers will be discussed
Reading is defined in various ways across literature, with Rasinski and Padak (2000) describing it as the process of recognizing written symbols, articulating them, interpreting ideas, and comprehending the text to engage with and respond to these symbols.
While Lynskey, A &Stillie, M (2009) mentions that reading is a mental contemplative process where the readers understand and interact with written
28 symbols in order to take advantage, solve problems, and use them in life situations
Reading is a cognitive process that involves the psychological interpretation of symbols perceived by the reader's eyes, establishing a connection between personal experiences and the meanings of these symbols (Razi, 2004).
According to Kibry (2006), reading is a sensory process integral to language and closely related to linguistic psychology It starts with the interpretation of written symbols and culminates in the reader's understanding, highlighting the fundamental connection between language and cognitive processes in reading.
Reading is an interactive process that engages the reader intellectually, mentally, and visually with symbols, shaping their mental attitudes towards reading These attitudes are reflected in behavioral patterns influenced by personal experiences.
The researcher emphasizes that reading is a crucial skill for acquiring knowledge, as it encompasses higher mental processes such as evaluation, analysis, reasoning, and problem-solving It goes beyond merely recognizing printed symbols, highlighting the cognitive abilities required for learners to engage with texts effectively Ultimately, reading enables individuals to construct meaning and comprehend content deeply.
Reading comprehension is the ability to derive meaning from text, and the primary aim of reading instruction is to enhance this skill Successful comprehension requires effective decoding of the written material, enabling readers to understand and interpret the content accurately.
29 writer's words and then using background knowledge to construct an approximate understanding of the writer's message (Lenz, 1999) To Alderson
Reading in a second language (L2) is a complex and dynamic process influenced by three main factors The first factor is the reader's interlanguage competence, which includes their incomplete or underdeveloped linguistic, strategic, discourse, and sociolinguistic skills The second factor encompasses personal characteristics such as learning styles, cognitive abilities, gender, motivation, socioeconomic status, and educational background Lastly, external contexts such as the topics being read, text characteristics, reasons for reading, stakes involved, and time constraints also play a significant role in the reading experience.
Reading processes vary from lower-level to higher-level processing, with lower-level processing involving the automatic recognition of word meanings, syntactic structures, and parts of speech (Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995; Alderson, 2000) This automatic reading suggests that individuals can decode text with minimal awareness, allowing for a more efficient reading experience (Segalowitz, 2003) The complexity of the text influences reading efficiency; as readers become more automatized in their decoding skills, they free up mental capacity in their working memory to focus on understanding the main ideas and important details of the text (Anderson, 2000; Gagne et al., 1993).
However, in most reading contexts, L2 readers are likely to encounter unfamiliar words, syntactic structures or topics that require them to
Effective reading requires conscious evaluation of alternative sources and the use of context clues, especially when difficulties arise Higher-level processing, including situation assessment and comprehension monitoring, is essential for overcoming these challenges, as they impact reading speed and effectiveness Metacognitive processing plays a crucial role in enhancing achievement by guiding and regulating cognitive efforts during reading Research indicates that successful comprehension is not automatic; it relies on directed cognitive effort, which involves knowledge and regulation of cognitive processes Studies on expert readers have confirmed the importance of these metacognitive strategies in facilitating better understanding and retention of information.
To enhance learning from text, readers must intentionally employ metacognitive strategies that allow them to regulate their reading process This involves actively controlling, monitoring, and evaluating their understanding, thereby improving overall comprehension and retention of information (Pressley, p.295).
Numerous studies have explored the factors affecting second language (L2) reading, including readers' background knowledge, language proficiency, and metacognitive strategies This research highlights the significant impact of both reader-related factors, such as L1 literacy and motivation, and contextual elements like text type and readability on L2 reading comprehension The current study specifically examines the role of metacognitive strategies in enhancing reading comprehension for English as a foreign language learners.
