INTRODUCTION
Study Background
Globalisation, as defined by Held et al (2007), refers to the expansion of social, political, and economic activities beyond borders, leading to interconnectedness where events in one region impact distant areas This phenomenon enhances global connectivity and cooperation among nations, necessitating the creation of a communication community that bridges diverse language barriers.
English has evolved into a global lingua franca, facilitating communication across international borders (Wright, 2000; Erling, 2004) It is increasingly recognized not as the property of any one nation, such as Britain or America, but as a versatile tool for local adaptation (Kachru, 1996; Jenkins, 2006) This evolution acknowledges the diverse social, historical, and cultural contexts that shape local varieties of English (Selinker, 1992; Modiano, 1999).
Globalization, driven by economic interests, has increased the necessity for English communication in international business settings This shift is evident in English language teaching (ELT) worldwide, where the focus has evolved from merely teaching the language to fostering communicative competence Learners are now equipped with essential skills required in the business context, such as making appointments, confirming plans, negotiating, and conducting effective meetings.
Prioritizing English language education in universities is essential to align with the demands of learners and employers This involves focusing on curriculum design and instructional development that incorporate authentic materials and robust teacher support Utilizing authentic materials enhances real communication skills in the language, ensuring that the learning experience is purposeful and meaningful.
2 tasks for language learning (Clarke, 1989; Trabelsi, 2010) Teacher support for teacher’s professional development (e.g designing materials, enhancing perception and practical knowledge of
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) plays a vital role in enhancing learners' communicative competence, as highlighted by Nunan (1990), Sato and Kleinsasser (1999), and Mangubhai et al (2004) This study aims to explore these concepts within the context of Vietnam.
My study was guided by the following research questions:
1 To what extent does English education at university fulfill the workplace requirements for
The two sub-questions of the first research questions are as follows:
- To what extent do graduates seem able to communicate in English to fulfill their work- related tasks?
- To what extent does English education at university provide the support they need?
2 To what extent is action research able to improve English education at a university in some way?
My research questions arise from hypotheses indicating a disconnect between university-level English education and the English proficiency required by graduates in the workplace, as noted by Vietnam National University (2008) and Vo (2004, 2007) Graduates face several challenges in effectively using English for communication in professional settings, according to findings from the Vietnam Business Association.
Despite attempts to transition from traditional to communicative teaching methods, university English education in Vietnam has not adequately addressed learner needs Investigating the role of English in the workplace and the teaching methods used at universities could help identify gaps that prevent graduates from meeting professional requirements Additionally, encouraging teachers to engage in reflective practices through action research may provide solutions to these challenges The following sections will explore these issues in detail.
A Historical Overview of English Teaching in Vietnam
Vietnam is among six Southeast Asian nations, including Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand, where English is taught as a Foreign Language (EFL) EFL refers to the use of English in countries without colonial ties to England or the United States, where it is not the native language This concept aligns with the idea of English as an international language, or English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), which encompasses various forms, including British and American English as models for learners.
English serves as a vital tool for intercultural communication, transcending national and linguistic boundaries (Jenkins, 2006; Verleysen, 2010) In Vietnam, English facilitates interactions among foreigners and locals, drawing from both British English in the North and American English in the South These models, however, diverge from standard English varieties, functioning instead as English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) for individuals who do not share a common native language or cultural background, particularly in business contexts (Vietnamese Business Associate and VNU-HCM, 2004).
In the 1980s, following the Vietnam War, English was introduced as a foreign language in secondary schools, alongside Russian and French, which were more popular among learners due to their extensive use prior to the conflict.
In the late 1990s, English emerged as a crucial international language in Vietnam, coinciding with the country's opening to the Western world This shift heightened the demand for English proficiency across various sectors, including education, business, and politics, as emphasized by the Vietnamese government's policies promoting English and internationalization (Vietnam Ministry of Education, 1990) Consequently, businesses from countries like Russia, France, China, and Korea began using English in their operations in Vietnam, leading to a significant increase in the number of English learners in the country (Ha, 2004; Hiep, 2005).
Since the late 20th century, the rise of economic growth has led to an increase in joint venture companies, particularly in Vietnam (Vietnam Business Associate, 2004) These businesses often require employees to possess language proficiency that enables them to communicate effectively and culturally appropriately for various business purposes (Johns & Dudley-Evans, 1991; Gatehouse).
Employers increasingly value employees who possess essential soft skills, such as teamwork, creativity, and effective communication These skills enable individuals to collaborate effectively, generate innovative ideas, and articulate their thoughts through various forms of communication, including report writing, phone conversations, and presentations (Andrews and Higson, 2001).
2008) These skills are considered as important factors shaping graduate employability.
Statement of the problem
The recognition of the importance of English communication as discussed above generated a need for Vietnamese authorities to reconsider how English was taught in schools and whether English
The Vietnamese Ministry of Education, along with various educational researchers, conducted multiple research projects to align education with the needs of businesses, focusing particularly on English teaching and learning in major cities The data collected from these initiatives highlights the effectiveness of these efforts in enhancing language skills to meet market demands.
In secondary and high schools, English instruction primarily focused on grammar-translation methods, emphasizing grammatical analysis and sentence translation (Tran, 1991; Ho, 2006) The main objective of English teaching was to prepare students for exams (Vu, 2006; Nguyen, 2007).
Many university students begin their studies with limited English language skills, especially in listening and speaking Their English programs often mirror those of high schools, emphasizing reading comprehension and grammar rather than practical communication abilities (Vo, 2004).
Despite completing English courses at universities, many graduates remain limited in their English proficiency They may be able to read specific materials in certain fields but struggle to grasp overall meanings in various contexts and often find it challenging to engage in basic communication.
37,8% of 12.214 graduates had limited English proficiency, creating difficulties for employers with vacancies to fill (Ha, 2007)
Vietnamese educators believe that university graduates lack sufficient English proficiency for effective real-life use According to Hymes (1972), knowing a language extends beyond grammatical and lexical rules; it requires communicative competence, which is the ability to use the language appropriately in social contexts This competence should also encompass intercultural communicative competence, enabling interaction with individuals from different cultures in a foreign language Acknowledging the importance of learners' social identities and cultural competence (Bryam, 1997), it is evident that Vietnamese students must prioritize communicative competence in their English education (Tran, 1991).
