BODY CHAPTER 1 NOTIONS OF IDIOMS AND METAPHORS IN LANGUAGE STUDY 1 A general view of idioms 3
Definition of idioms 3
Idioms are phrases or sentences in a language whose meanings are not easily understood, even when the individual words are known These expressions often consist of idiomatic constructions that convey meanings distinct from their literal interpretations Various linguists have provided definitions to capture the essence of idioms.
Idioms are phrases in which the combined meaning differs from the meanings of the individual words, as defined by the English Language Dictionary.
According to the Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, an idiom is defined as a cohesive expression that operates as a single unit, with a meaning that cannot be deduced from its individual components.
As defined in English Idioms (23; 13), “an idiom is a number of words which, when taken together, have different meaning from the individual meanings of each word”
An idiom is a fixed expression whose meaning cannot be deduced from the individual words, a perspective widely accepted by linguists This definition highlights the metaphorical nature of idioms, as their meanings often transcend literal interpretations, exemplified by phrases like "sweet as honey."
‘as black as pitch’) or completely (e.g ‘to have one heart in someone’s boots’) different from the meaning of all components.
Classifications of idioms 3
Idioms are abundant and require effective classification for learners Various linguists have proposed different methods of categorizing idioms based on factors such as motivation, subject matter, and usage However, this paper will concentrate specifically on the classification of idioms according to their semantic features, as this approach significantly influences the core aspects of the study presented in Chapter 2.
According to V.V Vingradov Vingradov (26; website), idioms include three kinds:
1) Phraseological fusions: are completely non-motivated idioms with fixed form
Completely idiomatic expressions have meanings that are indivisible and cannot be deduced from their individual components For example, the phrase "beat about the bush" combines the literal meanings of "beat," which refers to hitting something repeatedly, and "bush," a type of plant However, its idiomatic meaning signifies discussing a topic without addressing the main point directly.
2) Phraseological unities: These idioms are the same as the first kind in term of that its idiomatic meaning is not the sum of the meaning of its components The difference, however, is that they can be guessed based on their components‟ meaning Eg: ‘give someone a green light’ can be guessed as „to give someone permission to someone start‟
3) Phraseological combinations: are clearly motivated idioms They contain one component used in its direct meaning, and the others‟ meanings change In Phraseological combinations, words being changed are main one Eg: ‘a black
Distinctions between idioms and free – expressions 4
meaning of the word „black‟ is being changed So, the idiom means „A look that express angry‟
1.3 Distinction between idioms and free-expressions
Both idioms and free-expressions are groups of more than two words combined with each other to a definite syntactic rule
In terms of meaning, idioms differ from free-expressions The meaning of a free expression is the total of the meaning of its components For instance, this phrase
A "good book" combines the concepts of "book" and "good," highlighting the book's quality This illustrates how free expressions can serve a compounding naming function, linking an object with a quality (e.g., a free atmosphere) or an action with a state (e.g., to work hard) In contrast, idioms possess an indivisible meaning that cannot be broken down into their individual components, functioning purely as names rather than compounds Many idioms can be succinctly replaced by single words; for example, "hand over head" can be substituted with "easy."
Idioms are fixed expressions stored in the minds of native speakers and used in conversation, while free expressions are spontaneous phrases crafted by speakers to convey their communication intentions.
Distinction between idioms and proverbs 5
Idioms and proverbs are fixed expressions with stable components that cannot be altered Their meanings are not derived from the individual words but must be comprehended as complete units.
Idioms and proverbs often convey meanings that are non-literal and figurative, making it difficult to discern their significance by simply examining individual words in a dictionary Understanding these expressions requires a metaphorical approach, as their traditional meanings are not always apparent.
At the meeting, I felt a bit out of my depth
A cat may look at the King
The idiomatic expression "out of my depth" signifies being in a situation that is beyond one's understanding or expertise, rather than its literal interpretation It often implies feeling overwhelmed or lost in unfamiliar circumstances Similarly, the proverb, which can be translated literally into Vietnamese as “chú mèo nhỏ cũng dám ngó mặt vua,” metaphorically suggests that naive individuals may not recognize the challenges or dangers they face.
The primary distinction between idioms and proverbs is grammatical structure Idioms are set expressions that are not complete sentences but are readily understood by native speakers, such as "black sheep," "to eat like a horse," or "on its last legs." In contrast, proverbs are fully formed sentences that convey complete ideas and are often derived from idioms.