2.3.3 The role of metacognitive strategies in reading comprehension
The role of metacognitive strategy use in reading comprehension has thus been a big topic of discussion in the L2 literature As Block (1992, p.320) suggests that L2 readers need to be ready to “stand back and observe themselves” when they read, the importance of metacognitive strategy use, therefore, has been emphasized for a number of reasons Firstly, metacognitive strategies can help readers think about what they are thinking during their reading O'Malley, et al (1985), stress the important role of metacognition that "students without metacognitive approaches are essentially learners without direction or opportunity to review their progress, accomplishments, and future directions" (p.561) Furthermore, Pressley et al
Metacognition plays a crucial role in enhancing student learning by fostering awareness of their own learning processes According to research from 1987, it enables students to recognize what they have learned, identify situations where this knowledge is applicable, and understand the processes involved in utilizing it effectively Furthermore, without metacognitive awareness, learners may struggle to recognize when their comprehension falters and how to address it, rendering teacher-introduced strategies ineffective Therefore, implementing metacognitive strategies can significantly improve learning outcomes by equipping students with the understanding of their cognitive processes and the appropriate contexts for applying these strategies.
2.3.4 Reading comprehension of good and poor readers
Comprehension is the crucial factor that distinguishes good readers from poor readers A significant metacognitive difference lies in the ability of proficient readers to select and effectively apply comprehension strategies Understanding the relationship between reading ability and these strategies is essential for improving reading skills.
Studies related to metacognitive strategy use and reading comprehension
Numerous studies conducted by researchers and educators outside of Vietnam have explored the impact of metacognitive strategies on ESL/EFL reading comprehension, highlighting their significant influence on students' reading proficiency (Rasekh & Ranjbary, 2003; Phakiti, 2003; Aepongpaow, 2008; ầubukỗu, 2008; Wu & Zhang, 2009) Additionally, empirical research has focused on reading strategy instruction to help learners become effective users of these strategies, examining the differences in conscious awareness and application of reading strategies between successful and unsuccessful readers.
Successful readers employ 34 metacognitive strategies, highlighting the significant connection between the use of these strategies and success in language learning across various metrics This section reviews the majority of studies that explore this relationship.
Research has shown that promoting metacognitive awareness among EFL readers through strategy instruction significantly enhances their reading comprehension (Song, 1998; Rasekh & Ranjbary, 2003; ầubukỗu, 2008) For instance, Song's (1998) study demonstrated that reading strategy training in a university foreign language classroom effectively improved EFL reading skills Additionally, the impact of this strategy training was found to vary based on students' L2 reading proficiency levels, indicating the importance of tailored instruction.
Rasekh and Ranjbary (2003) discovered that explicit metacognitive strategy training significantly enhances vocabulary knowledge among EFL students, aligning with findings from Song (1998) The study involved two groups of intermediate language learners, with one serving as a control group and the other as an experimental group.
Over a 10-week instructional period, both groups were taught vocabulary learning strategies, but only the experimental group received additional training in metacognitive strategies This training was grounded in the direct language learning strategies framework established by Chamot and O'Malley (1994) The study's findings indicated that the experimental group demonstrated enhanced vocabulary acquisition compared to the control group.
The experimental group demonstrated superior performance on the vocabulary achievement test compared to the comparison group, highlighting the positive impact of explicit metacognitive strategies instruction on the lexical knowledge development of EFL students.
With regard to the benefit of metacognitive strategy instruction ầubukỗu‟s
A study conducted in 2008 examined the impact of strategy instruction on reading comprehension and vocabulary development among 130 Turkish third-year English language students at Dokuz Eylul University Participants were divided into a control group, receiving regular training, and an experimental group, which incorporated metacognitive strategy instruction over five weeks Utilizing a pre-test and post-test experimental design, the research employed a 20-item vocabulary multiple-choice test and a reading comprehension test based on TOFEL Results revealed that both groups gained metacognitive strategies beneficial for reading comprehension, but the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group These findings underscore the effectiveness of systematic instruction in metacognitive language learning strategies for enhancing reading comprehension.
Research has revealed significant insights into the effectiveness of specific metacognitive strategies in reading A notable study by Zhang and Wu (2009) utilized a questionnaire with 30 items to assess three main categories of reading strategies: global reading strategies (GLOB), support strategies (SUP), and problem-solving strategies.