To address the need for effective English Language Teaching (ELT), it is essential to adopt approaches that emphasize meaningful interaction among learners and connect classroom language learning to real-life situations Incorporating authentic materials and communicative classroom activities enhances the learning experience, fostering better communication skills (Richards and Rogers, 2011).
Teaching (CLT) approach covers the above characteristics (Nunan, 1999; Richards 2006) Because of
5 this, the latter teaching approach has become a dominant theoretical model in Vietnam since the 1990s, with the goal of developing communicative competence for learners (Hiep, 2005)
While Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is widely advocated, its implementation in classroom settings can encounter challenges Authors such as Holliday (1994) and Sullivan (2000) suggest that CLT may be impractical or ineffective in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts due to notable socioeconomic and cultural disparities The following issues will be explored in detail.
In Vietnam, English functions as a foreign language (EFL), primarily taught in schools without serving as a medium of instruction or communication (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992, p.123-124) Conversely, English as a second language (ESL) is characterized by its use in everyday communication and educational settings.
The role of English for immigrants and minority groups in English-speaking countries varies significantly between ESL (English as a Second Language) and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) contexts In ESL settings, English is actively used both inside and outside the classroom, providing more opportunities for practice In contrast, EFL learners often have limited chances to engage with the language outside of academic environments Richards (1985) highlights that in EFL contexts, English is often a crucial subject in school, required for university entrance exams, and frequently used in course materials This distinction is essential for understanding teaching and learning dynamics, as noted by Ellis (1994), who emphasizes its impact on English acquisition Nam (2005) further illustrates these influences within her research in Korea, which shares similarities with the Vietnamese context explored in this study.
The motivations for learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) differ significantly from those for learning English as a Second Language (ESL) In EFL contexts, English is viewed primarily as a crucial academic subject, while in ESL environments, it often serves as a necessary tool for survival in business and education In my study, participants engaged with English as an academic discipline within their school curriculum.
ESL teachers are typically native English speakers, while EFL teachers are often non-native speakers who may have lower proficiency in English However, EFL teachers can utilize their learners' native language for instruction, which can enhance the learning experience.
In EFL, English teaching materials are usually provided in textbooks prescribed by the government or policy administrators, ESL teachers often have more freedom to choose or develop materials
Students in EFL settings have fewer chances to apply what they learn to communicative situations, especially with native speakers of English
Vietnamese teachers in public schools face heavy workloads and various contextual challenges, leading many to prefer traditional teaching methods in English classes for their time efficiency Research by Vu (2004) highlights the effectiveness of English training at the university level, particularly regarding Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) implementation Despite positive attitudes toward CLT among Vietnamese EFL teachers, discrepancies exist between their beliefs and actual classroom practices due to several obstacles.
Large class sizes and insufficient authentic materials hinder effective language learning, while limited opportunities for immersion in English-speaking environments further exacerbate the issue Additionally, inadequate school facilities for utilizing audio-visual resources and insufficient time to cover textbook content contribute to the challenges faced by students Furthermore, university exams that primarily emphasize reading skills do not adequately reflect comprehensive language proficiency (Vu, 2004, p.15).
Research indicates that teachers require support not only in knowledge and skills through professional development but also in having the time and freedom to perform their duties effectively In Vietnamese universities, English teachers are encouraged to attend annual professional workshops organized by Vietnam National University, where they learn to implement communicative language teaching principles However, the application of these principles post-training remains limited, largely due to contextual factors.
A significant constraint in English education innovation in Vietnam is the resistance of some teachers to change, particularly those who prefer traditional teaching methods and oppose Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) (Nguyen, 2004; Vo, 2007) These teachers prioritize grammatical knowledge over communicative competence, hindering the advancement of English teaching practices Therefore, it is essential to conduct studies that explore teachers’ awareness of CLT and their practical implementation of its principles.
Vietnamese learners of English learn English in an EFL context, the majority of Vietnamese enter university with low English proficiency, and particularly poor communication skills (Vo, 2004; Nguyen,
Innovations at the university of Information Technology (UIT) to which I contributed and
Since 2000, my experience as a research associate and English teacher has highlighted significant issues in English language education With over six years in academia, I observed that high school students entering universities often lacked motivation and preparation for listening and speaking in English, primarily due to a curriculum focused on grammar and vocabulary, neglecting practical skills (Vo, 2004; Nguyen Thu, 2007) Further research during my university teaching revealed that English programs primarily emphasized reading and grammar exercises, relying on outdated materials that had not changed in over a decade, which hindered students' development of essential listening and speaking skills (Vo, 2007).
In 2007, I had the opportunity to serve as an examining viva for a research project conducted by an experienced researcher, which focused on assessing the effectiveness of English training in higher education at universities in Ho Chi Minh City The findings of Vu's 2004 research highlighted the impact of English language education in this academic setting.
Training in higher education has proven to be inefficient, failing to meet industry demands, as highlighted by the Department of Information and Communication (Le, 2008), which reported that many university graduates still struggle with English proficiency Alarmingly, 77% of businesses find it necessary to retrain applicants in essential skills, including English These findings underscore the urgent need for innovative approaches to English training at universities This insight became particularly relevant when I was appointed as the manager of the English program at the University of Information Technology (UIT) in Vietnam, providing me with the opportunity to implement necessary changes.
The University of Information Technology (UIT), part of Vietnam National University in Ho Chi Minh City, was established in 2006, though its roots in English language education began earlier As the curriculum manager, I embraced the opportunity to develop an effective English training program that aligns with market demands, drawing on my teaching and research experience Collaborating with three dedicated teachers, we implemented innovative changes to refresh the English language curriculum, focusing on materials design and enhanced teacher support.