The idiom "Don't put all your eggs in one basket" emphasizes the importance of diversifying your investments and not risking everything on a single plan This phrase serves as a reminder that relying solely on one venture, such as investing all your money in a single business, can lead to significant losses To mitigate risk and ensure greater security, it is essential to spread your resources across multiple opportunities.
Idioms and proverbs serve distinct functions in language; idioms primarily function as naming tools that convey specific concepts, while proverbs communicate truths about everyday experiences in a concise manner Proverbs often provide advice, warnings, or general observations about various situations, making them valuable for conveying wisdom in a few words.
Characteristics of idioms 6
The complexity of idioms lies in their unique meanings, which V.V Vinogradov describes as a "special chemical mixture" of all their components Idioms are inherently metaphorical, often containing vivid imagery that doesn't directly relate to their literal interpretation For instance, the phrase "to have a bee in one’s bonnet" signifies an obsession with an idea, despite its words having no direct connection to bees or bonnets As such, idioms must be understood metaphorically, and their meanings can be categorized into three types: clear meanings, meanings that can be inferred, and meanings that remain elusive.
Idioms are rich in meaning and can convey a wide range of nuances They can express positive sentiments, such as "a willing horse," which signifies a keen worker, or neutral connotations like "in harness," meaning simply to be working Conversely, some idioms carry negative implications, exemplified by the phrase "die a dog's death," which refers to experiencing a miserable end.
All idioms are very flexible in terms of grammar
Idioms vary significantly in length, ranging from two-word phrases like "a black sheep" to longer expressions that consist of several words.
Idioms often convey deeper meanings, such as "to show someone’s white feather," which indicates revealing someone's fear or cowardice, and "to be out of the red," meaning to have paid off debt Occasionally, idioms can be longer phrases, like "A black hen lays a white egg," suggesting that something good may not have an appealing appearance, or "a red sky at night is a shepherd’s delight," which implies favorable weather ahead.
Most idioms in English follow regular grammatical structures, where the overall meaning differs from the individual words, yet they maintain a coherent order For instance, "to get even with" follows a verb-complement structure, while "to bleed somebody white" utilizes a verb-object-complement format However, some idioms exhibit irregular or incorrect grammatical forms; for example, "I am good friends with him" would be better expressed as "I'm good friend with him." Additionally, the idiom "to be at large" demonstrates a unique structure of verb-preposition-adjective, which is typically not accepted in standard English, as adjectives usually do not follow prepositions Nevertheless, such structures are permissible within idiomatic expressions.
Another feature of idioms‟ grammatical flexibility is their degree of fixity Idioms can be fixed or non-fixed
Idioms consist of fixed components that cannot be altered or substituted, unlike literal expressions For instance, the idiom "to go all out to do something" signifies making a significant effort to achieve a goal, with each element of the phrase remaining constant and irreplaceable.
Idioms are flexible expressions that permit a wide variety of word combinations, such as "to be/to feel blue" and "to have/sing the blues." Despite their different forms, all these phrases convey a common meaning of sadness, depression, or gloominess.
A general view of metaphors 7
Metaphors are powerful tools that enhance clarity and vividness in writing and speech, making them a popular feature across many languages The study of metaphors can feel daunting, as scholars strive to grasp their nature and formation Linguists have extensively explored this topic, yet the abundance of theories surrounding metaphors often raises concerns among both researchers and those hesitant to engage with the subject Despite the variety of perspectives, a common definition of metaphors is widely accepted within the linguistic community, with each linguist offering their unique interpretation.
Aristotle's Poetics defines metaphor as the act of assigning a name from one entity to another, with the transfer occurring in various ways: from genus to species, species to genus, species to species, or based on analogy.
A metaphor is defined as a transfer of names that relies on the association of similarity, serving as a hidden comparison This literary device describes one thing by likening it to another, effectively drawing parallels between different concepts.
According to the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, a metaphor is an imaginative way of using words or phrases to describe someone or something as if it were another object, highlighting their shared qualities and enhancing the impact of the description.
Metaphor is perceived differently across various periods and fields of work This paper adopts the perspective that metaphor involves the transfer of meaning from one object to another, grounded in the similarities shared between them.