36 solving stratergies (PROB), adapted from the Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) by Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002) The participants in the study were
A study involving 270 Chinese senior high school students learning English as a foreign language categorized participants into high, intermediate, and low proficiency groups based on their standardized test scores Wu and Zhang discovered that students frequently utilized various learning strategies, with significant differences in strategy use linked to proficiency levels The highest proficiency group employed global and problem-solving strategies more often than their intermediate and low-proficiency counterparts, while no significant differences were found in the use of support strategies across the groups The research indicated that these students were active users of reading strategies in English as a foreign language, and their strategy usage patterns were closely tied to their overall EFL achievement.
Chumpavan (2000) conducted a qualitative study utilizing methods such as interviews, field observations, and journals to assess students' metacognitive reading strategies, contrasting with Zhang and Wu's (2009) quantitative approach Despite the differing research instruments, Chumpavan's findings aligned with those of Zhang and Wu, revealing that students employed various metacognitive strategies, including prior knowledge, grammatical understanding, self-questioning, and summarization, to enhance their reading comprehension Additionally, Chumpavan identified that students primarily struggled with unfamiliar words and grammatical issues within sentences and paragraphs.
In a study by Shmais (2002), a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was employed to investigate the metacognitive strategies used by native Arabic speakers while reading in English The research involved a case study with two Arabic-native participants from An-Najah University, utilizing think-aloud protocols to explore their metacognitive thinking, along with interviews, comprehension tests, and a questionnaire The findings revealed that the participants employed various strategies that significantly enhanced their understanding of English texts.
Research into the relationship between metacognitive strategy use and success in reading is crucial in the field of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) A study by Subasi (2009) revealed that high-performing test takers employed significantly more cognitive and metacognitive strategies compared to their moderate and low-performing counterparts This finding aligns with Phakiti's (2003) research, which involved 384 Thai students categorized into three groups based on their test scores and teachers' evaluations: 75 highly successful, 256 moderately successful, and 53 unsuccessful students Data was gathered through a multiple-choice test featuring gap-filling and reading comprehension sections, alongside a questionnaire designed to assess the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies.
A retrospective interview study involving eight students, divided into four highly successful and four unsuccessful individuals, revealed a positive correlation between the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies and reading performance The findings indicated that highly successful test-takers employed significantly more metacognitive strategies compared to their moderately successful peers, who, in turn, utilized these strategies more than the unsuccessful test-takers.
Aegpongpaow (2008) conducted a qualitative study on the use of metacognitive strategies in English academic reading among Thai university students The research involved 20 third-year English majors from Srinakharinwirot University in Bangkok, utilizing interviews, think-aloud sessions, and journals for data collection The findings indicated that Thai students demonstrated awareness and control over their metacognitive strategies, which they employed to plan, monitor, and improve their comprehension through techniques like scanning texts and focusing on key points The study highlighted the significance of these strategies in enhancing reading comprehension and addressing challenges faced during academic reading Notably, participants with higher English proficiency utilized metacognitive strategies more frequently than their lower-proficient counterparts, who, despite being aware of effective strategies, struggled to apply them to improve their comprehension.
Empirical studies indicate that metacognitive strategies significantly enhance students' reading comprehension and foster autonomous reading skills (Alexander & Jeton, 2000) However, these studies have limitations, primarily due to a heavy reliance on qualitative methods (Chumpawan, 2002; Shmais, 2002; Aepongpaow, 2008), highlighting the need for research that integrates both qualitative and quantitative approaches to better understand L2 reading strategies Additionally, many studies utilized small sample sizes (Chumpawan, 2002; Shmais, 2002; Wu & Zhang, 2009), which may overlook critical issues related to metacognitive strategy usage Future research should involve larger participant groups to enhance reliability and consider age and gender differences to gain a clearer understanding of how these factors influence students' selection and application of metacognitive strategies (Aepongpaow, 2008).
Summary of the literature and justification of the current study
This chapter reviews theoretical and empirical literature pertinent to language learning strategies, focusing on definitions, classifications, and their significance It delves into metacognition, exploring metacognitive strategies and their application in reading The discussion includes the nature of L2 reading, the impact of metacognitive strategies on reading comprehension, and differences in comprehension between proficient and struggling readers Finally, the chapter examines empirical studies linking metacognition to reading comprehension success.