As a manager of the UIT English program, I revised the curriculum to focus on practical English communication skills while maintaining a balanced approach to the four essential skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing The goal was to enable learners to use English effectively rather than solely focusing on grammar and reading comprehension UIT students are required to complete eight credits in English, comprising four courses (English 1 to English 4), each worth two credits, which they must pass to graduate Compared to other universities, UIT allocates significantly more time for English studies, representing an innovative approach in higher education These courses are structured over four years for freshmen through juniors, with placement tests determining the level of English courses required, ensuring that students with lower proficiency take additional classes Notably, 75% of UIT students fall into the lower English proficiency levels, necessitating this comprehensive curriculum.
10 elementary level in English when they entered the university which made the goal of the English program became challenging
To achieve the goals of the English program at UIT, I encouraged teachers to adapt materials and implement effective teaching methods Recognizing that the selected textbooks were designed for an international audience, I urged educators to enhance these resources by contextualizing lessons and incorporating additional materials to better engage students Teachers were also invited to identify and edit sections of the course book that were not relevant to the Vietnamese context During the summer, UIT English teachers collaborated to create supplementary materials focused on pronunciation and grammar, aimed at helping students with lower English proficiency prepare for their courses This initiative was designed to improve their listening comprehension and speaking skills, utilizing more communicative teaching methods to effectively deliver the adapted content.
The adoption of a topical syllabus, as opposed to a traditional structural model, promotes the integration of authentic materials and supports flexible teaching methods This approach enhances the implementation of conversational English courses by fostering a more communicative and adaptable learning environment.
Despite some anecdotal positive feedback from teachers and students, the above innovations can be evaluated based on the situation rather than research This is explained in detail as below
Materials design focused on pronunciation practice books became my priority, as effective pronunciation is crucial for successful communication in English, aligning with the UIT curriculum's objectives Many students struggle with pronouncing English words and forming even short sentences This challenge is evident as even those at a pre-intermediate level often express fear of speaking and listening in English, citing pronunciation as their biggest hurdle Additionally, the pronunciation exercises in the course books are inadequate, as they fail to address the specific errors made by students who share the same native language.
2004) Furthermore, many learners (who formed the majority of freshmen in universities) lacked lexis
Supplementary materials focused on vocabulary and grammar were developed to enhance reading and writing skills, addressing barriers to effective communication This approach aligns with the curriculum's goal of covering all four language skills.
Teachers were equipped with specially designed materials, including CDs to demonstrate the movements of speech apparatus, enabling students to produce individual sounds They were also encouraged to incorporate DIY tasks, games, and group activities into their lessons This approach aimed to create opportunities for students to engage and communicate in English within the classroom.
My approach to the innovations discussed was shaped by my intuitive understanding of the problem and the development of communicative competence, as I lacked the opportunity for research at that time For instance, I did not have the chance to conduct real-life studies, such as observing Vietnamese workers using English in U.K restaurants or assessing how graduates apply their learned English in the workplace This hands-on experience would have provided valuable evidence for evaluating the effectiveness of the innovations Without undertaking this Doctoral research, I could not accurately assess the efficiency of the innovations.
Conducting research is essential for understanding the specific English language skills needed in the workplace This perspective aligns with the concept of language as discourse, particularly in the context of workplace communication, as highlighted by McCarthy and Carter.
In 1994, I recognized the need to enhance my evaluation skills regarding the effectiveness of materials used to develop learners' communicative competence To achieve this, I conducted research that accurately reflected my experiences This involved visiting companies to understand the English language requirements of graduates in the workplace, observing university practices to assess how these needs were being addressed, and making minor interventions to influence teachers and improve their English teaching methods.
Research design and ethical issues
This study primarily focuses on the characteristics of qualitative research Qualitative and interpretive methods were instrumental in exploring new connections and causal relationships, as well as identifying both external and internal influences and priorities within a specific social context (Dornyei).
2001, p.193) Moreover, this research design was appropriate to the study because qualitative research in second languages (L2) relies on field data such as observations recorded in field notes,
The study utilized 12 recorded interviews, both audio and video, along with authentic documents such as speech samples and written texts to analyze communicative behavior (Dornyei, 2001) Data collection involved observations, interviews, and surveys, ensuring the reliability of the research and validating the findings for accuracy while addressing potential biases in the research methods and the development of research instruments.
In my research, I aimed to integrate observation with interviews to utilize 'naturally occurring' data, which exists independently of the researcher (Silverman, 2001) To address analytic issues and maintain an in-depth focus on participants' activities in qualitative research (Silverman, 2005), I employed discourse analysis As Potter (1997) notes, discourse analysis examines language as a medium for social interaction, emphasizing that analyzing discourse is essentially understanding what individuals do Key concepts such as 'stake,' which discounts the significance of actions (Potter, 2004), and 'scripts,' which reveal how participants construct events (Edwards, 1997, cited in Silverman, 2005), facilitated my understanding of participants' identities and the significance of their actions I recognized texts, including emails, discussion transcripts, and interviews, as rich data sources and analyzed them through narrative analysis (Silverman, 2005) to enhance my understanding of the processes underlying these texts.
“depict reality rather than with whether such texts contain true or false statements” (Silverman, 2001, p.128)
1.5.2 My roles as an insider and the consideration of ethical issues
In my research, I served as an ideologically committed insider, striving for honesty and trustworthiness throughout all stages (Holliday, 2002) Insider research, as defined by Zeni (2001), involves qualitative studies conducted by educators aiming to enhance their own practices My role included mentoring teachers to adapt materials and activities to better align with learners' interests and needs I facilitated workshops and conducted non-participant supervisions based on Gebhard’s (1984) supervision models, aiming to raise teachers' awareness and attitudes towards Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) (Freeman, 1989) to improve their practices Although my intervention's scope was limited, my commitment as an ‘agent of change’ (Kennedy, 1996) was significant, as I believed that even minor contributions could lead to meaningful improvements (Wyatt, 2008).