For example, when one says “John is a snake” one does not mean a snake is named „John‟ or literally John is a snake What he means is a dangerous and hidden person
2.2 The embodied motivation for metaphors in thought and language
Understanding the complex motivations behind why people think metaphorically and frequently use metaphors is essential Metaphors serve not only as a communication tool but also play a crucial role in discussing abstract concepts and ordinary experiences The traditional view that metaphors are solely for communication has evolved; scholars now acknowledge their significance in problem-solving, memory, and creativity Kopp, B.M (15; website) highlights the reasons behind the use of metaphors, illustrating their importance in conveying complex ideas effectively.
Metaphors invigorate everyday language, transforming familiar words and phrases into vibrant expressions As individuals frequently rely on the same language patterns, they often lose sight of their true meanings This highlights the ability of people to turn the mundane into the extraordinary, making life more engaging and thought-provoking.
Metaphors enrich the experience for readers and listeners by inviting interpretation When faced with phrases or words that defy literal meaning, they are encouraged to engage their imagination, resulting in a rewarding process of understanding.
- Thirdly, metaphors are more efficient and economical than ordinary language They give maximum meaning with a minimum of words For example, by writing
Living in my dorm feels like being confined in a prison; I often feel isolated and deprived of life's simple joys The dim lighting and cramped space contribute to a sense of confinement, leaving me longing for more freedom and comfort There are countless aspects of dorm life that add to this feeling, each one highlighting the challenges of such a limited environment.
Metaphors are essential for conveying complex emotions and experiences that lack straightforward language For example, a child might describe a star as "the lamp in the sky" when they don't know the word for it, illustrating how metaphors help us express thoughts and feelings in nuanced ways.
- Last but not the least, metaphors are a sign of genius or so says Aristotle (4;174) in Poetics “The greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphors”
Metaphors are essential tools for understanding complex concepts, as they offer a natural and meaningful way to create asymmetrical mappings This embodied motivation highlights the necessity of metaphors beyond mere decoration, illustrating their role in enhancing comprehension.
2.3 Distinction between metaphor and metonymy
We can see that both metaphor and metonymy are also the transference of names
For instance, As a metaphor: He is really a fox
As a metonymy: He is always running after the skirt
In language, the term "fox" often symbolizes cunning or cleverness when referring to a person, illustrating a transfer of meaning from the animal to human characteristics Similarly, "the skirt" conveys a broader significance by representing femininity, extending the meaning from a clothing item to encompass women or girls.
A very convenient way of distinguishing the two kinds of tropes is to apply the
The 'is like' test reveals that figurative statements of the form "X is like Y" gain significance when X and Y originate from different conceptual domains Such non-literal comparisons are metaphorical if they convey meaning, while they are classified as metonymic otherwise Metonymy involves the transfer of meaning between objects based on their contiguity, whereas metaphor relies on similarities For instance, in the phrase "This farm needs 20 hands," the term "hand" symbolizes workers due to its association with labor, illustrating metonymy since there is no inherent similarity between "hand" and "workmen." Conversely, "hand of the clock" exemplifies metaphor, as both terms share a functional similarity in pointing.
2.4 Distinction between metaphor and simile
The most common figures of speech take the form of comparisons, and the two items that are discussed in such a small study are metaphor and simile
It can be said that simile and metaphor are more alike than different
He was as brave as a lion (simile) (1)
He was a lion in the battle (metaphor) (2)
Bravery in a man is often likened to the strength of a lion, exemplified by the phrase “He was a lion in the battle,” which highlights exceptional courage Both metaphors and similes create comparisons between seemingly unrelated concepts, emphasizing their significant similarities in the context of valor.
Metaphors and similes are both forms of comparison, but they differ in their approach; metaphors make direct or implicit comparisons, while similes use explicit comparisons with the words "like" or "as." This distinction is easily identifiable, as similes clearly connect two things through these specific terms.
As a simile: My love is like a melody (1)
As a metaphor: That child is greedy little pig (2)
Idioms are phrases or expressions in any language whose meanings are not easily understood from the individual words alone These idiomatic expressions can often confuse even those who are familiar with the words Various linguists have provided multiple definitions to capture the essence of idioms.
Idioms are phrases where the combined meaning differs from the literal interpretation of the individual words, as defined by the English Language Dictionary.
According to the Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, an idiom is defined as an expression that operates as a single unit, with a meaning that cannot be derived from the individual components.