Metacognitive strategies significantly enhance ESL/EFL reading comprehension, yet many poor readers remain unaware of their impact, leading to subpar reading performance Research indicates a clear distinction in the use of metacognitive reading strategies between proficient and struggling readers, highlighting the role of these strategies in improving reading skills However, previous studies predominantly employed qualitative case study methods and overlooked the challenges hindering the effective use of metacognitive strategies Additionally, there is a notable gap in research involving high school students in Vietnam, indicating a need for further investigation in this area.
This study employs a case study approach to explore the relationship between metacognitive strategies and reading comprehension, aiming to address gaps in the existing literature and analyze previous findings.
41 of both qualitative and quantitative methods, was conducted with a great attempt to answer the following questions:
1 To what extent do the ninth graders’ at the secondary school students use metacognitive strategies in their EFL reading lessons?
2 What differences in terms of achievement does the use of metacognitive strategies make to reading comprehension?
METHODOLOGY
Research design
This research aimed to evaluate the impact of metacognitive strategy use on students' reading comprehension achievement Employing a descriptive approach, the study provided insights into how metacognitive strategies (independent variable) influenced reading comprehension (dependent variable) among ninth graders in EFL contexts Additionally, the descriptive design facilitated an analysis of the specific metacognitive strategies utilized by the students during their reading activities.
Figure 3.1 Variables in the present study
In Figure 3.1, it would be noticed that the study was initially conducted to determine the effect of the independent variable on students‟ reading comprehension achievement.
Participants
The study involved 40 randomly selected students from class 9A, aged 14 to 16, all of whom had seven years of experience learning English as a foreign language, ensuring a similar level of proficiency Additionally, 40 students from class 9B participated to assist in piloting the research instruments, including a questionnaire and a reading test Two experienced English teachers from the school were invited to evaluate the reading tasks, with all subjects following the English 9 textbooks.
In the study by Nguyen et al (2009), conducted at the end of the second term of the 2017-2018 school year, data was gathered through reading comprehension tests and questionnaires This research aims to enhance knowledge in the field and provide benefits to participating students, ultimately contributing to improved English reading teaching and learning methods at the school.
Research instruments
This study utilized a reading comprehension test to assess participants' abilities in understanding English texts, focusing on identifying the main idea, details, and making inferences The specific skills required for the students included effective comprehension and analytical thinking.
(1) scanning the text for specific information
(2) skimming the text for general idea
(3) guessing meaning of unknown words and phrases from context
(4) evaluating information in the text
(5) drawing inferences from the content of the text
The English course for ninth-grade students focuses on essential objectives aimed at enhancing reading skills To achieve the reading test goals for this level, carefully selected texts from "English 9 Exercises" by Mai & Nguyen have been utilized.
In 2006, passages were created based on the English 9 textbook and the reading attainment targets established by the Ministry of Education and Training These passages were utilized in a progress test for English classes at Thanh Phu Long Secondary School, focusing solely on reading to align with the main research objectives The reading topics encompassed themes such as the countryside, environment, and celebrations, incorporating vocabulary that students had previously learned in the classroom Participants were given 30 minutes to complete the reading test (refer to Appendix 2 for the test).
In Test 1, Part I consisted of three questions in Section A, each scored as either 10 points for correct answers or 0 points for incorrect ones Part I also included five items in Section B, along with additional questions in Part II, where each correct answer was awarded 5 points and incorrect answers received 0 points The overall score for the test was capped at 100 points.
In Test 2, Part I consisted of two questions in Section B, each scored as either 10 points for correct answers or 0 points for incorrect ones The five items in Section A and the remaining questions in Part II were evaluated with a scoring system of 5 points for correct responses and 0 points for incorrect ones The overall maximum score for the test was 100 points.
In Test 1, the written responses in part I (A) emphasized the clarity and relevance of main ideas over spelling accuracy, while Test 2's part I (B) similarly prioritized coherent sentence construction Despite the use of Right/Wrong credit for scoring the reading test, the focus remained on conveying appropriate and comprehensible ideas.