13 take place through the interventions I did, the outcomes of the study can be ‘validated’ (Kvale, 1996; Wyatt, 2008)
Navigating the ethical complexities of insider research, particularly in my dual roles as researcher and mentor, posed significant challenges Emphasizing the importance of data accuracy and clarity, I recognized that the reliability of data is paramount in qualitative research (Holliday, 2002) According to Silverman (2005), reliability hinges on identifying existing patterns within the data, free from the researcher’s biases As a former program manager at UIT for five years, I had established trusting relationships with many teachers, which potentially minimized reactivity However, upon returning for classroom observations, I faced the challenge of teachers perceiving these observations as a form of directive supervision, which could lead to defensiveness in their teaching behaviors.
Teachers may hesitate to share their ideas, potentially compromising the validity of the research data (Gebhard, 1990) As an outsider during the company research phase, I faced challenges in obtaining information, as interviewees were concerned about how their data would be used (Myers & Newman, 2007) Ensuring that participants joined the research voluntarily and with a guarantee of confidentiality was crucial To facilitate this, I consulted various authors (e.g., Holliday, 2002; Wyatt, 2008) to understand the motivations for volunteering, such as a positive view of the researcher or a desire for personal growth Additionally, I was mindful of my role as an action researcher and aimed to maintain a balanced and neutral perspective, recognizing that my desire for change could influence my analysis but striving to avoid bias.
During my research observations at various companies and a university, I identified the need to address the conflicting values of group work This includes contrasting Western ideals centered on individuality, freedom, and choice with the perspectives prevalent in Asian countries like Vietnam.
(Sullivan, 2000) Vietnamese people emphasize mutual obligation among members of a group - collectivism (one’s face represents the faces of one group) rather than individualism due to the
Confucianism plays a crucial role in shaping the fundamental values of Vietnamese society, as highlighted by Nguyen Chi (2012), Scollon & Scollon (1994), and Sullivan (2000) This cultural framework contrasts with the objectives of group dynamics in Western contexts, such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) or teamwork in professional environments, where the emphasis is on encouraging individuals to voice their personal opinions.
In my research involving 14 countries, I emphasized the importance of being reflexive about my insider perspective and cultural values This awareness significantly shaped how I collected and analyzed data, ultimately enhancing my collaboration with participants throughout the research process.
Definitions of terms
The following terms have been defined to clarify their use in the current study:
Communicative competence is essential for language learners to communicate effectively in their target language, as outlined by Hymes (1972) This competence encompasses linguistic skills, including the understanding of sentence structure and tenses, alongside pragmatic abilities that facilitate appropriate language use in various contexts.
Effective communication, particularly in making requests and apologies, varies significantly across cultural contexts (Brumfit & Johnson, 1979; Bachman & Palmer, 1996; Richards & Rogers, 2001) Researchers like McCarthy & Carter (1995) and Gilmore (2007) highlight that traditional sentence-based grammars and pragmatic models found in textbooks often lack the naturalness and authenticity necessary for supporting learners at the discourse level This underscores the importance of 'discourse competence,' a vital aspect of communicative competence that focuses on the dynamic and interactive nature of language, enabling learners to manage conversations effectively (Gilmore, 2007).
Communicative competence can be supported through learning with authentic materials which focus on learning aims of the learners (Mishan, 2005; Gilmore, 2007)
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a methodology that emphasizes meaningful communication in a target language, encompassing various approaches (Nunan, 1999) It should be understood as a flexible approach that integrates past teaching methods and considers how educators interpret and apply CLT, often blending it with non-CLT elements (Hunter & Smith, 2012; Mangubhai et al., 2004).
Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is an instructional approach that centers on the use of tasks to guide planning and language instruction This method effectively fosters communication and encourages authentic language use in the classroom, making it a valuable strategy for language educators.
Authentic materials offer genuine language exposure, showcasing how language is used in real-life contexts This approach is designed to engage and motivate learners, aiding them in developing a diverse set of language skills.
According to Mishan (2005) and Tomlinson (2012), there are 15 communicative competences essential for effective communication The assessment of authenticity in materials should focus on their 'fitness for purpose' as highlighted by Hutchinson & Waters (1978) and McGrath (2013) This is particularly important in English-for-Specific-Purposes (ESP) contexts, where authentic materials play a crucial role in preparing learners to communicate effectively in specific work or study environments (Hall, 2011; Robinson, 2004).
Workplace discourse involves ‘spoken and written interaction occuring in a workplace setting'
Transactional aspect of the workplace refers to behaviours at the workplace which aim at getting things done and achieving outcomes (Schnurr, 2013, p.9)
The relational aspect of the workplace focuses on behaviors that foster interpersonal relationships and promote a positive work environment (Schnurr, 2013, p.9) Relational language plays a crucial role in achieving transactional goals and facilitating 'identity work,' similar to the functions of transactional conversations (Handford, 2010; Koester, 2010).
The structure of the study
This thesis is structured into five sections, with the first section dedicated to the introduction It provides an overview of the study's background and offers an in-depth examination of the context surrounding English education within higher education.
This study focuses on Vietnam and addresses key research questions through a structured analysis It includes a literature review, research methods, and data analysis The second section explores the English language skills necessary for the workplace and identifies factors that may hinder effective communication The third section evaluates English education at the university level, assessing the materials and teaching methods used to prepare students for workplace communication Finally, Section 4 discusses interventions designed to enhance teachers' self-awareness and improve their teaching practices.
This section presents an investigation into the changes resulting from the interventions The study concludes with two chapters: the first highlights the findings, while the second emphasizes the study's contributions.
UNDERSTANDING WHAT ENGLISH IS REQUIRED AT THE WORKPLACE
This section comprises three chapters aimed at elucidating the English language requirements in the workplace Chapter 2 examines prior research on different facets of workplace English usage Chapter 3 outlines the research methodologies employed for data collection across various companies Finally, Chapter 4 presents the findings derived from this investigation.
LITERATURE REVIEW - WORKPLACE DISCOURSE
Workplace genres
Bargiela-Chappini and Nickerson (1999) provide a comprehensive definition of genres as "relatively stable forms of communication" that evolve through communicative practices recognized by community members This concept of genre serves as a systematic framework for analyzing various professional discourse (Schnurr, 2013) Additionally, Bhatia (2004) seeks to consolidate the primary approaches to genre into a unified definition.