As defined in English Idioms (23; 13), “an idiom is a number of words which, when taken together, have different meaning from the individual meanings of each word”
Idioms are fixed expressions whose meanings cannot be deduced from the individual words they contain, a perspective widely accepted among linguists This understanding highlights the metaphorical nature of idioms, where phrases like "sweet as honey" illustrate how their meanings often extend beyond literal interpretations.
‘as black as pitch’) or completely (e.g ‘to have one heart in someone’s boots’) different from the meaning of all components
Idioms are abundant and require effective classification to aid learners Various linguists have proposed different methods for categorizing idioms based on factors such as motivation, subject matter, and usage However, this paper will concentrate specifically on classification according to semantic features, as this approach significantly influences the core aspects of the study presented in Chapter 2.
According to V.V Vingradov Vingradov (26; website), idioms include three kinds:
1) Phraseological fusions: are completely non-motivated idioms with fixed form
Completely idiomatic expressions, such as "beat about the bush," convey meanings that cannot be derived from the individual words alone In this case, while "beat" refers to hitting and "bush" describes a type of plant, the idiomatic meaning signifies talking around a subject without addressing the main point directly.
2) Phraseological unities: These idioms are the same as the first kind in term of that its idiomatic meaning is not the sum of the meaning of its components The difference, however, is that they can be guessed based on their components‟ meaning Eg: ‘give someone a green light’ can be guessed as „to give someone permission to someone start‟
3) Phraseological combinations: are clearly motivated idioms They contain one component used in its direct meaning, and the others‟ meanings change In Phraseological combinations, words being changed are main one Eg: ‘a black look’ In this idiom one component „look‟ is used in its direct meaning, but the meaning of the word „black‟ is being changed So, the idiom means „A look that express angry‟
1.3 Distinction between idioms and free-expressions
Both idioms and free-expressions are groups of more than two words combined with each other to a definite syntactic rule
In terms of meaning, idioms differ from free-expressions The meaning of a free expression is the total of the meaning of its components For instance, this phrase
A "good book" combines the concepts of "book" and "good," highlighting the quality of the book This illustrates how free-expression often serves a compounding naming function, linking an object or phenomenon with a quality (e.g., "a free atmosphere") or an action with a state (e.g., "to work hard") In contrast, the meaning of an idiom is indivisible and cannot be derived from its individual components; idioms possess a pure naming function rather than a compounding one Many idioms can be succinctly replaced by a single word, such as substituting "hand over head" with "easy."
Idioms are fixed phrases stored in the minds of native speakers, used consistently in conversation, while free expressions are spontaneously generated by speakers to convey their specific communication intentions.
1.4 Distinction between idioms and proverbs
Idioms and proverbs are fixed expressions with stable components that cannot be altered Their meanings are not derived from the individual words but must be comprehended as complete units.
Idioms and proverbs often convey meanings that are non-literal and figurative, making it difficult to understand them by simply examining the individual words in a dictionary To grasp their significance, one must interpret them metaphorically.
At the meeting, I felt a bit out of my depth
A cat may look at the King
The idiomatic expression "out of my depth" signifies being in a situation that one does not fully understand, rather than its literal interpretation Figuratively, it suggests a feeling of being overwhelmed or lost, akin to being in deep water Additionally, the proverb, which translates literally in Vietnamese as “chú mèo nhỏ cũng dám ngó mặt vua,” metaphorically conveys that ignorant and innocent individuals often lack awareness of the challenges and dangers they face.
The primary distinction between idioms and proverbs is grammatical structure Idioms, such as "black sheep," "to eat like a horse," or "on its last legs," are set expressions that function as parts of sentences and are commonly understood by native speakers In contrast, proverbs are complete sentences that convey a complete idea and are often derived from idioms.
The idiom "Don't put all your eggs in one basket" emphasizes the importance of diversifying your investments and not risking everything on a single plan This phrase serves as a reminder that placing all your resources, such as money, into one venture can lead to significant loss if that plan fails Instead, spreading your investments across multiple opportunities can help mitigate risks and increase the chances of overall success.
SOME DIFFICULTIES FACED BY VIETNAMESE LEARNERS IN STUDYING
A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE IDIOMS
1 The use of metaphors in idioms of colours
1.1 What are idioms of colours?
We should consider the followings:
-as white as a ghost (very pale)
Idioms of colors are expressions that incorporate colors as their key components, showcasing significant diversity in length, grammatical structures, and meanings—both literal and figurative Despite these differences, all these idioms share the commonality of featuring a color, making them a unique subset of idiomatic expressions.