The study involved 45 grammatical structures, with two experienced English teachers independently grading all tests using provided answer keys Students scoring 50% or higher were classified as successful, while those scoring below 50% were categorized as unsuccessful.
In the current study, a 5-point Likert scale questionnaire was utilized to gather data on students' metacognitive strategy use, chosen for its efficiency in collecting substantial data This controlled format ensured all respondents answered the same questions and had identical response options, facilitating statistical analysis via Microsoft Excel The questionnaire was adapted from the Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI) by Mokhtari and Reichard (2002), which consists of thirty items designed to assess EFL adolescent and adult learners' awareness and perceived use of metacognitive strategies in reading academic texts Additionally, MARSI offers valuable insights for teachers regarding the types and frequency of reading strategies employed by students, making it well-suited for the research objectives Respondents indicated their strategy usage on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (never do) to 5 (always do), with completion time varying based on individual response.
10 to 12 minutes (for the questionnaire, please see appendix 1)
This study analyzed students' strategy use in language learning using a Likert scale from 1 to 5, categorizing usage into three levels: high (mean of 3.5 or higher), moderate (mean of 2.5 to 3.4), and low (mean of 2.4 or lower), as proposed by Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995).
The Pilot Study
3.4.1 Piloting the research study of the instruments
Before administering the modified MARSI questionnaire to 40 students of class 9B, adjustments were made to enhance its suitability for the research context The original MARSI was translated into Vietnamese to prevent language barriers that could lead to misunderstandings Additionally, the items were rearranged by category to improve clarity for the students In the revised version, items 1 to 13 focused on Global Reading Strategies, which are essential for conducting a comprehensive analysis of texts and preparing for reading activities Furthermore, when students encounter difficulties in understanding reading materials, strategies 14 through 18 are available to assist them.
The numbers 19, 20, 21, and 22 represent Problem-Solving Strategies that assist individuals in identifying and addressing challenges In contrast, the remaining items fall under the category of Support Reading Strategies, which offer external resources like dictionaries and reference materials to enhance reading comprehension and sustain engagement This distinction is highlighted by Mokhtari and Reichard.
(2002), these three types of strategies have an important effect on text
The present researcher collaborated with two colleagues to evaluate the instrument, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of its effectiveness Following this evaluation, the researcher analyzed the data to implement any necessary modifications before its official application.
Piloting the reading comprehension test
Prior to the implementation of the reading comprehension test in the main study, two experienced English teachers evaluated it for content, length, format, and instructional consistency To ensure its reliability and validity, the test was administered to 40 students from class 9B, who possessed a comparable level of English proficiency to the study participants.
3.4.2 Results of the pilot study
The pilot study's results indicated that the modified questionnaire effectively aligned with the research objectives, confirming its suitability for data collection in the main study Additionally, the piloted reading test was validated for use in the actual research, ensuring its relevance and reliability.
Data collection procedures
The study began after receiving approval from the school principal, involving two out of seven ninth-grade classes as participants.
Administering the reading test To compare the reading comprehension achievement within the participants both classes were tested for reading comprehension achievement
The questionnaire was administered to participants following their completion of the reading comprehension test After explaining the purpose of the questionnaire, the researcher instructed students to evaluate each item and indicate the frequency of their use of the described strategies on a 5-point Likert Scale, with responses ranging from 1 (never do).
Participants were instructed to focus solely on the strategies they employed while reading school-related materials, such as textbooks They were encouraged to provide honest ratings of these strategies and to seek clarification on any items they found confusing.
Statistical Methods
A descriptive analysis was made to explore the frequency of students‟ metacognitive strategy used when reading Particularly, the answers for the research questions would be measured as follows:
The researcher aimed to determine the extent of metacognitive strategies utilized by respondents by selecting five representative questions from a total of thirty in the questionnaire, allowing for the calculation of mean values and frequency of these strategies' usage.
- To check for the differences about the achievement when students use the metacognitive strategies base on the reading task scores, the test mean of the group was computed