Genre analysis is the study of situated linguistic behaviour in institutionalized academic and professional settings, whether defined in terms of typification of rhetorical action, as in Miller
(1984), Bazerman (1994) and Berkenkotter and Hukin (1995), regularities of stages, goal- oriented processes, as in Martin, Christie and Rothery (1987), or consistency of communicative purposes, as in Swales (1990) and Bhatia (1993)
The main approaches to genre which are included in the above definition are: The rhetorical approach, following Swales’ definition, emphasizes privileging communicative purpose in identifying
The Hallidayan approach emphasizes the importance of structure in identifying genres, while the social-constructionist perspective focuses on how discourse communities utilize genres and the interrelations among them (Koester, 2010).
Genres in the workplace were developed from eight communicative genres proposed by Muller
(2006) and were grouped into three different macro genres by Koester (2006) in her corpus of
American and British office talk (ABOT) can be categorized into three main genres: unidirectional, collaborative, and non-transactional Unidirectional genres, such as procedural discourse, briefings, and service encounter reporting, focus on work-oriented interactions Collaborative genres involve decision-making and evaluations, emphasizing teamwork and cooperation In contrast, non-transactional genres, which include small talk and office gossip, address topics outside of work and engage in off-task discussions about work McCarthy (2000) further classifies office talk into four types: phatic exchanges (greetings and farewells), relational talk (small talk and shared interests), transactional-plus-relational talk (non-obligatory evaluations), and transactional talk (requests and instructions).
The ABOT corpus predominantly features decision-making and communication genres within meetings However, Koester (2010, p.28) does not categorize meetings as a distinct genre due to their diverse purposes, such as planning, reporting, and problem-solving Other scholars, including Bargiela-Chiappini and Harris (1997) and Handford, share similar views on this classification.
(2010) classify meetings as a genre because of the similarities in terms of structural features and practices and strategies shared by all meetings
The evolution of professional discourse genres has been significantly influenced by the rise of computer-mediated communication, resulting in the creation of new formats like email and fax Among these, email has emerged as a crucial and increasingly prevalent communication tool in the workplace, highlighting its importance in modern organizational interactions (Koester, 2010; Schnurr).
While some scholars, including Yates and Orlikowski (1992), classify email as a medium rather than a genre, others, like Flowerdew and Wang (2006), emphasize the continued significance of faxes and letters in various workplace communication contexts.
Although the boundaries between different genres remain vague and there are different ways in which specific genres can be realized, the kinds of genre, as Koester (2006) and Schnurr (2013)
In the workplace, the use of communication tools can differ significantly across various departments and groups This article focuses on two primary forms of interaction: meetings and emails, which play a crucial role in English communication within professional settings.
Meetings are often considered "the very stuff of work" (Holmes and Stubbe, 2003, p.56) and are a fundamental aspect of many workplaces (Schnurr, 2013) The definition of a meeting is complex, as it varies in form and purpose, encompassing everything from formal staff meetings to informal briefings, external meetings with clients, and public meetings among government committees (Schnurr, 2013) Additionally, meetings can occur in diverse locations, including conference rooms, corridors, by water coolers, coffee machines, during commutes, in airport lounges, or even at lunch in coffee shops (Scollon & Scollon, 2002).
Previous studies on business meeting genres have identified a three-stage structure, consisting of an opening, agenda discussion, and closing (Bargiela-Chiappini and Harris, 1997; Holmes and Stubbe, 2003).
In 2010, Handford introduced a comprehensive framework for meetings that incorporates essential stages, including pre-1 (meeting preparation) and pre-2 (pre-meeting), along with the obligatory elements and post-meeting effects, emphasizing the importance of these phases in effective meeting management.
According to Handford (2010), the structure of meetings often appears chaotic as participants engage in various practices beyond the basic structural stages to achieve their personal and corporate objectives This involves activating specific elements of meeting genres, such as different methods for concluding discussions Handford’s analysis of the six-stage meeting structure is informed by McCarthy’s (1998) work on four strands of linguistic behavior found in spontaneous spoken genres These strands include expectations (like setting the agenda and opening the meeting), formulations (such as summarizing progress and seeking clarification), recollections (orienting to past and related events), and instantiations (operationalizing topic shifts and managing the flow of discussion).
Among the four meeting practices, instantiations are the most challenging to identify yet crucial for genre creation They can be oriented towards transactions, relationships, or both, highlighting their significance in effective communication (Handford, 2010, p.77).
Handford (2010) emphasizes the significance of understanding the "probabilistic" nature of genres and their linguistic features in the context of business meetings These meetings, whether internal or external, are interconnected and form a cohesive meeting genre characterized by specific lexico-grammatical features and practices For example, a meeting extract may illustrate various discursive practices, such as the transition from one topic to another, where the managing director reclaims the floor to continue the discussion.
In meetings, specific lexico-grammatical features, such as the use of discourse markers like "okay" and the imperative "get," play a significant role in shaping communication These elements can reflect interpersonal dynamics through repetitions, hesitations, and modal verbs like "need" and "can." As Handford (2010) notes, while not every meeting will exhibit the same linguistic characteristics, common lexico-grammatical units often align with distinct discursive practices For instance, phrases like "in other words" and "so I think" serve to summarize discussions, highlighting the practice of formulations that is crucial to the meeting genre This summarization indicates that participants are actively engaging in the genre, reinforcing their involvement in the communicative process.
Email, a crucial aspect of workplace communication, has evolved significantly over the past two decades within the realm of computer-mediated communication (CMC), which encompasses various forms of digital interaction, including text-based formats like instant messaging and discussion groups Research indicates two primary theories regarding the origins of email: one suggests it evolved from written memos, while the other posits it was influenced by telephone conversations to meet the demands of modern business communication across time zones Overall, studies agree that email is shaped by both written and spoken communication genres.