1.2 How are idioms of colours created?
The vibrant world around us is filled with an array of colors, from the blue sky and green oceans to the red roses and yellow autumn leaves These hues are not only present in nature but also in our clothing, food, and everyday life, making it hard to envision a world devoid of color.
Throughout human history, our understanding of the world has evolved, beginning with a simple admiration of nature's colors As intelligence and civilization advanced, people began to associate colors with emotions and feelings In today's modern world, this mental development has led to a deeper comprehension and application of colors, giving rise to numerous idiomatic expressions that incorporate colors in ways unrelated to their original meanings Thus, the use of color-related words in language has paved the way for the creation of color idioms.
Certain color idioms have historical origins, such as the English phrase "like the black hole of Calcutta," which refers to a tragic event in 1756 when many Europeans were imprisoned in a small space overnight, resulting in only a few surviving by morning This idiom metaphorically describes a situation that is extremely hot, uncomfortable, and lacking fresh air.
1.3 How are metaphors in idioms of colours embodied?
Metaphor serves as a key stylistic device in the creation of idioms, including those involving colors In these idiomatic expressions, color words take on figurative meanings, moving beyond their literal interpretations This shift involves a transformation in both their denotational and connotational meanings, highlighting the richness and complexity of language.
The term "black" extends beyond being a simple color descriptor; it features prominently in various idiomatic expressions that convey diverse meanings.
The idioms that incorporate the word "black" demonstrate its metaphorical usage, where the literal meaning is absent For instance, "be in the black" refers to having money in a bank account, "a black day" signifies an unlucky day, and "a black sheep" denotes a disgrace to the family or group.
Colors in idioms often acquire new meanings while still retaining a connection to their literal definitions These metaphors are based on similarities, as seen in the idiom "a black day." While it literally refers to "a day of darkness," the term "black" has evolved to convey a figurative meaning, transforming the entire phrase into a metaphorical expression.
2 An analysis of English idioms embodying metaphors in comparison with Vietnamese ones
2.1 An analysis of the metaphorical expressions of English and Vietnamese idioms of colours through a cultural observation
Words denoting colours especially some basic colours: black, blue, green, white, red are not often literally used according to their meanings of idioms of colours
This is one of the colours that is used most commonly in idioms of colours In fact, among the 197 English idioms of colours having been collected, idioms in
The term "black" encompasses 46 items and is defined as the darkest color, akin to the night sky devoid of light In English, "black" is often associated with darkness, reflecting metaphorical meanings related to negative emotions, unfortunate circumstances, and even illegal or sinister connotations.
When someone is described as being "in a black mood," it signifies a state of deep misery and depression For instance, if someone is currently feeling this way, they may lack the motivation to engage in any activities.
A "black day" refers to a particularly unfortunate or disastrous time, often marking one of the worst experiences in someone's life For instance, the day of the channel ferry disaster was undeniably a black day for all the families involved, highlighting the profound impact of such tragic events.
- „Black comedy’/’humor’ involves laughing at frightening or unpleasant things such as death or war Eg: A shocking black comedy , perhaps the most controversial movie in 1992 (10; 299)
The color black often symbolizes anger, death, or mourning, as illustrated by the phrase "a black look," which refers to an angry glare For example, when I pointed out that some individuals allow others to do all the work, Paul interpreted my comment as directed at him and responded with a black look.
The term "the black sheep" refers to a person who is viewed as disgraceful or different within their family This idiomatic expression highlights the metaphorical use of "black sheep" to describe someone who does not conform to the family's expectations or standards For example, in a family where siblings pursue traditional careers like law or medicine, an individual who chooses a path in acting may be labeled as the black sheep.
The idiom "the pot calling the kettle black" metaphorically highlights hypocrisy, as both kettles and pots tend to become blackened after prolonged exposure to fire This phrase suggests that one person is criticizing another for a fault they themselves possess.
The phrase "the pot calling the kettle black" aptly describes a situation where one person criticizes another for faults they themselves possess For instance, when someone accuses another of wasting money, they often overlook their own financial irresponsibility, such as losing half their wages on gambling This hypocrisy highlights the irony in their judgment, revealing a lack of self-awareness.