Transactional and relational aspects
Transactional interactions focus on achieving specific outcomes through explicit behaviors, while relational interactions emphasize building interpersonal relationships and fostering a positive work environment (Schnurr, 2013) The differentiation between transactional and relational communication in the workplace remains a topic of debate among researchers (Holmes, 2000; McCarthy, 2000; Koester, 2006).
Handford (2010) highlights the complexity of distinguishing between relational and transactional language, particularly regarding goals In professional settings, even the most transactional speech can incorporate relational elements, as seen in business meetings where speakers use relational language while focusing on transactional objectives (McCarthy, 2000) Conversely, casual conversations typically prioritize relational goals, though this does not always align neatly with the language used (Handford, 2010) As Handford notes, relational language, such as discussing football, can serve transactional purposes, like encouraging client loyalty (p.29) This perspective aligns with Koester's (2006) assertion that relational talk facilitates identity negotiation in the workplace For instance, small talk, including humor, can strengthen relationships among colleagues by transcending mere transactional interactions (Koester, 2010) A plate maker's joke about being a "joke supplier" exemplifies how humor fosters rapport beyond transactional dialogue Additionally, small talk can help navigate power imbalances, allowing managers to adopt a more approachable identity and ease potential tensions in hierarchical relationships (Koester, 2010, p.102-3).
In various business contexts, some companies prioritize a relational culture by engaging personally with individual customers and steering clear of automated answering systems (Handford, 2010).
In transactional conversations, participants often reinforce the relational context, as highlighted by McCathy (2000) Relational discussions frequently occur at the beginning of meetings, which are primarily transactional in nature Research by Boden (2004, cited in Handford, 2010) shows that both transactional and relational talks play significant roles and can be analyzed as 'identity work,' where professional identities are negotiated through non-task-related dialogue Relational language can effectively support transactional objectives, such as encouraging customer loyalty or easing interlocutors during topic shifts (Handford, 2010) Thus, examining both types of talk in terms of identity work may prove more beneficial than attempting to separate them (Koester, 2010).
Directives in transactional aspects
In the business environment, decision making is a crucial collaborative task, while procedural discourse, which includes instructions and explanations, is a key activity in workplace contexts This type of discourse features a dominant speaker guiding an addressee on how to perform tasks (Koester, 2006) Within the ABOT corpus, two sub-genres of procedural discourse are identified: general instructions that explain procedures and specific directives that relate to particular instances Directives play a significant role in instructional encounters and are also present in other contexts, such as decision-making (Koester, 2006, 2010).
Studies of directives such as Holmes and Stubbe (2003), Vine (2004), Bilbow (1997) show that there are a variety of realizations for directives from imperatives, to models of obligation (e.g., ‘have to’,
‘need to’, through to more indirect requests (e.g., using epistemic modals, such as ‘would’ and
Research indicates that various factors impact the formulation of directives or requests in the workplace, including institutional context, task mode (routine versus non-routine), and social, ethnic, and cultural influences Among these, power dynamics and politeness are identified as key elements that shape communication strategies, particularly in fostering relational goals (Holmes and Stubbe, 2003; Harries, 2003).
Politeness theory, as proposed by Brown and Levinson (1978), highlights that communicative acts can threaten the "positive" or "negative" face of individuals "Positive face" relates to one's self-image and self-worth, while "negative face" pertains to autonomy and freedom of action To prevent face-threatening acts, speakers must employ politeness strategies For instance, when emailing an academic for course information, using formal language like "Dear" and "I’d like…" is essential to respect the addressee's face needs Research indicates that even powerful speakers utilize these strategies to cultivate positive relationships with others (Pufahl Bax, 1986; Vine, 2004).
“control acts” (directives, direct and advice) are defined to be mitigated either “internally” or
Internal mitigation in directives is achieved through the choice of language, such as using modal verbs instead of imperatives, while external mitigation involves discourse strategies used before or after the directive Research from the ABOT corpus (Koester, 2006) highlights that lexico-grammatical choices, particularly influenced by genre, are crucial in formulating directives The study analyzed various "interpersonal markers" across genres, including modal verbs, vague language, hedges, intensifiers, and idioms.
A corpus analysis by Koester (2006) revealed that modal verbs are most frequently used in procedural discourse, with 'want to' indicating desire or inclination being the most common In contrast, modal verbs expressing stronger obligation, such as 'need to' and 'have to', were the least frequent Additionally, interpersonal markers like hedges (e.g., 'just', 'like') and vague language (e.g., 'things', 'stuff') also appeared frequently in this type of discourse.
‘something’) The corpus analysis also shows that interactions involving directives and instructions seem to avoid direct forms and preferred more indirect or mitigated alternatives
Procedural discourse and decision-making are prevalent in workplace communication, with procedural discourse being unidirectional and dominated by one participant, while decision-making is collaborative, involving equal roles among speakers (Koester, 2010) In procedural discourse, deontic modals appear with above-average frequency; however, less forceful modals like 'have to', 'need to', and 'should' are used less frequently compared to decision-making contexts, where 'want to' is more common.
24 and vague language were very infrequent in both procedural discourse and in the corpus as the whole
Koester (2006, 2010) identifies requesting action as a unidirectional genre closely related to directives, both aimed at prompting the addressee to perform an action Requests typically arise in requesting encounters, while directives are found in procedural contexts The ABOT corpus reveals that both directives and requests vary in intensity, ranging from imperatives to modals These forms include bald imperatives (e.g., "ask her"), "you" imperatives (e.g., "you do"), and softened imperatives (e.g., "just email me the names"), as well as modal verbs such as mustn't, have to, should, and can, among others (Koester 2010, p.78).
The analysis highlights the significance of politeness in reducing face-threatening situations within procedural discourse, particularly focusing on the politeness and solidarity strategies utilized in the workplace, which will be further examined in the following section.
Politeness strategies in the workplace
Brown and Levinson's 1987 theory of politeness, recognized as one of the most influential frameworks (Schnurr, 2013), identifies two types of face: positive and negative These faces can be compromised by face-threatening acts (FTAs) in communication To mitigate these threats, speakers often employ various politeness strategies Specifically, actions like disapproval, criticism, and complaints are seen as threats to the addressee's positive face, while requests and warnings endanger the receiver's negative face Additionally, admitting personal faults, such as through apologies, threatens the speaker's positive face, whereas expressions of gratitude and acceptance can infringe upon the speaker's negative face.
Different politeness strategies are utilized by speakers to mitigate the face-threats associated with face-threatening acts (FTAs) (Schnurr, 2013, p.94) These strategies provide speakers with various options for addressing FTAs Initially, speakers must choose whether to perform the FTA or avoid it altogether If they opt to proceed, they can choose to express it "on record" or "off record," with the latter allowing for more implicit communication, such as implying a need by stating, "It is cold in here."
When making a face-threatening act (FTA), speakers can choose to either directly state their request or soften it using politeness strategies They may express the FTA bluntly, such as saying, "You need to write the report again," or they can use positive politeness, which focuses on affirming the listener's self-image and fostering solidarity Positive politeness is proactive, requiring speakers to engage in actions that enhance mutual respect Conversely, negative politeness is more about avoidance, where speakers take care not to impose on each other, thereby preserving each other's autonomy (Brown and Levinson, 1987).
Brown and Levinson’s politeness theory has faced significant criticism for its Western bias and inability to accurately reflect Asian interpretations of politeness (Fraser, 2005) Research in Asian contexts highlights challenges to various elements of this theory, particularly regarding the concept of negative face For instance, a Chinese delegation felt slighted by a British chairman's failure to acknowledge their importance, suggesting a threat to their positive face rather than negative face This incident illustrates that feelings of being undervalued as a group can differ significantly from personal offense, indicating that Western notions of face do not translate well to Asian cultures (Schnurr, 2013) In cultures like Vietnam, where collectivism prevails, the emphasis on negative face is diminished, and the use of honorifics, such as "cac anh chi" (plural form of "you") and "chung ta" (meaning "we"), further illustrates the complexities of politeness across different languages (Nguyen Chi).
2012), which is seen as an acknowledgement of interlocutors’ sociocultural relationships rather than an expression of negative politeness
In Vietnamese conversations, two prominent politeness systems are hierarchy and solidarity, as identified by Scollon and Scollon (1995) Hierarchical politeness emphasizes the recognition and respect for social differences, placing one participant in a superior role and the other in a subordinate role Conversely, solidarity, or positive politeness, involves participants expressing mutual interest and approval towards each other, fostering a sense of connection and camaraderie (Holmes, 2001).
Relational talk and humour
Koester (2004, 2006) proposes four levels of relational talk:
Non-transactional conversations: office gossip and small talk
Phatic communion: small talk at the beginning or end of transactional encounters
Relational episode: small talk or office gossip occurring during the performance of a transactional talk
Relational sequences and turns: non-obligatory task-related talk with a relational focus
Research indicates that relational talk, such as small talk, plays a crucial role in the workplace by facilitating various forms of face work, including establishing solidarity and politeness, as well as demonstrating collegiality and power dynamics Key functions of this type of communication include relationship building and identity work, which are essential for fostering a positive work environment.
Relationship building is prominently illustrated through phatic communion, which reflects the shared understanding and consensus developed over repeated interactions between individuals This ongoing communication serves as the foundation of their relationship, highlighting its essential nature.
Relational talk plays a crucial role in identity work, including identity negotiation and the establishment of institutional identities For instance, a plate supplier can utilize humor, such as jokingly calling themselves a "joke supplier," to foster a deeper relationship with their partner beyond mere transactions In scenarios characterized by asymmetrical relationships, like those between a manager and subordinate, negotiating more balanced identities can involve the use of metaphors, such as "clogged orders," delivered in a humorous context This approach can evoke laughter and repetition, effectively lightening the atmosphere of meetings that may initially feel tense, especially when addressing concerns like declining sales.
Holmes (2006) makes a similar point when she discusses that small talk at work serves the function of instituting and fostering workplace relationships It is used for creating a team which brings
“opportunities for collaboration and cooperation, and facilitating productive interaction” (p.87) In terms of how people actually put relational language into practice at the workplace, the term
“relational practice” is used to refer to “the ability to work effectively with others, understanding the
Relational practice in the workplace, originally viewed as a feminine trait (Fletcher, 1999; Fishman, 1977), is now recognized by Holmes (2006) as a behavior exhibited by both men and women She posits that relational practice can manifest through traditionally masculine styles of interaction, highlighting the presence of masculine forms of small talk and humor in professional settings.
Numerous studies highlight that humor plays a significant role in workplace relationships (Collinson, 1988; Holmes, 2000, 2006; Holmes and Marra, 2002) Various forms of humor, such as personal anecdotes, wordplay, teasing, and self-deprecation, have been analyzed in both social and professional contexts Holmes and Marra (2002) and Holmes (2006) categorize humor into two distinct types: supportive humor, which agrees with or builds on previous contributions, and contestive humor, which challenges or disagrees with earlier statements.
Style of humour: collaboratively constructed humour versus competitive humour (i.e tightly integrated contributions versus loosely linked one-off quips)
A range of functions of humour has been found to overlap to a great extent with those of relational talk, they are solidarity, relationship-building, identity functions and power (Hay, 2000; Holmes,
Research has explored the role of humor in workplace dynamics, revealing notable differences in how men and women utilize humor For example, Coates highlights these distinctions, indicating that gender influences humor styles and their impact in professional environments.
Research by Holmes (2006) and others indicates that women often use supportive humor that reinforces each other's ideas, reflecting a collaborative communication style In contrast, men are more likely to employ contestive humor in workplace interactions This distinction highlights the different ways gender influences humor and communication in professional settings, leading to a deeper exploration of gender dynamics in leadership discourse.
Gender and leadership talk at work
Research in countries like New Zealand and the U.K has shown that gender significantly affects workplace dynamics, particularly in professional communication (Schnurr, 2013) Gender norms subtly influence behavior and its interpretation (Holmes, 2006) Two key ways gender impacts workplace interactions are through the use of gendered speech styles and the presence of specific gendered discourses.
In Holmes’ 2000 summary of features often associated with feminine and masculine interactional styles, a masculine speech style is identified as direct, aggressive and confrontational aspects
Outcome-oriented communication, as opposed to relationally oriented interaction, is characterized by the use of competitive and confrontational strategies, alongside frequent interruptions This approach highlights the linguistic expressions that prioritize results over relationships (Schnurr, 2013; Holmes & Stubbe, 2003; Holmes, 2006; Case, 1988).
A feminine interactional style emphasizes process-oriented communication, characterized by indirectness, collaboration, and supportive feedback This approach is linguistically manifested through the collaborative construction of dialogue and the frequent use of both negative and positive politeness features.
Holmes (2006) identifies linguistic forms like imperatives and need statements as indicators of a traditionally masculine style of instruction, exemplified by phrases such as "check that out" and "I need these by ten." In contrast, traditionally feminine communication tends to employ less direct approaches, utilizing interrogative forms (e.g., "I wonder if you could find that number for me") and modal verbs (e.g., "We might need some more help") Additionally, this style incorporates hedges, such as "perhaps" and "probably," to soften requests (e.g., "Perhaps you could bring me that file now").
Gendered discourses encompass the assumptions made about men and women, dictating appropriate behaviors and communication styles (Schnurr, 2013) Mullany (2007) highlights various gendered discourses within workplace settings, such as the discourse of gender difference, female emotionality, and femininities Her research on male and female managers in retail and manufacturing revealed that women are often judged differently than their male counterparts, with male employees expressing a preference for male leadership due to perceptions of women's emotionality and femininity (p.205; p.186) Additionally, Koller (2004, as cited in Schnurr, 2013) emphasizes the significance of gendered discourses in metaphors, noting that phrases like "business is war" are predominantly used by male business professionals, thereby shaping and reinforcing the business environment.
29 masculine domain, and reflects and reinforces the hegemonic masculinity of business discourse” (Shnurr, 2013, p.141)
Leadership is inherently gendered, often exhibiting a male bias in professional settings (Holmes, 2006; Schnurr, 2013) Gender significantly influences leadership performance, as evidenced by various studies highlighting the masculine nature of workplaces (e.g., Schurr, 2009) However, it is important to recognize the interplay between masculine and feminine structures in daily workplace interactions This perspective shifts the focus to leadership discourse, examining how leadership is articulated and enacted through language.
Leadership is a multifaceted concept defined by various traits, behaviors, and interactions, as highlighted by Yukl (2002) Scholars, including Schnurr (2013), emphasize that leadership should be viewed as a dynamic process rather than a mere position of authority This perspective underscores the importance of both transactional objectives and relational behaviors in effective leadership Leaders often blend these two aspects, using their discourse to influence organizational goals while fostering group cohesion According to Schnurr (2013), this discursive performance is crucial for achieving both transactional outcomes and maintaining relational harmony within teams.
The means of communicating leadership are influenced by various contextual factors, including the specific working group dynamics, which encompass the discursive norms during interactions such as formal meetings, one-on-one discussions, emails, internal memos, phone calls, and video conferences Additionally, the workplace culture, the broader societal culture, and the enactment of gender roles within the workplace play significant roles in shaping leadership communication (Hichman, 1998; Ford, 2005; Schnurr, 2009).
Holmes (2006) aligns with Schnurr (2013) in highlighting that the expression of directives is significantly influenced by contextual factors Her analysis reveals that in formal settings, such as meetings, imperatives tend to reflect authoritative and masculine leadership styles, while in informal contexts among familiar participants, this dynamic shifts Notably, both authors indicate that direct imperative forms and need statements can be employed without conveying a masculine or authoritative tone, particularly when they are modified by surrounding utterances.
(reasons or explanations) which have the effect of softening them.
Summary
This study analyzes workplace discourse by examining various communicative genres, focusing on the prevalent interactions of meetings and emails Transactional genres, particularly decision-making and procedural discourse, are the most common in workplace settings, highlighting the significance of directives that provide instructions or explain procedures (Koester, 2010) Politeness strategies play a crucial role in these interactions, emphasizing the importance of relationship-building alongside task completion Additionally, relational talk and humor are essential for fostering connections and shaping identities among colleagues The chapter also addresses the impact of gender and leadership on workplace interactions, exploring how these factors influence communication dynamics among participants in their daily engagements.
Research in workplace discourse reveals significant differences between the language and communication practices used in real-world settings and those typically presented in textbooks (Koester, 2010) Various studies highlight these discrepancies, with William (1988) noting that only seven out of 135 expressions featured in a textbook were actually utilized in meetings This underscores the need for more accurate teaching materials that reflect authentic workplace communication.
Research by Cheng and Warren (2005) indicates that strategies for agreement and disagreement in meetings are often more indirect than those presented in traditional textbooks Additionally, studies such as Charles & Charles (1999, as cited in Koester, 2010) advocate for language teaching materials to reflect real meeting scenarios, focusing on essential business communication skills like openings, closings, and politeness strategies in international contexts The findings highlight the importance of integrating key elements, such as workplace genres and interpersonal skills, into teaching materials, which are often overlooked Koester (2010) emphasizes that research in workplace discourse can inform the development of teaching resources, suggesting a need for attention to both written and spoken communication, as well as computer-mediated interactions and intercultural communication.
This article revisits the hypothesis from chapter 1 regarding the disparity between university-level English education and the English language requirements of graduates in the Vietnamese workplace It posits that university English programs may inadequately prepare students for real-world communication, particularly in essential areas such as relational talk and politeness strategies, which are often overlooked in standard curricula This highlights the necessity for a deeper understanding of English usage in professional settings Consequently, the focus will be on examining how Vietnamese graduates navigate English communication to meet job demands and whether their university education adequately supports these needs Further analysis of these issues will be presented in the subsequent chapters.